':V.V: 


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Fig.  1 A scene  in  which  elevation  divides  the  land  into  zone's.  In  the  lowest  part  of  the  valley,  alfalfa,  beets, 
barley,  and  wheat  are  grown.  On  the  slopes  above  the  valley  floor  and  below  the  upper  irrigation  ditch,  there 
are  groves  of  almond  and  walnut  trees,  and  orchards  of  peaches,  apricots,  oranges,  and  lemons.  Many  of  the 
orchards  are  in  blossom.  Above  the  irrigation  ditch,  cattle  and  sheep  pasture  on  the  lower  slopes  and  in  the  open 
forests.  On  the  higher  slopes  are  snowfields  that  furnish  water  for  power  and  irrigation.  The  electric  trans- 
mission line  carries  power  to  the  distant  city.  Where  might  such  a scene  as  this  occur?  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  climate  in  such  a region?  How  many  kinds  of  food  production  are  shown  in  this  picture? 


Clarence  Lehr,  Principal,  Gilbert  School,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Walter  Lefferts,  Principal,  William  B.  Hanna 
Public  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

C.  S.  Lyman,  State  Normal  School,  Framingham, 

Mass. 


This  book  is  on  a new  plan.  Indeed,  it  is 
so  new  that  I have  not  dared  to  publish  it 
without  first  having  the  plan  approved  by 
many  teachers  and  then  having  the  lessons 
tried  out  in  actual  classes.  I have  thus 
received  much  advice  from  experienced 
teachers  who  have  taught  parts  of  this  book  in 
the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  Their 
assurance  that  the  plan  of  the  book  works 
well  in  class  and  that  the  lessons  are  easily 
teachable  has  been  a satisfaction  and  a 
stimulus  in  the  completion  of  this  book. 

1.  For  counsel  as  to  the  soundness  of  the 
plan  I am  indebted  to: 

Isaiah  Bowman,  Director,  American  Geograph- 
ical Society,  New  York  City. 

Rose  Lees  Hardy,  Director  of  Primary  Instruc- 
tion, Washington,  D.  C. 

Elizabeth  A.  Hummer,  Teacher  of  Geography, 
James  O.  Wilson  Normal  School,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Margaret  J.  McCoy,  Teacher  of  Geography, 
Philadelphia  Normal  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Walter  S.  Tower,  late  Professor  of  Geography, 
University  of  Chicago.  Now  Commercial 
Attache,  American  Embassy,  London. 

2.  For  teaching  sections  of  the  book  in  class: 

Carrie  Adler,  Oak  Lane  Country  Day  School, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Susan  A.  Bockius,  Principal,  Edward  T.  Steel 
Public  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Florence  A.  Doyle,  Principal,  James  Wilson 
Public  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Henrietta  Denney  Kelley,  James  Wilson 
Public  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Lucia  Harrison,  Instructor  in  Geography, 
Western  State  Normal  College,  Kalamazoo, 
Mich. 

Caroline  W.  Hotchkiss,  Horace  Mann  School, 
New  York  City. 


3.  For  the  criticism  of  particular  sections  of 
the  manuscript: 

Robert  G.  Buzzard,  Head  of  Department  of 
Geography,  State  Teachers  College,  DeKalb,  111. 

Carl  C.  Case,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography, 
University  of  Cincinnati. 

Cora  Caverno,  Copernicus  Public  School, 
Chicago,  111. 

J.  E.  Conner,  late  U.  S.  Consul,  Leningrad 
(Petrograd) 

Chicago,  111. 

Georgiana  F.  Hatch,  Copernicus  Public  School, 
Chicago,  111. 

C.  W.  Freeman,  Stockton  High  School,  Stockton, 
Calif. 

Fred.  W.  Hiatt,  Head,  Department  of  Geogra- 
phy, Tempe  Normal  School,  Tempe,  Ariz. 

Sarah  Ella  Jeffries,  Western  State  Normal 
School,  Bowling  Green,  Ky. 

Clarence  F.  Jones,  Assistant  Instructor  in 
Geography,  University  of  Chicago. 

Robert  H.  Lane,  Assistant  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Myrta  L.  McClellan,  Instructor  in  Geography 
and  Chairman  Department  of  Geography, 
Southern  Branch,  University  of  California, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

David  Olson,  Professor  of  Geography  and 
Geology,  Kent  State  Normal  College,  Kent, 
Ohio. 

A.  G.  White,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Copyright,  1921, 1922, 1924,  by  The  John  C.  Winston  Company 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  rights  reserved 


P-ll-25 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


Mary  F.  Kirchwey,  Horace  Mann  School,  New 
York  City. 

Mabel  C.  Stark,  Head  of  Department  of  Geog- 
raphy, State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. 

J.  A.  Strong,  Principal,  Public  Schools,  Oak 
Park,  111. 

Bessie  Dalton,  Milford  School,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

Hazel  Conley,  Milford  School,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

Stella  Hughes,  Milford  School,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

Caroline  Weber,  Milford  School,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

J.  P.  Rowe,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Director  of 
Summer  Quarter,  State  University  of  Mon- 
tana, Missoula,  Mont. 

Deforest  Stull,  Head  of  the  Geography  De- 
partment, Northern  Michigan  State  Normal 
College,  Marquette,  Mich. 

Robert  M.  Brown,  Professor  of  Economic 
Geography  and  Geology,  Rhode  Island  College 
of  Education,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Magnolia  Scoville,  Critic  Teacher  of  East 
Carolina  Training  School,  Greenville,  N.  C. 

Esther  S.  Anderson,  Instructor  in  Geology  and 
Geography,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln, 
Neb. 

Charles  F.  Watson,  Head  of  the  Department 
of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Stevens 
Point,  Wis. 

Lewis  F.  Thomas,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy, Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Eliza  M.  Rabbette,  Harriman  School,  Hudson, 
Mass. 

William  Sims  Allen,  Professor  of  Primary 
Education,  Baylor  University,  Waco,  Tex. 

E.  J.  Saunders,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geology 
and'v-Geography,  University  of  Washington, 
Seattle,  Wash. 

4.  For  assistance  in  preparing  the  questions: 

Edwin  W.  Adams,  District  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

( 

'i  5 % 


William  B.  Nichols,  West  Philadelphia  High 
School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Bertha  A.  Jenkins,  Henry  C.  Lea  School  of 
Practice,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Elizabeth  A.  Hummer,  Teacher  of  Geography, 
James  O.  Wilson  Normal  School,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Mary  E.  Kelton,  Chestnut  Hill  Country  Day 
School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

5.  For  criticism  of  English: 

George  Hayes,  Robert  College,  Constantinople, 
Turkey. 

Mabel  Dodge  Holmes,  William  Penn  High 
School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

6.  For  advice  as  to  maps  and  regional 
boundaries: 

Isaiah  Bowman,  Director,  American  Geograph- 
ical Society,  New  York  City. 

Walter  S.  Tower,  late  Professor  of  Geography, 
University  of  Chicago.  Now  Commercial 
Attache,  American  Embassy,  London. 

Col.  Lawrence  Martin,  Department  of  State, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

John  E.  Orchard,  Instructor  in  Economic 
Geography,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City. 

O.  E.  Baker,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

7.  And  finally,  from  beginning  to  end  of  a 
long  and  laborious  task,  I have  received 
cogent  suggestions  from: 

Ezra  Allen,  late  Supervisor  of  Geography, 
Philadelphia  School  of  Pedagogy,  and  Editor 
for  The  John  C.  Winston  Co. 

Everett  G.  Rodebaugh,  my  able  secretary  and 
assistant. 

Henrietta  Stewart  Smith,  my  wife,  skilled  in 
juvenile  psychology,  who  has  helped  me  with 
three  or  more  revisions  of  each  of  the  eighty- 
two  chapters  of  this  book. 

J.  Russell  Smith, 

Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Jan.  14,  1922. 

) 

\ "i 


Geography  has  long  been  regarded  as  the 
natural  center  around  which  the  curriculum 
develops.  How  should  this  central  subject 
be  presented? 

I.  There  should  be  an  introductory  frame- 
work of  observational  and  place  geography. 

II.  Then  Regional-Human  Geography 
should  follow.  Regional  Geography  is  the 
study  of  the  world  by  divisions  that  have 
unity  with  regard  to  the  conditions  affecting 
human  life.  For  a number  of  years,  pro- 
gressive teachers  have  insisted  that  the  re- 
gional method  should  be  used  in  teaching 
geography  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
United  States.  The  regional  method  has  been 
discussed  at  educational  meetings  and  by 
educational  journals,  and  there  have  been 
attempts  to  apply  it  in  prescribed  or  proposed 
courses  of  study.  It  is  already  being  used 
successfully  in  many  of  the  higher  schools 
of  the  United  States,  despite  the  scarcity  of 
suitable  texts.  A recent  canvass  of  teachers 
revealed  the  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  it. 

“Should  Book  Two  of  the  Human  Geog- 
raphy Series  be  based  on  political  units,  or 
on  natural  (economic)  regions?”  I put  that 
question  to  a group  of  expert  teachers  of 
geography  in  elementary  schools,  and  in  a 
normal  school  in  a large  city.  Every  teacher 
in  the  group  voted  by  secret  written  ballot 
for  the  regional,  instead  of  the  political  unit. 
Why  teach  Regional  Geography  in  the 
grades? 

A.  Regional  Geography  is  an  addition  to 
geographic  knowledge. — First,  we  must  teach 
children  about  their  home,  which  is  in  a 
rural  or  in  an  urban  locality.  It  is  also  in  a 
county,  a state,  a country.  Yet  more,  it 
is  in  a natural  region.  This  last  is  the  new 
element  and  a little  thought  will  show  that 
the  natural  region  in  which  a modern  man 
lives  is  the  fact  that  often  decides  his  occu- 
pation, and  perhaps  his  future  prosperity. 

Most  of  the  American  geographers  were 
trained  first  in  geology,  then  they  specialized 
in  physiography,  which  is  the  minute  study 
of  just  how  the  forces  of  nature  shaped  every 
mountain,  hill,  valley,  and  sandspit  of  the 
earth’s  crust.  Overlooking  human  use,  men 
with  such  training  sometimes  tell  us  that  the 
units  of  study  in  regional  geography  should 
be  physiographic  regions;  a coastal  plain,  for 
example,  should  be  a region  even  if  one  end 
is  swamp  and  the  other  end  is  desert. 


This  book  is  Regional-Hum^ ,i  Geography. 
The  center  of  classification  is  man,  not  phys- 
iography or  any  of  the  other  elements.  The 


diagram  shows  the  relationship  of  sciences  to 
Human  Geography.  People  are  the  most 
interesting  and  important  things  in  the  world. 
This  book,  more  than  any  other  geographic 
text,  tells  of  human  action,  of  the  world  as  the 
home  of  man.  It  contains  physiography, 
economics,  history,  and  other  sciences,  but  it 
presents  them  always  as  they  affect  man,  and 
help  him  to  live  in  his  region. 

B.  Political  Regions  are  arbitrary  and 
accidental;  Natural  Regions  are  scientific. — 
Wars,  elections,  acts  of  legislature,  or  even 
the  whims  of  one  man  at  a desk  may  change 
the  political  map  any  day.  Take  the  South 
Atlantic  group  of  states.  What  states  are 
in  the  group?  Do  Delaware  and  Maryland 
belong?  Yes,  they  do,  now.  Recently  they 
have  been  moved  in  from  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States.  It  happened  that  a statistical 
gentleman  in  the  Bureau  of  the  Census 
at  Washington  wrote  the  words  “Delaware” 
and  “Maryland”  in  another  column  be- 
cause that  happened  to  be  statistically  con- 
venient. You  will  hunt  long  before  you  will 
find  anything  that  these  states  grouped  thus 
arbitrarily  have  in  common  and  that  other 
states  do  not  share.  When  you  are  interested 
in  the  life  of  man  on  the  earth  there  is  no 
reason  for  studying  these  particular  states 
as  a group. 

What  can  be  said  of  the  South  Atlantic 


States  as  a whole,  as  they  are  now  grouped 
by  the  census  man?  A part  of  their  area  is 
beautiful  mountains;  another  part  rolling 
piedmont;  another  part  a rich  coastal  plain. 
Because  of  the  circumstances  of  soil,  surface, 
and  climate,  the  people  living  in  the  moun- 
tains think  in  terms  of  mountain  farms, 
of  coal,  of  lumber,  and  of  the  tourists  who 
visit  the  tefreshing  uplands.  The  people  of 
the  warmer  sections  grow  cotton,  buy  cot- 
ton, sell  cotton,  think  in  terms  of  cotton. 
Indeed,  most  of  their  prosperity  depends 
upon  cotton.  In  speaking  of  this  group  of 
states,  or  even  of  one  state,  we  instinctively 
talk  about  one  of  these  parts  or  natural 
regions  at  a time.  We  instinctively  use  the 
regional  method.  Regional  geography  treats 
of  these  natural  regions, — mountains,  the 
piedmont,  the  cotton  belt,  each  as  a geo- 
graphic unit — a region — a human-use  region. 

C.  Regional  Geography  is  the  scientific 
method. — Science  classifies  knowledge  by 
putting  together  things  that  are  alike.  If  we 
were  thinking  primarily  of  government  when 
we  study  geography,  then  a county,  or  a 
state,  or  a group  of  states  would  be  a good 
unit.  But  we  are  thinking  primarily  about 
the  earth  as  the  home  of  man,  and  for  that 
purpose  the  political  unit  is  the  wrong  classifi- 
cation. Man  living  on  the  earth  lives  in 
relation  to  a corn  belt,  a wheat  region,  a 
trade  or  manufacturing  region;  to  semi-arid 
pastures,  or  to  some  other  natural  region. 
Hence  classification  of  regions  by  human  use 
is  the  scientific  method  for  the  study  of 
geography  for  the  children  of  America. 

D.  Regional  Geography  is  the  method  of 
business  thinking. — Practical  men  think  in 
terms  of  Regional  Geography.  They  do  so 
because  they  must.  For  years  business  men 
and  economic  writers  have  been  talking 
about  the  “Cotton  Belt,”  the  “Corn  Belt,”  the 
“Wheat  Region,”  and  about  other  producing 
regions  of  the  world.  Why  is  this?  It  is 
because  men,  thinking  of  business,  must 
think  in  terms  of  regions  of  production.  To 
use  states  alone  (political  geography)  con- 
fuses economic  understanding,  because  most 
states  are  parts  of  several  natural  regions. 

E.  Regional-Human  Geography  helps  eco- 
nomic understanding. — Men  are  learning  more 
and  more  that  business,  politics,  national 
policy,  even  peace  and  war,  are  largely  mat- 
ters of  economics,  and  that  economics  rests 


in  large  part  on  a geographic  basis.  When 
we  understand  why  one  part  of  our  country 
is  corn  land,  worth  over  $200  an  acre,  and 
why  another  part  is  ranch  land,  worth  less 
than  $20  an  acre,  and  why  one  region  forges 
ahead  in  manufacturing  and  another  manu- 
factures but  little,  then  we  have  made  a 
great  stride  in  economic  understanding. 
The  modern  trading  man  (all  of  us  are  trad- 
ing men)  needs  more  and  more  to  know  why 
certain  regions  are  cotton,  lumber,  or  factory 
regions,  and  why  his  own  region  may  or  may 
not  be  expected  to  have  trade  with  certain 
other  regions.  Geography,  studied  by  Human 
Use  Regions,  can  emphasize  these  things. 

F.  Regional  Geography  saves  time. — Con- 
sider one  region,  the  land  of  light  rain  and 
wide  ranches  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
where  pasture  is  the  chief  resource  of  man. 
These  pasture  plains  extend  from  Mexico 
northward  across  the  Rio  Grande  through 
state  after  state  until  finally  they  include  a 
part  of  Canada.  When  we  have  described  this 
vast  region  of  ranches  we  have  at  the  same  time 
described  parts  of  many  states  and  of  three 
countries.  It  would  be  foolish  to  repeat  the  de- 
scription of  these  plains  for  each  separate  state, 
group  of  states,  or  country  when  the  entire 
region  can  be  treated  as  a geographic  whole. 

G.  Regional-Human  Geography  uses  com- 
parison.— One  of  the  early  astronomers  is 
said  to  have  claimed  the  discovery  of  an 
elephant  on  the  moon — but  a friend  reached 
up  and  took  a fly  out  of  his  primitive  tele- 
scope. The  ancient  astronomer  had  nothing 
with  which  to  compare  his  discovery.  It  is 
too  often  thus  with  the  knowledge  children 
get  of  foreign  countries.  We  learn  by  com- 
paring the  unknown  with  the  known.  Com- 
parison aids  memory  and  understanding. 
Regional  Geography  makes  comparison  easy. 
When  we  have  fully  explained  the  California 
climate  and  its  resulting  fruit  industries,  the 
child  can  easily  understand  each  of  the  four 
other  similar  regions  in  five  other  continents. 

Regional-Human  Geography  gives  the  child 
a wonderful  set  of  standards  for  comparison. 

III.  The  Applied  Science  method.  — The 
systematic  science  method  used  in  the  old 
geographies  begins  by  teaching  about  weather, 
climate,  streams,  trade,  industries,  and  the 
other  big  abstract  ideas.  After  the  child 
has  acquired  all  of  these  abstract  princi- 
ples, he  is  then  supposed  to  be  able  to  apply 


i 


them  to  the  study  of  geography  and  to  the 
various  countries  of  the  world.  This  German 
systematic  science  method  has  bored  tens  of 
thousands  of  children,  and  has  given  thou- 
sands of  teachers  a headache. 

The  new  pedagogy  uses  the  applied  science 
method,  the  method  by  which  children 
naturally  learn.  This  method  gives  the 
facts  first  and  lets  the  ideas  develop  from  the 
facts.  The  great  teachers  of  all  ages  have 
used  this  method.  ACsop  used  it  in  telling 
his  fables.  By  the  method  of  telling  fact 
before  ideas  we  can  teach  more  ideas  than 
could  possibly  be  taught  by  the  older  method 
which  was  devised  by  adults  for  adults. 

This  book  presents  scientific  facts  at 
places  where  they  do  something;  where  they 
function  as  natural  parts  of  an  explanation. 
By  the  use  of  the  applied  science  and  expla- 
nation method  the  child  more  easily  re- 
members both  the  science  and  the  thing 
explained,  whether  a part  of  the  earth’s  sur- 
face or  of  man’s  work  is  considered. 

IV.  Explanation  helps  memory. — In  the 
past,  geography  has  too  often  been  taught  as 
mere  unexplained  memory  work.  The  regional 
method  is  a great  aid  to  memory  because 
it  puts  reason  back  of  the  scraps  of  Political 
Geography  and  makes  unities  of  them.  It  is 
easy  to  remember  things  that  we  understand. 

V.  Fundamental  civics.  — The  child  who 
masters  this  text  has  opportunity  to  absorb 
the  two  greatest  civic  concepts  that  his 
generation  can  have:  (a)  a sense  of  the 
obligation  of  individuals  to  larger  groups, 
and  (b)  a sense  of  the  interdependence  of  men 
and  of  nations. 

VI.  The  link  between  geography  and  his- 
tory.— This  book  contains  many  vital  bits 
of  history  because  a knowledge  of  historic 
events  is  necessary  to  a complete  under- 
standing of  human  geography.  It  is  equally 
true  also  that  history  is  only  a jumble  of 
facts  unless  the  student  has  acquired  the  nec- 
essary background  of  Regional  Geography. 
Human  Geography  knits  Regional  Geography 
and  History  together,  and  helps  the  pupil 
better  to  understand  both  subjects. 

VII.  Pictures  that  teach. — Pictures  should 
be  to  the  text  what  jewels  are  to  the 
setting.  Teachers  will  find  unusual  teaching 
value  in  the  pictures  in  this  book.  To  attain 
this  end  we  have  often  rejected  hundreds  of 
pictures  to  one  which  has  been  accepted. 


VIII.  The  Regional-Human  method  makes 
Political  Geography  alive  and  full  of  mean- 
ing.— Political  Geography  is  not  sacrificed 
because  emphasis  is  laid  upon  natural  regions. 
Indeed,  it  is  necessary  to  teach  the  old  style 
Political  Geography  when  we  are  teaching 
Regional  Geography.  For  instance,  to  locate 
the  Cotton  Belt  we  must  show  that  it  is  in 
such  and  such  states.  The  regional  maps  are 
political  maps  too.  The  book  contains  in 
addition  a full  set  of  new  political  maps  of 
the  best  type. 

Regional-Human  Geography  takes  a great 
forward  stride  in  interpreting  Political  Geog- 
raphy. It  puts  meaning  into  a new  Political 
Geography  because  it  shows  the  influence  of 
different  types  of  governments  upon  the 
lives  of  peoples.  The  Human  Geography 
treatment  of  the  efficient  democracy  of  Den- 
mark, the  strong  central  government  of 
Japan,  the  weakness  and  disturbance  in 
China  and  Mexico,  and  the  chaos  of  African 
tribes,  emphasizes  the  relation  between  gov- 
ernment and  the  welfare  of  peoples. 

IX.  Maps  that  are  simple. — Since  a map 
carries  more  information  than  any  other 
page  of  print  yet  invented,  the  map-maker  is 
tempted  to  overload.  When  the  child  studies 
an  overloaded  map,  his  mind  cannot  easily 
grasp  the  specific  data  required  because  there 
is  so  much  else  to  see.  Hence  he  is  confused. 
By  having  each  map  show  a few  things,  our 
maps  are  made  to  meet  the  new  pedagogical 
demand  for  simplicity. 

X.  The  future.  — This  book  discusses  the 
undeveloped  resources  of  regions  in  such  a 
way  that  future  possibilities  of  each  part  of 
the  world  are  glimpsed.  Our  idea  of  the 
further  development  of  our  home  region  and 
of  other  regions  will  often  greatly  influence 
our  actions.  A study  of  the  future  broadens 
one’s  economic  understanding. 

XI.  A Manual  for  the  teacher. — To  teachers 
using  this  text,  the  publishers,  upon  request, 
will  send  free,  a Manual  which  contains  new 
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1006  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


(vi) 


1.  Something  in  which  all  races  are  alike. 

— People  differ  from  each  other  in  race,  in 
color,  and  in  the  kinds  of  places  in  which 
they  live.  Yet  all  mankind  is  alike  in  having 
six  needs.  Every  man  in  the  world  needs 
(1)  food,  (2)  fuel  with  which  to  cook  the 
food,  (3)  a house  or  some  other  form  of 
shelter.  (4)  clothes  to  wear,  (5)  tools  to 
help  him  make  and  carry  goods,  and  (6) 
luxuries  or  ornaments  to  please  his  sense  of 
beauty  and  his  love  of  ornament,  of  power, 
or  of  play.  Name  two  of  each  class 
In  having  these  six 
needs  all  men  are 
brothers.  No  matter 
of  what  color  or  race 
a man  may  be,  he 
struggles  to  get  these 
needed  things.  The 
things  themselves  are 
very  different  among 
different  peoples,  but 
every  people  has  some 
of  all  six  kinds.  The 
Eskimo  needs  more 
clothes  than  does  the 
black  man  in  the  hot 
forest  near  the  equa- 
tor. The  black  man 


Courtesy  Olive  D.  Campbell 

Fig.  3.  Spinning  threads  into  yarn  at  the  cabin  door. 
When  did  your  ancestors  spin  that  way? 

(1) 


does  not  need  a warm  house,  but  he  needs  a 
leaf  shelter  to  keep  off  the  sun  and  the 
rain.  Every  race  makes  tools  for  the  work 
that  has  to  be  done,  and  every  tribe  and 
people  has  its  sports,  games,  and  playthings. 

2.  Different  ways  of  meeting  the  needs. — 
Men  in  different  places  get  the  six  kinds  of 
needful  things  in  many,  many  different  ways. 
The  world  has  so  many  kinds  of  land  and  so 
many  kinds  of  climate,  that  men  have  found 
various  materials  to  use.  Since  men  have 
learned  how  to  build  railroads  and  steam- 
ships and  automobiles, 
they  can  travel  easily 
and  can  get  the  needed 
materials  from  widely 
separated  parts  of  the 
earth.  It  has  been  only 
a few  decades  that 
it  has  been  possible 
to  go  to  the  stores 
and  buy  so  many 
kinds  of  things.  Not 
long  ago  the  people  of 
each  neighborhood  had 
to  make  nearly  all  of 
the  things  they  used. 
There  are  still  a few 
places  like  that. 


2 


INTRODUCTION 


Courtesy  Olive  D.  Campbell 


Fig.  4.  Plowing  a hillside  field  to  plant  corn  in  the 
tractor  (Fig.  17)  be  of  much  use  on  such  land?  What 
this  field?  (Fig.  82.) 

3.  Life  far  back  in  the  mountains. — 
When  the  author  of  this  book  was  a col- 
lege student  he  visited  such  a home  in  the 
heart  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  From 
the  railroad  station  he  had  to  ride  for  a whole 
day  on  horseback  along  a narrow  path  that 
followed  a creek.  Sometimes,  because  high 
hills  rose  on  each  side,  the  valley  was  so 
narrow  and  steep  that  the  horse  had  to  walk 
in  the  creek.  There  was  no  level  land  on  the 
hilltops,  and  very  little  in  the  valleys.  Once 
in  a while  a valley  would  widen  out  enough 
to  make  room  for  a little  field  near  a cabin. 

At  evening  the  traveler  reached  the  home 
where  Dave  Douglas  lived  with  his  wife  and 
five  children.  Dave  had  cut  trees  from  the 
forest  to  make  the  small,  one-roomed  cabin 
which  sheltered  the  family.  Behind  the 
house  were  his  garden,  his  small  field  of  corn, 
and  his  many  acres  of  forest.  The  floor  and 
the  door  of  the  cabin  were  made  of  boards 
hewn  out  of  logs.  Even  the  latch  on  the 
door  was  made  of  wood.  The  window  was 
just  a hole  cut  in  the  side  of  the  wall. 
Dave  had  no  glass  to  put  in  it;  instead 
he  used  a piece  of  board,  which  could  be 
pushed  over  the  hole  when  it  rained  or  the 
wind  blew  cold.  There  was  no  stove;  only 
a hearth  on  which  an  open  fire  could  be 
made.  In  the  fireplace  hung  an  iron  pot  in 
which  food  might  be  boiled.  For  frying, 
there  were  two  skillets  which  hung  on  pegs 


beside  the  fire.  The  plates 
used  by  the  family  were 
wooden  and  homemade. 
The  only  things  that  had 
been  bought  were  axes,  a 
gun,  powder  and  shot,  steel 
traps,  three  hoes,  a spin- 
ning wheel,  knives  and 
forks,  pot  and  skillets,  a tin 
bucket,  a dishpan,  salt, 
blue  overalls  and  jackets 
for  the  men,  cotton  dresses 
for  the  women,  needles  and 
thread,  and  fishhooks. 

4.  Home-raised  food. — 
For  breakfast  the  family 
ate  corn  cakes  and  salt 
pork,  and  sometimes  eggs.  They  fried  the 
pork  in  a skillet  over  the  open  fire.  They 
mixed  cornmeal  with  water  in  the  dishpan, 
and  then  baked  it  in  the  other  skillet.  Their 
dinner  was  like  their  breakfast,  except  that 
they  added  boiled  potatoes  and  cabbage,  and 
some  blackberries  which  they  had  picked 
from  bushes  at  the  edge  of  the  woods. 
Supper  was  the  same  as  breakfast,  unless 
one  of  the  older  children  was  lucky  enough 
to  shoot  some  squirrels  in  the  woods,  in 
which  case  the  whole  family  had  fried  squir- 
rel. Alf,  Dave’s  fifteen-year-old  boy,  care- 
fully skinned  all  the  squirrels  that  were 
brought  home,  because  tanned  squirrel  skins 
made  good  shoestrings  and  harness  thongs. 

Dave  owned  two  dogs,  a cow,  two  oxen, 
twelve  pigs,  some  sheep,  and  some  chickens. 
They  used  corn  to  make  bread  for  themselves, 
and  to  feed  the  cattle  and  the  sheep  when 
the  snow  covered  the  ground,  and  the  animals 
themselves  could  get  no  food.  The  pigs 
roamed  the  woods,  and  got  their  own  living 
by  eating  acorns  and  hickory  nuts,  and  by 
digging  up  roots  with  their  stout  noses.  An 
ox  pulled  the  wooden  plow  that  was  used 
in  the  cornfield.  He  also  pulled  the  narrow 
wooden  sled  that  served  for  a wagon  on 
which  the  family  hauled  corn  and  wood. 
In  the  autumn,  Dave  and  Alf  drove  one  ox 
away  down  the  valley  path,  many  miles, 
until  they  finally  came  to  the  railroad. 


Courtesy  Olive  D.  Campbell 

Mountains.  Would  a 
will  a hard  rain  do  to 


THE  SIX  NEEDS  OF  ALL  MANKIND 


3 


Courtesy  Southern  Railway 

Fig.  5.  Preparing  a level  field  for  the  spring  planting.  Can  a man  produce 
more  corn  in  a season  in  this  field  or  in  the  field  in  Fig  4?  Why? 


Here  they  sold  the  ox  to  a 
cattle  dealer.  They  could 
spare  the  ox,  because  his 
younger  brother  would  be 
big  enough  to  take  his 
place  at  plowing  the  next 
spring. 

5.  Homemade  clothes. — 

As  they  trudged  back  up 
the  mountain  path  to  their 
home,  Dave  and  Alf  car- 
ried many  small  things 
bought  with  the  money 
received  for  the  ox.  But 
they  did  not  have  enough 
money  to  pay  for  warm 
woolen  clothes  for  winter. 

Dave’s  wife,  Sallie,  had  to  make  these 
with  the  help  of  Mary,  the  oldest  daughter. 
When  the  women  had  done  the  cooking 
and  cleaning  and  had  worked  the  garden, 
they  always  had  spinning  to  do.  After 
they  had  made  the  wool  of  the  sheep  into  yam 
on  the  spinning  wheel,  they  knitted  socks  by 
hand.  Sometimes  they  wove  the  yarn  into 
warm  cloth  on  the  handloom.  At  other 
times  they  made  caps  of  raccoon  and  squirrel 
skins,  for  they  needed  skin  caps  to  keep  all 
the  Douglas  heads  warm  in  the  frosty  winter. 
The  father  made  the  shoes  from  a cowskin, 
to  secure  which  he  had  traded  four  lambs 
to  one  of  his  neighbors.  Thus  did  these 
people  provide  themselves  with  food,  fuel, 
clothes,  tools,  and  transportation.  In  the 
whole  year  the  only  things  this  family  had 
to  sell  were  the  ox  and  the  skins  of  some 
skunks  and  foxes.  They  could  not  even  sell 
the  wood  on  their  lands,  because  they  lived 
so  far  from  a railroad  that  they  could  not 
have  earned  ten  cents  a day  if  they  hauled 
wood  down  to  the  train.  Since  they  had  so 
little  to  sell,  they  could  not  buy  much. 

6.  When  every  neighborhood  supplied  its 
own  needs. — Some  people  in  every  continent 
are  still  living  as  the  Douglas  family  lived. 
They  can  be  found  in  out-of-the-way  places 
even  in  Europe.  Indeed,  that  is  how  most 
of  the  people  in  all  the  world  have  had  to 
get  along  most  of  the  time  since  men  lived 


in  caves.  At  one  time  nearly  all  the  families 
in  the  United  States  supplied  their  own 
needs.  Now  most  of  us  live  differently, 
because  every  family  has  many  helpers. 

7.  Who  are  our  helpers? — Isn’t  it  fair  to 
say  that  the  people  who  make  things  for 
us  are  our  helpers?  They  help  us  by  making 
things  we  use,  and  we  help  them  by  sending 
other  things  in  return.  The  trade  that  now 
is  possible  by  ship  and  train  makes  distant 
men  our  helpers.  Let  us  see  who  are  some 
of  the  helpers  of  the  children  who  come  to  this 
school.  What  do  the  people  in  this  neigh- 
borhood eat  for  breakfast?  Where  is  the 
food  made?  Let  us  see  how  many  different 
states  and  countries  and  kinds  of  people 
are  neighbors  and  helpers  to  us  by  helping 
with  our  food,  our  fuel,  our  clothes,  and  our 
houses.  Write  on  the  blackboard  a list  of 
the  articles  that  we  use,  the  states  and 
countries  from  which  they  come,  and  the 
kinds  of  people  that  help  by  making  them. 
Make  another  list  which  will  show  the 
things  that  are  sent  from  the  neighborhood 
of  this  school  in  return  for  the  many  things 
we  receive  here. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  did  Dave  Douglas  provide  his  family  with 
food,  fuel  and  shelter?  2.  Suggest  from  Figure  3 the 
method  used  by  Sallie  and  Mary  Douglas  in  making 
clothing  for  the  family.  3.  Would  you  rather  live  in 
your  home  or  as  the  Douglas  family  lived?  Why? 
4.  What  are  raw  materials?  Prepare  a list  showing 


4 


INTRODUCTION 


the  raw  materials  from  which  your  six  needs  are 
supplied.  Arrange  your  list  as  follows: 

Raw  Materials  Used  in  Supplying  Me  with 


Food. 


Fuel. 

Shelter. 

Clothing. 

TOOL9. 

Luxuries. 


make  candles;  the  boy  Lincoln  read  his  few 
books  by  firelight.  The  few  things  they  got 
by  trade  came  in  wagons  over  the  Allegheny 
Mountains  to  Pittsburgh,  and  down  the  Ohio 
in  fiatboats. 


5.  How  did  the  early  Puritans  supply  their  needs? 
6.  How  does  the  Indian  of  the  Great  North  Woods 
provide  himself  with  the  necessities  of  life?  the  Eski- 
mo? the  black  man  of  the  tropics?  7.  Name  some 
things  which  you  think  Mary  and  Alf  Douglas  may 
have  known  how  to  do  better  than  you;  that  you 
know  how  to  do  better  than  they.  8.  Tell  a story 
in  which  you  imagine  that  all  means  of  transportation 
and  communication  have  been  shut  off  between  your 


neighborhood  and  the 
Tell  of  the  diffieul- 
might  arise,  and 
would  meet 
9.  Name  and 
out  on  the 
countries  of 
all  the  peo- 
ple who have 
helped  your 
school  by 
makingsome- 
ching  someone 
in  it  has  used- 
10.  Study  closely 
Figs.  2,4.  How 
many  points  of  ad- 
vantage can  you 
find  in  favor  of  the 
level  farm?  I f 
you  were  in  the  real 
estate  business  and 
were  trying  to  sell 
the  level  farm, 
to  what  in  the  pic- 
ture would  you  call 
the  attention  of 
prospective  pur- 
chasers? 


rest  of  the  world, 
ties  which 
how  you 
them, 
point 
map  the 


Courtesy  of  Olive  D.  Campbell 

Fig.  6.  Mountaineers’  cabins  in  the  Appalachians  in  the  old  days.  Do 
you  think  the  man  with  the  mule  was  more  prosperous  than  Dave 
Douglas?  Why  do  you  think  so? 

What  does  the  level  land  farmer  sell  ? 


9.  Lincoln’s  trip  to  New  Orleans. — When 
Lincoln’s  neighbors  wanted  to  sell  wheat  and 
salt  pork,  they  joined  together  and  built  a 
flatboat,  which  they  floated  down  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  with  a load  of  produce.  On 
such  a trip  to  New  Orleans  Lincoln  went 
when  he  was  nineteen.  Down,  down  the 
ever-winding  river,  day  after  day,  past 
hundreds  and  hundreds  of  miles  of  dark 
forest,  drifted  the  boat.  At  last,  after  many 
days,  they  saw  on  the  left  bank  of  the  muddy, 

winding  river  a 
little,  straggling 
city,  called  New 
Orleans.  Sail- 
ing vessels  that 
carried  wheat 
and  meat  to  the 
West  Indies  and 
to  Europe  were 
tied  to  the  river 
bank.  After  the 
men  had  sold 
their  wheat  and 
pork,  they  sold 
the  boat  as  lum- 
ber,  for  the 
Mississippi  was 


OUR  NEW  WORLD 


so  swift  and  deep  that  they  could  not  push 
the  flatboat,  even  when  it  was  empty,  up- 
stream with  poles.  The  men  went  home  by 


8.  Before  we  had  railroads. — It  is  only 
since  engines,  steamships,  and  railroads  have 
been  invented  that  so  many  people  in  so 
many  countries  have  been  able  to  help  us 
live  comfortably  in  our  neighborhood.  Rail- 
roads are  quite  new  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  and  they  bring  many  of  the  things 
that  make  us  comfortable.  Even  Abraham 
Lincoln,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1809,  had  a 
home  almost  exactly  like  the  Douglas  home 
(Sec.  3),  and  it  was  as  good  as  any  in  the 
neighborhood.  His  family  did  not  have  a 
stove,  nor  did  they  have  enough  tallow  to 


steamboat.  Before  1810  men  had  to  walk 
all  the  way  home  through  the  great  forests. 

Now  you  begin  to  see  why  there  was  not 
much  trade  in  the  region  where  Lincoln  spent 
his  boyhood.  At  that  time,  most  of  the  peo- 
ple of  America  lived  in  the  country,  where 
each  family  grew  its  food,  made  most  of  its 
own  clothing,  and  chopped  its  own  firewood. 
But  now  many  distant  parts  of  the  world 
help  to  provide  us  with  food,  clothing,  shelter, 
and  tools.  What  made  this  sudden  change, 
which  so  quickly  built  up  a world-wide  trade 
and  made  all  people  neighbors? 


OUR  NEW  WORLD 


5 


10.  The  great  inventions. — This  change 
was  largely  due  to  a series  of  great  inventions. 
Abraham  Lincoln  was  only  nineteen  years 
old  when  the  first  railroad  in  the  United 
States  was  built,  in  1828.  The  first  telegraph 
line  was  used  in  1844,  and  the  first  steam- 
ship line  to  Europe  was  started  in  1836. 
About  this  period  the  reaper  and  many  other 
new  machines  were  invented.  From  that 
day  to  this,  men  have  been  inventing  new 
machines  faster  and  faster.  The  steam 
thresher,  the  tractor,  the  gas  engine,  the 
telephone,  the  ocean  cable,  the  electric 
motor,  the  typewriter,  the  fast  printing 
press,  and  many  other  machines  help  men 
to  do  things  much  more  rapidly  and  easily 
than  before.  In  Lincoln’s  boyhood  men 
used  muscle,  as  they  had  done  for  ages;  now 
they  use  machines.  In  those  early  days  men 
drove  horses ; now  they  drive  engines. 

Any  traveler  can  now  go  from  Maine  to 
California  in  less  than  the  seven  days  which 
it  took  George  Washington  to  bump  along 
in  his  horse-drawn  coach  for  225  miles  over 
a rutty  road,  from  Washington  to  New  York. 
Now,  instead  of  spending  weeks  walking 
through  the  woods  from  New  Orleans  to 
Kentucky,  as  was  necessary  when  Lincoln 
was  born,  the  traveler  can  take  an  afternoon 
train  at  New  Orleans,  rest  through  the  night 
in  a sleeping  car,  and  arrive  in  Kentucky 
the  next  day. 

11.  Sea  trade  and  travel. — On  the  sea, 
likewise,  inventions  have  made  travel  safe 
and  speedy.  After  ships  were  driven  by 
steam,  it  was  easy  for  the  naval  vessels  to 
catch  the  ships  of  the  pirates  who  were  such 
a danger  to  travelers  in  George  Washington’s 

time.  The  sea 
is  made  safe 
not  only  by 
the  naval  ves- 
sels, but  by 
many  light- 
houses, and  by 
wireless  tele- 
photo. International  Film  Service,  N.  Y.  graph,  which 

Fig.  7.  A model  of  the  first  steam-  enables  men 
boat  that  went  up  the  Mississippi 

River.  This  was  in  1810.  to  speak  from 


Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N .Y. 

Fig.  8.  A model  of  the  Mayflower , the  good  ship  which 
carried  the  Pilgrims  safely  to  Plymouth  in  1620.  Would 
you  like  to  cross  the  ocean  in  such  a boat? 

ship  to  ship  and  to  call  for  help  from  hun- 
dreds of  miles  away,  if  they  are  in  distress. 
To-day,  steamships  leave  New  York  and  San 
Francisco  for  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Australia, 
and  South  America.  Steamships  sail  the  sea 
as  regularly  as  the  mail  comes  to  our  doors. 
These  ships,  and  the  trains,  too,  bring  us 
many,  many  things  from  all  over  the  world. 

12.  News. — Every  morning  the  newspaper 
can  tell  about  events  that  happened  the 
day  before  in  every  one  of  fifty  countries. 
This  is  due  to  the  ocean  cable  and  to  the 
wireless  telegraph,  which  enable  men  to 
exchange  ideas  in  a few  hours  with  others 
who  are  thousands  of  miles  distant. 

13.  Coal,  iron,  and  oil  have  made  a new 
world. — This  new  world  of  transport,  trade, 
easy  travel,  and  long-distance  messages  has 
come  because  we  have  made  coal,  oil,  and 
water  power  work  our  iron  machines  for  us. 
Coal  helps  by  driving  engines  that  run  fac- 
tory machines,  locomotives,  and  steamships. 
Petroleum  helps  by  running  automobiles, 
ships,  trucks,  and  airplanes.  Iron  helps 
when  made  into  engines,  railroad  rails, 
machines,  freight  cars,  and  steamships. 
Electricity  helps  by  making  rapid  communi- 
cation possible  for  us — on  the  land  by  tele- 
graph and  telephones,  under  the  sea  by 
cables,  and  through  the  air  by  wireless. 


6 


INTRODUCTION 


OUR  NEW  WORLD 


7 


ARCTIC  CIRCLE 


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® Coaling  Stations 


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the  value  of  the  trade  on  each  route.  The  names  of  leading  articles  are  printed  on  the  routes,  and  arrows  show  the 
where  your  ship  would  get  coal.  How  long  would  the  journey  be?  (See  Appendix.) 


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ASCENSION 


MARQUESAS 


CallaoC  LJma 


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/low  arch/ 


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Stanley 


SOUTH  GEORGIA/ 

fir.)  7 


POLITICAL  MAP 

OF 

THE  WORLD 

ON  GOODE'S  HOMOLOSINE  EQUAL  AREA  PROJECTION 

Distances  shoum  in  statute  miles 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


0 500  1000  1500  20C0  2500  3000 

COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS 


United  Slates 
Great  Britain 
France 
Italy 

Belgium 

Portugal 

Spain 

Netherlands 

Denmark 


The  Homolosine  projection  by  Professor 
J.  Paul  Goode,  1923,  is  an  equal  area  pro- 
jection; that  is,  a square  inch  anywhere  on 
the  map  represents  the  same  number  of 
square  miles  of  the  earth’s  surface  as  any 
other  square  inch  on  the  map.  For  this 
reason  areal  distribution  may  be  shown 
upon  it  without  error.  The  continents  are 
given  better  form  than  in  any  other  world 
map  projection.  It  is  greatly  superior  to 
Mercator’s  projection  for  nearly  all  teach- 
ing purposes. 


Fig.  10. 


9 


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EQUATOR1 


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IS. 

(Br.) 


V SOLOMON 
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[Toynsville  j(Br.  &Fr.) 


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AUCKLAND 

(H) 


4NTIF0DES' 


UACQUAHRIE  IS. 


LY  TAItCt 


The  world  is  round,  like  an  orange.  Maps  are  flat,  like  sheets  of  paper.  How  can 
we  show  the  surface  of  the  round  globe  on  the  flat  map?  That  is  a hard  problem. 

The  best  way  to  get  an  idea  of  this  problem  is  to  skin  an  orange  carefully  in  one  piece 
and  spread  the  skin  out  flat  like  this. 

It  is  not  hard  to  do.  It  shows  you  how  the  surface 
of  a globe  looks  when  spread  out  flat. 

Professor  J.  Paul  Goode  did  something  like  that  with 
the  skin  of  a globe  when  he  made  this  map.  He  has 
stretched  it  a little  to  get  it  flat  so  that  this  map  shows 
all  the  different  countries  and  continents  in  true  relative 
size,  and  more  nearly  in  their  true  shape  than  any  other  flat  map  of  the  whole  world 
shows  them.  That  is  why  we  use  it  here.  It  is  the  truest  map  there  is — of  the  whole 
world — on  one  sheet. 


By  permission  of  J.  Paul  Goode;  Copyright,  1923,  by  the  University  of  Chicago  Press 


Fig.  10. 


10 


INTRODUCTION 


Fig.  11.  The  stagecoach  was  the  fastest  means  of  travel,  except  by 
horseback,  in  the  days  when  George  Washington  was  President. 

Every  day  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men 
are  down  in  mines,  digging  out  coal  to  keep 
this  world  trade  going.  Miles  and  miles  of 
freight  cars  loaded  with  coal  travel  on  the 
railroads.  On  the  ocean,  at  all  times,  hun- 
dreds of  steamers  carry  coal  to  places  which 
have  no  coal  of  their  own.  The  coaling- 
station  map  (Fig.  9)  shows  the  routes  by 
which  vessels  cross  the  oceans  of  the  world, 
and  the  ports  where  coal  is  waiting  for  them. 

We  can  now  talk  to  all  the  world  by  cable  and 
wireless  so  quickly  that  we  can  know  much 
more  of  Europe  in  a day  than  Washington 
could  learn  in  a month. 

14.  The  division  of  labor. — Nowadays 
most  people,  instead  of  having  many  jobs, 
as  Dave  Douglas  had,  have 
but  one  job,  and  live  by 
trade.  This  arrangement  we 
call  division  of  labor.  It  is 
easier  for  a tailor  to  make 
two  coats,  and  a shoemaker 
to  make  two  pairs  of  shoes, 
and  then  for  each  to  exchange 
his  goods  with  the  other,  than 
it  is  for  each  man  to  make  for 
himself  one  pair  of  shoes  and 
one  coat.  For  this  reason, 
men  have  divided  their  labor, 
so  that  one  man  may  do  a 


another  man  may  do  another 
kind.  In  a similar  way,  trade 
enables  us  to  make  a division  of 
labor  among  the  different  parts 
of  the  world,  each  part  produc- 
ing those  things  that  it  can  best 
produce,  and  exchanging  its  sur- 
plus for  the  products  which 
some  other  region  can  best  pro- 
duce. Since  the  railroads  and 
steamships  have  made  it  easy  to 
trade,  people  have  been  able  to 
live  comfortably  in  any  region 
where  they  can  have  even  so 
little  as  one  industry.  They  ex- 
port the  surplus  product,  and 
buy  what  they  need  from  many 
other  regions.  It  is  trade  that 
has  helped  the  white  man  to  spread  over  most 
of  North  America  so  quickly  since  1810. 

The  world  is  one.  Trade  has  made  it  so. 
The  different  parts  of  the  world  are  now 
connected.  No  longer  do  most  of  the  families 
of  the  world  live  apart  from  other  families, 
as  the  Douglas  family  did,  or  as  the  people 
of  Lincoln’s  neighborhood  did.  Ships,  rail- 
roads, telegraphs,  and  machines  have  made 
the  people  of  many  lands  our  helpers.  Each 
country  now  has  something  that  we  buy. 
Trade  has  also  made  us  helpers  to  many 
other  people.  We  help  them  by  selling  to 
them  the  things  that  they  want.  And  thus 
it  is  with  nearly  all  peoples  in  those  parts  of 
the  world  where  travel  has  been  made  easy. 


certain 

ii 


kind  of  work  and 


Courtesy  of  the  N.  Y.  C.  and  H E.  R.  R. 

Fig.  12.  The  first  steam  railroad  train  in  New  York  State,  less  than  one 
hundred  years  ago.  Contrast  this  picture  with  Fig.  122. 


STUDYING  THE  WORLD  BY  REGIONS 


11 


QUESTIONS 

1.  List  ten 
articles  of  food 
in  your  home  or 
in  the  grocery 
store.  Where 
was  each  article 
of  food  pro- 
duced? De- 
scribe the 
journey  on  its 
way  to  your 
home.  (Figs.  9, 

10.)  2.  Name 

some  products 
which  your 
community  pro- 
duces to  sell  to 
the  people  from 
whom  yourfood 
products  come. 

3.  Why  is  it 
proper  to  call 
these  people 
your  neighbors? 

4. Mighttheboy 
Lincoln  have 
found  ten  such 
articles  in  his 
home  or  neighborhood?  Give  two  good  reasons  for  your 
answer.  5.  Go  with  Abraham  Lincoln  on  his  boat  trip, 
and  report  the  story  for  your  school  paper.  6.  Name 
as  many  great  inventions  as  you  can,  and  tell  how  each 
has  helped  to  make  the  people  of  our  new  world 
neighbors.  Why  is  1810  an  important  date?  (Fig.  7.) 

7.  Imagine  that  coal  and  iron  had  never  been  dis- 
covered, and  tell  how  the  life  in  your  community  would 
differ  from  what  it  is  to-day.  8.  Select  three  different 
routes  by  which  one  could  travel  from  Boston  to  San 
Francisco  by  rail.  (Fig.  309.)  Write  an  account  of  a 
journey  by  one  of  these  routes.  9.  Describe  a trip 
across  the  continent  which  would  make  use  of  as  many 
as  possible  of  the  waterways  of  the  continent,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  nearly  direct. 

10.  What  barrier  prevented  the  people  of  Europe 
from  settling  North  America  earlier?  What  discover- 
ies led  to  the  overcoming  of  this  barrier?  11.  For  more 
than  two  centuries  after  the  English  settled  at  James- 
town, Virginia,  vast  areas  west  of  the  Allegheny  High- 
land were  practically  uninhabited  by  white  men.  Why? 
12.  Did  the  first  white  settlers  of  the  country  beyond 
the  Alleghenies  live  as  Dave  Douglas  lives  or  as  we 
live? 

STUDYING  THE  WORLD  BY  REGIONS 


Courtesy  Continental  Motors  Co. 

Fig.  13.  The  little  automobile  motor  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  with 
one  man  to  feed  it  gasoline  and  oil,  can  do  more  work  with  a few  gallons  of 
gasoline  than  all  these  men  working  as  the  ancients  did.  Can  you  tell  what 
the  men  shown  in  this  drawing  are  doing? 


liketheneigh- 
boring  states 
or  countries. 
If  several 
states  are 
alike  in  sur- 
face, soil,  and 
climate,  w e 
may  as  well 
study  them 
all  together. 

For  exam- 
ple, look  at 
the  State  of 
M aryland , 
Figs.  15,  21, 
and  241.  It 
reaches  from 
the  sandy 
seashore  o n 
the  east  to  the 
Appalachian 
plateau  on  the  west.  Between  seashore  and 
plateau  are  three  different  kinds  of  country: 
1.  A wide  belt  of  low  plain  near  the  sea. 
2.  A belt  of  hills  near  the  mountains.  3.  A 
belt  with  many  mountain  ranges.  On  Fig. 
21,  notice  that  each  of  these  belts  or  sections 
crosses  the  boundaries  of  Maryland  into 
the  states  to  the  north  and  to  the  south. 
These  natural  regions  have  their  boundaries 
determined  by  climate,  soil,  and  surface  and 
not  at  all  by  political  lines  or  boundaries. 
The  eastern  ends  of  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
most  of  Delaware,  and  southeastern  New 
Jersey,  are  all  parts  of  the  same  long  plain. 

16.  Natural  regions. — After  all,  it  is  not 
the  name  of  the  state  but  the  kind  of  region 
that  decides  how  men  make  their  living, 
what  they  have  to  sell  to  us,  and  what  we 
can  sell  to  them.  It  makes  no  difference 
whether  a sandy  plain  is  in  Maryland  or  in 


15.  Ways  of  studying  geography. — How 
shall  we  study  about  this  world  in  which 
all  people  are  neighbors  to  one  another?  One 
way  to  study  it  is  to  learn  about  one  state 
after  another,  and  one  country  after  another. 
This  is  not  the  best  way  to  study  geography, 
because  many  little  states  or  countries  are 


Delaware.  It  is  dotted  with  truck  farms  in 
both  of  these  states,  as  well  as  in  other  states 
which  lie  in  the  plain.  The  State  of  Maryland 
happens  to  contain  four  different  natural 
regions  that  extend  into  other  states. 

The  best  and  easiest  way  to  understand 
Maryland  is  first  to  study  each  of  the 

ii 


13 


Fig.  14. 


U0  J West ID')  • f rom  90°  Greenwich 


14 


INTRODUCTION 


natural  regions  of  which  it  contains  a part. 
That  is  the  way  by  which,  in  this  book,  we 
shall  study  the  world.  We  shall  divide  the 
world  into  natural  regions.  Each  one  of 
these  regions  includes  all  of  the  same  kind 
of  country  in  one  part  of  the  world.  Since 
the  people  in  a natural  region  all  make  their 
living  in  nearly  the  same  way,  we  may  call 
it  an  economic  region.  There  people  sell 
the  same  things,  buy  the  same  things,  and  do 
the  same  things,  and  it  is  easy  for  us  to 
study  about  them  all  at  one  time,  even  if 
they  do  happen  to  live  in  different  states 
or  even  in  different  countries.  The  heavy 
lines  on  regional  maps  (Figs.  14,  21)  show 
the  boundaries  of  various  natural  regions. 
You  see  that  one  of  the  regions  of  Maryland 


goes  far  away  to  the  south,  another  far  away 
to  the  north.  (Fig.  21.)  The  political 
boundaries  on  these  regional  maps  make 
it  easy  to  study  political  geography  with 
regional  geography. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Locate  the  state  in  which  you  live,  either  on 
Fig.  21  or  91,  or  210.  In  what  region  or  regions  does 
it  lie?  2.  In  what  region  is  your  home?  3.  What 
other  states  are  wholly  or  partly  in  the  same  region 
as  your  home?  (Note  to  Teacher:  See  Manual  before 
doing  Questions  k and  5.) 

4.  As  you  study  North  America,  think  about  the 
desirability  of  each  region  as  a place  in  which  to  live. 

5.  Fill  out  the  following  chart  for  the  continent  of 
North  America,  adding  to  it  from  week  to  week: 


Region. 

States,  Provinces  or 
Countries  Partly  or 
Wholly  in  Region. 

Chief  Cities  in 
Region. 

Fig.  15.  Photograph  of  a relief  model  of  a part  of  the  United  States.  Can  you  see  the  low  level  plain 
east  of  Baltimore;  and  the  high  plateau  west  of  Cumberland;  the  mountain  ridges  and  the  old  roads  of 

the  wagon  emigrants  ? 


n 


15 


Fig.  16. 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL 


PLAINS 


Photo.  Louis  R.  Bostwick,  Omaha,  Neb. 

Fig.  17.  A “Prairie  Dog”  plow  and  a “Caterpillar”  tractor 
in  Nebraska.  Compare  with  Fig.  4.  Can  you  tell  why  some 
eastern  farms  have  been  abandoned? 


17.  A group  of  nearly  level  regions. — In 
studying  the  world  we  should  begin  with 
our  own  continent,  North  America.  The 
Table  of  Contents  shows  that  all  of  North 
America  may  be  divided  into  eight  different 
groups  of  regions,  just  as  some  political 
maps  show  that  the  United  States  is  divided 
into  seven  groups  of  states,  such  as  the 
New  England  States  (Fig.  216),  and  the 
South  Atlantic  States.  (Fig.  26.) 

A good  place  to  begin  our  study  of 
North  America  is  with  the  southern  and 
central  plains,  because  this  area  is  one 
of  the  easiest  to  understand.  From  the 
Table  of  Contents,  in  the  front  of  this  book, 
get  the  names,  and  on  Figure  14  point  out 
these  regions.  It  is  a wide  area  of  low 
plains,  or  nearly  level  land.  It  occupies 
the  southern  and  central  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Southern  Canada.  On 
the  north  it  reaches  the  Indian 
country  in  the  Great  North 
Woods.  Southward  it  reaches  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  south- 
eastward to  the  Atlantic.  In 
all  of  this  large  central  terri- 
tory the  only  uplands  are  the 


Ozark  Plateau  and  the  Ouachita  Ridge 
(Fig.  21). 

In  so  large  a territory  there  are  several 
natural  regions.  Let  us  begin  with  a small 
one,  the  Florida  Peninsula. 

THE  FLORIDA  PENINSULA 

18.  How  Florida  appears. — If  you  should 
ride  through  Florida  by  train  or  automobile, 
you  would  see  many  lakes  and  many  swamps, 
with  cypress  trees  standing  in  them  (Fig.  22), 
and  big  oak  trees  with  silvery  moss  hanging 
from  the  branches.  You  would  also  see 
miles  of  sandy  soil,  and  miles  and  miles  of 
pine  forests.  In  a settlement  here  and  there, 
dozens  or  hundreds  of  farmers  would  be  busy 
with  their  orchards  of  orange  and  grape- 
fruit trees  (Fig.  25),  their  fields  of  celery  (Fig. 
23),  beans,  tomatoes,  and  other  early  vege- 
tables, and  their  fields  of  corn. 

19.  Climate. — Florida  is  so  far 
south  that  the  climate  is  warm, 
even  in  winter.  The  people 
rarely  heat  their  houses.  In  the 
southern  part  there  are  some 
winters  when  no  frost  comes. 
In  the  central  part  of  the  state 


Fig.  18.  The  Florida  Penin- 
sula Region. 

(16) 


u 


THE  FLORIDA  PENINSULA 


17 


Fig.  19.  A little  pond  or  lake  in  a limestone  sink. 
Florida  has  thousands  of  limestone  sinks.  Many  of 
them  are  dry. 

there  are  sometimes  two  or  three  frosts  in 
winter,  but  they  are  often  weeks  apart,  and 
the  whole  country  is  as  green  in  January  as 
the  northern  states  are  in  July.  The  palm 
trees  (Fig.  20)  make  parts  of  Florida  look 
like  South  America  and  Cuba.  Big  black 
alligators  sun  themselves  beside  the  rivers. 

20.  Warm  waters. — There  is  an  ocean 
current  which  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  out  through  the 
Florida  Strait,  and  then  northerly  between 
Florida  and  the  Bahama  Islands  (Fig.  327). 
Why  does  Florida  have  a warm,  moist 
climate?  Which  of  the  four  winds  can  be 
cool  and  dry  in  Florida? 

Florida  has  so  much  rain  in  the  autumn 
that  it  beats  the  cotton  off  of  the  cotton 
plant.  For  this  reason  cotton  is  not  grown 
in  the  peninsula,  and  the  region  cannot  be 
included  in  the  Cotton  Belt. 

21.  How  Florida  was  made. — The  Florida 
Peninsula  is  one  of  the  flattest  parts  of  the 
United  States.  How  long  is  it?  (Fig.  26.) 
How  wide?  It  is  really  a long,  flat  sand-bank, 
rising  from  the  sea  a foot  or  two  to  the  mile. 
Not  long  ago,  as  time  goes  with  nature, 
Florida  was  sea  bottom.  That  is  why  so 
much  of  the  soil  is  sand.  While  Florida  was 
still  under  the  sea,  little  animals  called  corals 
lived  on  it.  Their  skeletons  made  much  of 
the  limestone  that  is  now  to  be  found  there. 
Many  layers  of  seashells  were  left  there  by 
the  shellfish  that  live  on  the  sea  bottom. 
These  shells  are  now  layers  of  soft  limestone 
near  the  surface  of  the  sand.  Most  limestone 
is  made  from  seashells  and  coral.  Some  of 
this  Florida  limestone  is  made  of  coarse  pieces 
of  seashell  cemented  together  by  lime  very 
much  as  sugar  cements  a popcorn  ball. 


22.  Limestone  sinks,  lakes,  and  springs. — 
Florida  has  much  rain  but  few  rivers.  The 
rain,  sinking  through  the  sand,  soaks  out 
holes  or  caves  in  the  limestone,  which  dis- 
solves in  water  more  easily  than  any  other 
stone.  (Figs.  19,  20.)  The  water,  after 
sinking  into  these  holes  or  caves,  runs  away 
under  ground  and  may  come  up  as  springs, 
one  of  which,  called  Crystal  Spring,  is  so 
large  that  a small  steamboat  floats  on  it. 
When  the  roof  of  one  of  these  underground 
passages  falls  in,  the  hole  is  called  a limestone 
sink,  and  it  may  become  a pond  or  small 
lake.  Florida  has  hundreds  of  such  lakes. 

23.  A railroad  over  the  sea. — West  of  the 
tip  of  Florida  there  is  a long  chain  of  coral 
islands,  the  Florida  Keys,  with  Key  West, 
the  only  town  in  the  United  States  where 
no  frost  has  been  recorded.  (Fig.  308.) 

A railroad  117  miles  long  runs  on  concrete 
bridges  from  island  to  island  all  the  way 
from  the  mainland  to  Key  West.  From 
there  it  is  only  93  miles  by  boat  to  Havana. 


Courtesy  Tampa  Board  of  Trade. 


Fig.  20.  Palm  trees,  other  tropical  growth,  and  the 
water  surface  of  a limestone  sink  in  the  Florida  Pen- 
insula. Fig.  19  shows  how  limestone  sinks  are  formed. 

II 


Fig.  21. 


19 


20 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  Tampa  Board  of  Trade 


Fig.  22.  A swamp  in  Florida  showing  cypress  trees  and  palm  leaves.  Branches 
of  the  cypress  roots,  called  knees,  stick  up  out  of  the  water.  What  makes 
the  growth  so  dense?  What  wild  things  live  in  such  places? 


Some  of  the  people  who  live  in  Key  West  and 
at  Tampa  hunt  in  the  neighboring  waters  for 
sponges.  Standing  in  their  boats  they  pull 
sponges  from  the  rocky  bottom  with  long 
poles.  Sometimes  they  dive  for  them.  An 
ordinary  sponge,  such  as  we  see,  is  made  of 
the  soft  skeletons  of  thousands  of  tiny  sea 
animals  that  live  together  in  one  cluster. 

24.  Swamps  and  soil. — Florida  is  so  flat 
that  in  many  places  the  water  cannot  flow 
away;  it  stays  and  makes  a swamp.  In  the 
southern  part  of  Florida  are  the  Everglades, 
the  largest  swamp  in  the  United  States.  In 
periods  of  heavy  rain,  the  water  in  this 
swamp  rises  several  feet.  In  periods  of 
drought  much  of  it  flows  away  slowly 
through  the  tall  grass.,  Men  are  now  at 
work  draining  parts  of  this  and  other  Florida 
swamps  to  make  farms.  The  swamp  land 
is  usually  rich,  because  of  the  plants  that 
have  grown  in  the  swamp  and  decayed  there. 

The  sandy  soil  of  that  part  of  Florida 
which  is  not  swamp  is  fine  soil  for  water- 
melons and  vegetables,  but  unless  heavily 

ii 


fertilized  is  not  good  for 
corn  or  grass.  People  who 
wanted  to  raise  cotton, 
corn,  or  grass,  had  to  go  to 
other  parts  of  the  United 
States,  so  for  a long  time 
Florida  remained  almost 
unsettled.  Look  in  the 
Appendix  and  see  how 
many  people  there  are  per 
square  mile  in  Florida. 
Compare  it  with  Alabama, 
a cotton  state;  with  Iowa, 
a corn  state;  or  with  Massa- 
chusetts, a factory  state. 

25.  Winter  vegetables. — 
In  1880,  when  the  first 
railroad,  the  Atlantic  Coast 
Line,  was  built  from  the 
northern  states  through  to 
Florida,  the  express  trains 
made  it  possible  for  garden 
produce  to  be  sent  quickly 
from  Florida  to  the  north- 
ern states.  People  then 
began  to  grow  lettuce,  cabbage,  early  pota- 
toes, watermelons,  cantaloups,  tomatoes, 
and  other  vegetables,  which  are  shipped 
north  into  lands  of  frost  during  winter  and 
spring.  Thus  New  York  and  other  northern 
places  have  fruits  and  vegetables  for  weeks 
and  months  before  their  own  crops  are  ready. 

A certain  truck  farmer  in  Florida  planted 
lettuce  in  November,  and  it  was  ready  to 
send  to  New  York  in  January.  As  soon  as  he 
sold  the  lettuce,  he  transplanted  tomato 
plants  from  a hotbed  to  the  same  ground. 
These  tomatoes  he  shipped  in  March.  Then, 
on  the  same  ground,  he  planted  potatoes, 
which  he  shipped  in  May.  He  next  grew  a 
big  crop  of  velvet  beans,  which  he  fed  to  the 
mules  that  worked  on  the  farm.  The  rich 
roots  of  the  beans  helped  to  fertilize  the 
ground  for  the  three  crops  of  vegetables  that 
he  planted  the  following  winter.  (Sec.  43.) 

The  high  freight  rate  for  perishables  from 
Florida  to  the  North  makes  the  vegetable 
business  profitable  only  when  the  grower  can 
get  high  prices.  As  only  a few  people  can 


THE  FLORIDA  PENINSULA 


21 


pay  these  prices,  there  is  often  an  over  supply, 
and  the  shipments  do  not  pay  expenses. 
This  is  one  reason  why  most  of  Florida  is 
still  forested.  There  is  no  large  market  for 
early  vegetables,  and  profit  from  growing 
them  is  uncertain.  The  frost  may  come 
and  kill  the  crop,  and,  at  best,  the  season  is 
short  at  any  one  place,  for  in  a week  or  two 
after  the  crop  begins  to  go  to  market  another 
place  farther  to  the  north  begins  to  ship 
a similar  crop.  Shipments  from  south 
Florida  supply  the  market  first,  then  in 
turn  those  from  Tampa,  from  central  Florida, 
and  from  St.  Augustine.  These  are  followed 
by  crops  of  vegetables  from  Savannah, 
Georgia;  Charleston,  South  Carolina;  New 
Bern,  North  Carolina;  and  Norfolk,  Virginia. 

26.  Oranges  and  grapefruit.  — Oranges 
have  been  growing  wild  in  some  of  the  Florida 
woods  for  over  three  hundred  years.  The 
Spaniards,  who  settled  St.  Augustine  in 
1565,  brought  orange  trees  with  them  from 
Spain.  No  one  grew  these  oranges  to  sell 
far  away  until  1880,  when  it  was  found  that 
Florida  oranges  sold  well,  and  that  money 
could  be  made  by  shipping  them  to  the 
North.  Many  orange  orchards  were  then  set 
out.  Sometimes  in  winter  the  oranges  freeze 
and  the  trees  are  hurt,  but,  nevertheless, 
orange-growing  is  now  one  of  the  chief  indus- 
tries of  the  state.  Thousands  of  carloads  of 
the  golden  fruit  are  sent  north  each  year.  It 
is  a beautiful  and  interesting  sight  to  see  an 
orange  orchard  bearing  yellow  fruit  and  white 


Courtesy  of  “The  Country  Gentleman” 

Fig.  23.  Winter  celery  grown  on  the  land  from  which  palm  trees  have  been 
removed.  Where  will  it  be  eaten?  Would  such  agriculture  be  possible  at 
your  home  in  winter?  Can  another  crop  be  grown  on  this  land  in  the  same 

twelve  months? 


chards.  Why  does  Florida  produce  more  oranges  than 
Texas? 

blossoms  at  the  same  time.  Most  of  the 
grapefruit  used  in  the  United  States  come 
from  Florida. 

27.  Tourists. — The  warm  winter  that  helps 
the  people  grow  oranges  and  vegetables 
gives  Florida  another  industry — the  tourist 
industry.  Many  people  from  the  North- 
eastern and  North  Central  states  take  a 
vacation  in  midwinter.  They  can  leave  the 
snowdrifts  of  Chicago,  Detroit,  New  York,  or 
Boston,  and  in  two  days  by  express  train 
reach  Tampa,  Miami,  or  Palm  Beach, 
where  they  may  bathe  in  the  warm  ocean 
water  that  flows  out  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Many  stop  off  at  Pinehurst  and  Southern, 
N.  C.,  and  Aiken  and  Camden,  S.  C.  Great 
hotels  have  been  built  for  the  thousands  of 
Northerners  who  play  golf,  bathe,  fish,  race 
automobiles,  and  hunt  game  for  a few  weeks 
in  winter.  Thousands  also  go  in  automobiles, 
camping  by  the  wayside. 

28.  Lumbering. — Most  of  Florida  is  still 
a great  forest.  At  times  the  trains  run  for 
miles  through  unbroken  woods.  Lumbering 

is  one  of  the  main  indus- 
tries, and  Florida  is  a lead- 
ing state  in  the  production 
of  rosin  and  turpentine, 
which  are  called  naval  stores. 
These  are  made  from  the 
sap  of  the  pine  trees.  Ship- 
loads of  lumber  are  sent  to 
our  Northern  states  and  to 
Europe  from  Tampa,  St. 
Marks,  Jacksonville,  and 
Femandina. 

29.  Tobacco  factories. — 
Florida  has  a kind  of  im- 
ported manufacturing  in- 


22 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  Tampa  Board  of  Trade 

Fig.  25.  A large  grapefruit  grove  near  Tampa,  Florida.  What  would  this 
grove  be  worth  if  Florida  could  not  trade  with  other  states?  Why  does 
Florida  need  fast-freight  train  service? 


dustry.  Many  Cubans  live  in  Key  West  and 
Tampa,  making  “Havana”  cigars  from 
Cuban  tobacco. 

30.  Phosphate  rock.  — Florida  has  no 
mountains,  but  she  has  a mining  industry; 
that  of  digging  phosphate  rock  for  making 
fertilizer.  It  seems  queer,  but  raw  material 
for  fertilizer  is  dug  out  of  beds  of  sand  which 
farmers  would  say  were  poor  soil.  How 
does  this  happen?  Once  upon  a time  the 
bones  and  droppings  of  birds  and  other 
animals  that  lived  in  this  region  formed  lime 
phosphate.  In  this  form  no  plant  can  use 
it,  so  it  stays  in  the  ground  until  we  dig  it  up 
and  treat  it  with  acid  in  fertilizer  factories. 
It  is  then  called  acid  phosphate,  and  is  the 
most  common  of  all  commercial  fertilizers.  All 
plants  must  have  phosphate,  and  few  soils 
have  as  much  of  it  as  the  plants  need. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  of  phosphate 
rock  are  carried  away  each  year  by  the 
ships  that  sail  from  St.  Marks  and  Tampa 
to  our  own  Atlantic  ports  and  to  Europe. 

31.  Unused  resources. — Florida  could  feed 
ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  times  as  many  people 
as  now  live  in  the  state.  To  do  this,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  drain  the  swamps,  which 
would  make  many  thousand  acres  of  good 
farm  land,  to  fertilize  the  sandy  soil,  and  to 
keep  live  stock,  as  the  people  are  beginning  to 
do  in  the  Cotton  Belt  (Sec.  44).  In  this  way, 
Florida  might  become  a great  state  for  the 


production  of  beef,  pork, 
and  corn.  At  the  same 
time  she  could  keep  on 
giving  travelers  a good 

time,  and  raising  on  a tiny 
part  of  her  land  all  the 
oranges  and  winter  vege- 
tables that  northern  peo- 
ple would  buy.  Do  you 
think  this  stock-raising 

would  increase  Florida’s 

trade?  Why? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  briefly  how  each  of  the 
following  natural  features  of 
Florida  helps  her  farmers  to 
produce  oranges  and  early  vege- 
tables: (a)  Location  in  respect  to  great  Atlantic  coast 
cities.  ( b ) Position  in  zones,  (c)  The  Gulf  Stream. 

(d)  Location  between  two  large  bodies  of  water. 

(e)  Surface.  (/)  Soil.  ( g ) Rainfall  (Fig.  158).  2.  Would 
you  rather  live  in  your  region  or  in  Florida?  Why? 
3.  Give  two  reasons  for  the  fact  that  frost  has  never 
been  recorded  at  Key  West.  4.  Suggest  two  causes  for 
the  development  of  Jacksonville;  Tampa;  Palm  Beach. 

5.  How  have  the  many  lakes,  few  rivers,  and  large 
swamps  hindered  the  development  of  Florida?  6. 
What  is  the  population  cf  Florida  per  square  mile? 
(Appendix)  of  your  state?  Can  you  tell  some  reasons 
for  this  difference  in  population?  7.  How  does  each 
picture  in  the  section  on  Florida  help  you  to  under- 
stand the  life  of  the  Florida  people? 

8.  Suppose  Florida  were  entirely  surrounded  by 
land.  How  would  its  climate  differ  in  summer?  in 
winter?  9.  How  has  the  development  of  fast-freight 
service  helped  Florida  to  become  a source  of  food 
supply  for  the  other  parts  of  the  country?  10.  What 
work  could  the  immigrants  who  come  to  our  shores  do 
in  Florida  that  would  be  of  benefit  to  the  peninsula 
and  to  themselves?  11.  See  which  boy  or  girl  in  your 
class  can  write  the  best  letter  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C.,  asking 
for  a copy  of  the  Statistical  Abstract  for  your  school 
library.  Find  from  this  book  the  amount  of  lumber 
Florida  produces.  Give  two  reasons  for  the  great 
forests  in  the  peninsula.  12.  With  a little  pile  of 
damp  sand  make  a model  of  the  Florida  peninsula. 
Indicate  in  some  suggestive  way  the  important  prod- 
ucts, cities,  and  railroads.  (Fig.  309.)  Show  the 
Everglades,  Lake  Okechobee,  and  the  Florida  Keys. 

THE  COTTON  BELT 

32.  The  cotton  crop. — Cotton  is  one  of  the 
best  of  all  crops.  It  is  easy  to  grow,  it  is 
easy  to  keep  without  spoiling,  it  is  easy  to 
send  long  distances  by  train  or  ship.  When 
ripe  it  is  not  eaten  by  moth  or  bug  or  mouse. 


San  Francisco  O 


P 23 


West  g&yCb£'°''_ 
kKey  West  ' 
Fig.  26 


Los  Angeles  O 


24 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Since  nearly  every 
people  uses  some 
cotton,  it  is  easy 
to  sell.  Cotton  is 
the  main  crop  and 
the  chief  source  of 
wealth  in  a large 
part  of  our  southern  states.  This  crop  is  so 
important  that  the  region  where  it  grows  is 
often  called  the  Cotton  Belt.  It  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  richest  natural  regions  in 
the  United  States. 

Figures  28  and  29  show  that  cotton  grows 
in  several  countries,  and  the  Cotton  Belt  of 
the  United  States  is  the  greatest  producer 
of  them  all.  It  grows  more  than  half  the 
cotton  of  all  the  world.  Which  states  are 
entirely  in  the  Cotton  Belt?  Which  are 
partly  in  it?  (Fig.  21.) 

33.  Bounds  of  the  Cotton  Belt. — What  is 
it  that  causes  the  bounds  of  this  Cotton  Belt 
to  be  where  they  are?  The  answer  is  climate. 
Cotton  needs  two  hundred  days  between  the 
last  frost  in  spring  and  the  first  frost  in 
autumn.  It  needs  a warm,  moist  summer  for 
growing,  and  dry,  sunshiny  weather  for 
ripening.  Look  at  the  cotton  map  (Fig.  30) 
and  see  how  the  line  of  two  hundred  frostless 
days,  almost  seven  months,  bounds  the 
Cotton  Belt  on  the  north  somewhat  like 
an  imaginary  fence.  Notice  that  this  line 
is  not  straight.  The  warm  weather  of  the 
lowland  near  the  sea  pulls  the  line  up  into 
Virginia,  but  the  cooler  weather  of  the 
plateau  brings  the  line  down  into  the  central 
part  of  North  Carolina,  while  the  still  cooler 
weather  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
pushes  the  cotton  line  down  into  Georgia. 


The  climate  of  the  highland  and  of  the 
lowland  has  the  same  effect  upon  the  cotton 
line  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  (Fig.  30.) 
We  may  say  that  the  northern  boundary  is 
a cold  line,  because  to  the  north  of  that  line 
the  cold  weather  of  spring  or  autumn  injures 
the  cotton  so  often  that  it  does  not  pay  to 
grow  it  there.  Such  lines  are  not  sharp, 
but  are  several  miles  in  width  because  the 
weather  is  uncertain  from  year  to  year. 

The  western  boundary  of  the  Cotton  Belt 
is  a dry  line.  West  of  this  line  cotton  does 
not  pay,  unless  irrigated,  because  the  droughts 


Fig.  28.  Relative  Size  of 
Cotton  Crops,  1919-1920: 
500-lb.  bales 

A.  United  States,  12,200,000 

B.  Rest  of  World,  8,050,000 

ti 


Fig.  30.  What  two  facts  of  climate  fence  in  the  Cotton 
Belt?  Note  how  the  eastern  grape  districts  cluster 
about  the  Great  Lakes.  Why?  (Sec.  328.) 

keep  the  plants  from  growing  well.  How 
much  rain  falls  at  the  western  or  dry  edge 
of  the  Cotton  Belt?  (Fig.  158.)  Why  should 
a south  wind  bring  rain  to  east  Texas  and 
drought  to  west  Texas? 

Look  at  the  rainfall  map  (Fig.  158)  and 
you  will  see  that  the  rainfall  grows  less  as 
we  go  west  through  Texas.  The  eastern 
part  of  that  state,  with  the  heavy  rain,  has 
thick  forests  and  swamps,  but  the  western 
part  is  dry,  with  few  streams,  thorny  cactus 
plants,  scattered  bunches  of  grass,  and  low 
bushes.  One  side  of  this  state  has  so 
much  rain  that  it  is  in  the  Cotton  Belt, 
and  the  other  side  so  little  rain  that  it  has 
only  large  ranches,  with  few  farms,  and 
few  people,  except  where  water  can  be 
Tfl  had  to  irrigate  the  land.  We  shall  learn  the 

Fig.  29.  Relative  Size  of  cause  of  this  dryness  later.  (Secs.  59-71.) 
Cotton  Crops,  1918-1919:  ,,  . , ,,  , 

soo-ib.  bales  The  Cotton  Belt  is  a cotton  belt  because 

b’  India d States’  ’671000  ^ *s  warm  an(l  has  ra-in  every  few  days. 
C.’  Egypt  (1918),  i’262’ooo  These  two  climatic  conditions  are  the  best 


THE  COTTON  BELT 


25 


for  agriculture,  because 
they  enable  people  to  grow 
things  that  are  needed. 

34.  Cotton  growing. — 

In  February,  March,  and 
April,  the  farmers  with 
their  teams  and  tractors  are 
busy  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing the  ground  and  plant- 
ing the  seed.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  summer,  men, 
women,  boys,  and  girls 
may  be  seen  with  hoes, 
chopping  out  the  weeds 
and  some  of  the  young- 
cotton  plants.  The  re- 
maining plants  stand  about 
eighteen  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.  All  summer  the 
mule-drawn  cultivators 
keep  down  the  weeds.  In  the  autumn,  the 
round  pods,  called  bolls,  begin  to  burst  open 
and  show  the  white  cotton.  Cotton-picking 
time,  the  busiest  season  of  the  year,  has 
come.  It  is  easy  to  grow  more  cotton  than 
can  be  picked.  Everybody  who  can  goes 
into  the  fields  to  pick,  even  the  cooks  from 
the  kitchen.  From  August  until  cold  weather 
the  pickers,  with  sacks  hung  upon  their 
shoulders,  go  up  and  down  the  rows,  pluck- 
ing the  white  cotton,  of  which  more  than 
half  the  weight  is  seeds. 

35.  Ginning  and  market- 
ing.— Before  the  cotton 
can  be  used  for  cloth,  a 
machine  called  a cotton 
gin  separates  the  fine  white 
fibers  from  the  seeds. 
Buildings  containing 
cotton  gins  are  scattered 
about  the  country  only  a 
few  miles  apart.  To  them 
the  farmer  hauls  his  cotton 
to  be  ginned  and  pressed 
into  large  bales.  Through- 
out the  autumn  and  win- 
ter one  often  sees  wagons, 
loaded  withbalesof  cotton, 
going  from  the  ginnery  to 


Courtesy  P.  Geo.  Maercky 

Fig.  32.  Sixty  thousand  tons  of  pure  sulphur  worth  one  millon  dollars,  at 
one  of  the  world’s  greatest  sulphur  mines,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Brazos  River 
in  Texas.  A well  is  drilled  and  very  hot  water  is  forced  down  several  hundred 
feet  to  the  sulphur  bed;  the  sulphur  melts;  it  is  forced  to  the  surface  by 
compressed  air;  then  runs  into  bins  where  it  cools  as  hard  as  rock.  It  is  then 
broken  up  by  blasting  and  loaded  quickly  and  cheaply  by  steam  grab  buckets. 

the  railroad  station  or  to  the  steamboat 
landing. 

In  the  Cotton  Belt,  there  is  rain  every 
few  days  all  winter,  the  roads  are  often  deep 
with  mud,  and  the  farmer’s  load  must  be 
small,  unless  he  happens  to  live  near  an 
improved  road. 

The  cottonseed  is  also  a valuable  part  of 
the  crop.  It  is  crushed  by  very  heavy  rollers. 
The  cottonseed  oil  that  is  pressed  from  it  is 
used  for  canning  small  fish  like  sardines,  for 
making  oleomargarine,  and  for  a cooking  oil. 
The  cake  that  is  left  after  the  seeds  are 


Fig.  31.  Rainfall  of 
Memphis  — 49.11 
inches  per  year.  The 
figures  at  the  left 
show  the  inches. 
The  heavy  lines  show 
how  many  inches 
per  month.  How 
many  has  January? 
December?  Why  is 
October  a better 
month  for  cotton 
picking  than  Novem- 
ber ? 


pressed  is  ground  into  cottonseed  meal. 
This  is  good  food  for  cows,  because  it  helps 
to  increase  their  milk.  It  is  used  in  the 
dairies  of  many  northern  states  and  of 
Europe. 

How  many  navigable  rivers  are  there  in 
the  Cotton  Belt?  (Fig.  80.)  Name  several. 
What  ports  are  at  the  mouths  of  some  of 
these  rivers?  Name  some  places  to  which 
ships  go  from  these  ports.  (Fig.  21.) 

36.  Soil.  — The  Cotton  Belt  has  many 
kinds  of  soil.  In  some  places  there  are  wide 
belts  of  clay,  in  others,  belts  of  sand,  a strip 
through  Central  Georgia  having  almost  no 
cotton  because  sand  is  not  rich  enough.  On 

this  wide  belt  it  is  more  profitable  for  the 

n 


26 


M 


N 


Fig.  33. 


p 


R 


• 27 


Fig.  33. 


j 


28 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  34.  A cotton  gin  picking  the  seeds  from  cotton  as 
fast  as  200  men  could  do  it.  What  is  such  a machine 

worth  per  day?  Basket  contains  unginned  cotton. 

farmers  to  plant  whole  fields  of  peas,  pea- 
nuts, sweet  potatoes  and  watermelons,  which 
do  well  on  sandy  soil.  The  melons  go  in 
carloads  to  northern  cities  in  early  summer. 

Northwest  of  this  sand  strip  is  a wide  belt 
of  red  clay  hills.  The  blacker  band  on  the 
cotton  map  shows  that  a great  deal  of  cotton 
is  grown  here.  The  map  shows  other  areas 
in  central  Texas  and  in  central  Alabama  very, 
rich  in  cotton.  Both  of  these  are  extra  fine 
cotton  districts,  because 
they  have  rich  black  soil 
made  of  decayed  limestone 
rock,  where  the  farmers 
can  grow  big  crops  of  cot- 
ton year  after  year.  In 
Texas  the  limestone  belt 
is  called  the  “Black  Land” 
and  the  man  who  owns  a 
farm  there  is  wealthy. 

To  the  east  of  the  Black 
Land,  the  land  is  sandy 
and  often  poor,  and  there- 
fore much  of  it  is  still 
covered  with  forests  of  pine 
and  other  kinds  of  trees. 

The  limestone  belt  in 
central  Alabama  is  called 
the  “Black  Belt. 

is  black,  and  so 
n 


of  the  people — negro  tenant  farmers,  each 
renting  a few  acres  of  the  rich  black 
earth.  This  land  sells  for  five  or  six 
times  as  much  as  the  less  fertile  sandy  land 
farther  south,  which,  like  the  sandy  land  of 
Texas  and  southern  Mississippi,  is  still 
almost  all  covered  with  pine  forests.  More 
than  half  of  the  area  of  the  whole  Cotton 
Belt  is  still  in  forest. 

The  map  shows  that  a third  region  hav- 
ing much  cotton  is  close  to  the  Mississippi, 
on  the  rich  delta  plain  made  by  the  silt  (mud 
and  sand)  which  the  river  has  been  bringing 
down  for  thousands  and  thousands  of  years. 
This  river-built  plain  gradually  filled  up  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  which  once  extended  to 
where  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River  now  is. 
Each  year  the  river  dumps  into  the  Gulf 
enough  silt  to  cover  278  square  miles  with 
a layer  one  foot  thick.  It  built  the  land  from 
Illinois  to  the  Gulf.  This  soil  is  so  rich  that 
cotton  has  been  grown  on  the  same 
field  year  after  year  without  wearing  out 
the  soil. 

There  are  no  stones  on  this  delta  plain 
built  of  river  silt.  You  can  dig  down  a 
hundred  feet  and  find  only  soft  earth,  or 
clay,  or  sand.  In  New  Orleans,  which  is 
built  on  this  low,  flat  plain,  the  water  in 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

’ The  soil  Fig-  35.  Bales  of  cotton,  covered  with  jute  cloth,  going  on  board  steamer  at  a 
cotton  port.  What  is  a 500-pound  bale  of  cotton  worth  ? (See  daily  newspaper.) 
are  most  Name  some  of  the  places  to  which  this  cotton  might  be  going.  (Fig.  21.) 


THE  COTTON  BELT 


29 


the  ground  is  near  to  the  surface.  If  a big, 
heavy  building  were  set  directly  upon  this 
soft  earth  it  would  sink,  and  the  walls  would 
crack.  To  prevent  such  trouble,  piles  (the 
trunks  of  trees)  are  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  on  these  the  foundation  walls  are  built. 

37.  Surface. — The  surface  of  the  Cotton 
Belt  helps  to  make  it  a region  good  for  farm- 
ing. There  are  no  mountains;  only  a part 
of  it  is  hilly;  and  much  of  it  consists  of  flat 
plains,  which  are  very  easy  to  cultivate.  In 
fact,  some  of  this  region  suffers  from  being 
too  flat,  for  where  the  heavy  rain  cannot 
run  away  the  land  is  swampy.  There  are 
many  large  swamps  along  the  shore,  all  the 
way  from  the  Dismal  Swamp  on  the  northern 
boundary  of  North  Carolina  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande. 

38.  Floods  and  levees. — When  the  snows 
melt  in  the  North  Central  States  and  in  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  and  heavy  winter 
rains  come  at  the  same  time,  the  Mississippi 
River  often  overflows  its  banks  and  covers 
large  areas  of  the  level  land  that  it  has  built. 
To  escape  the  floods,  many  people  have  to 
leave  their  homes  by  climbing  out  of  the 
windows  into  boats  that  have  been  brought 
to  rescue  them.  These  floods  do  such  great 
damage  that  men  have  worked  for  years  to 
build  big  banks,  called  levees,  along  the 
edges  of  the  stream,  to  hold  the  water  back 
in  times  of  flood.  (Fig.  36.)  Sometimes  the 
river  rises  even  higher  than  the  banks. 
Sometimes  a muskrat  or  a rotten  tree  root 
makes  a hole  in  the  bank,  and  there  the 
water  breaks  through  the  levee,  tears  a 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  37.  A Cotton  Belt  field  with  rows  of  bushy  pea- 
nuts between  the  rows  of  tall  corn.  Who  will  har- 
vest the  peanuts?  (Sec.  42.)  What  other  crops  may 
be  grown  with  corn?  How  many  have  you  seen? 

great  gap,  flows  out  as  a rushing  river, 
covers  up  hundreds  and  thousands  of  farms, 
and  may  make  a lake  as  big  as  two  or  three 
of  the  smaller  New  England  States  combined. 

39.  Corn,  sugar  and  truck. — Corn  is  the 
second  crop  in  value  in  the  Cotton  Belt. 
It  is  grown  on  almost  every  farm,  and  it 
is  likely  to  increase  in  quantity.  Sugar 
cane  is  also  grown  in  Louisiana  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  Mississippi  delta,  but  the 
frost  sometimes  injures  it,  and  this  industry 
has  not  grown  as  the  other  Cotton  Belt 
industries  have.  We  shall  read  more  about 
sugar  later.  (Secs.  382,  383.) 

Over  a considerable  portion  of  the  Cot- 
ton Belt  where  the  soil  is 
sandy,  early  vegetables  are 
grown  for  the  northern 
market.  This  region  sup- 
plies the  North  Central 
States,  just  as  Florida  sup- 
plies the  Northeastern 
States,  but  it  does  not  take 
very  much  land  to  grow  all 
the  early  vegetables  that 
are  required. 

40.  Peaches.  — Georgia 
has  an  important  fruit  in- 


Courtesy  Mississippi  River  Levee  Association 


Fig.  36.  How  does  it  happen  that  the  surface  of  the  Mississippi  River  in 
northern  Louisiana  is  higher  than  the  land  behind  the  river  bank  ? 

Xl-s 


30 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  38.  Map  showing  position  of  advance  line  of  boll- 
weevil  army  as  it  marched  through  the  Cotton  Belt. 


dustry.  In  July  she  sends  to  northern  mar- 
kets hundreds  of  carloads  of  peaches.  In 
August  the  same  varieties  of  peaches  are 
being  shipped  from  the  Potomac  Valley;  in 
early  September,  from  western  New  York. 

41 . The  cotton-boll  weevil. — It  is  fortunate 
that  many  crops  will  grow  in  the  Cotton 
Belt,  for  the  cotton  farmers  have  had  a great 
trouble  of  late,  caused  by  an  insect  called 
the  cotton-boll  weevil.  These  hungry  little 
beetles  eat  their  way  through  the  unripe 
bolls,  spoiling  the  cotton.  They  came  across 
the  Rio  Grande  from  Mexico  in  1892.  Each 
year  they  have  pushed  their  way  farther  and 
farther  through  the  Cotton  Belt,  going 
twenty-five  or  fifty  miles  a year,  injuring 
the  cotton  crops  as  they  go.  Men  have  not 
been  able  to  stop  them.  Almost  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  grow  cotton  that  ripens  early. 

Before'the  weevil  came,  many  farmers  had 
grown  nothing  but  cotton,  which  they  sold  to 
pay  for  everything  they  used,  even  for  the 
corn  and  hay  for  the  mules.  Cotton  is  such 
a good  crop  to  sell!  After  the  boll  weevil 
came,  farmers  had  to  raise  other  things, 
thus  the  insect  made  the  people  change  their 
farming  by  growing  different  crops. 

42.  The  new,  or  diversified,  farming. — 
One  of  the  crops  new  to  many  farmers  is 
the  peanut,  a plant  that  looks  like  clover 
and  l'ipens  its  nut  pods  under  ground.  Some- 
times the  farmers  harvest  them  and  send 
them  to  market.  Sometimes  they  let  the 
pigs  run  in  the  field  and  root  up  the 
peanuts  and  eat  them.  This  kind  of  har- 
vesting is  very  cheap.  Peanuts  are  rich 
food  and  fatten  pigs  very  well. 

Another  wonderful  crop  is  the  velvet 


bean.  One  velvet  bean  vine  will  sometimes 
cover  a whole  square  rod  of  cornfield  and 
climb  to  the  top  of  every  cornstalk,  produc- 
ing great  quantities  of  leaves  and  beans, 
which  pigs  and  cattle  come  and  eat  along 
with  the  corn.  The  peanuts  are  often  grown 
in  between  the  corn  rows.  So  are  several 
kinds  of  beans  called  cowpeas.  All  are  eaten 
by  pigs,  and  sometimes  by  cattle,  right 
where  they  grow.  This  method  of  harvesting 
is  called  “hogging  down,”  or  “feeding  down” 
crops.  The  practice  has  increased  rapidly, 
so  that  towns  which  once  sold  cotton  only, 
and  bought  their  pork,  are  now  sending 
whole  trainloads  of  hogs  and  cattle  to  the 
markets.  The  raising  of  many  crops  on 
one  farm  is  called  diversified  farming. 

43.  Legumes,  food,  and  fertility. — Peas  and 
beans  belong  to  a wonderful  plant  family 
called  legumes.  On  their  roots,  queer  lumps 
are  found.  These  lumps  are  colonies  of  little 
plants  called  bacteria.  The  bacteria  on  the 
roots  of  the  legumes  have  the  very  useful 
trick  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air  and 
letting  the  plant  get  it  through  the  roots. 
Nitrogen  mo 
is  neces- 
sary to  the 
bodies  of 
animals 
andplants. 

People  get 
nitroge  n 
chiefly 
from  milk, 
c h e e s e , 
eggs,  nuts, 
be  a n s , 
peas,  and 
meat,  and 
to  a lesser 
extent 
fro  m 
b read. 

The  cow 
that  gives 
us  nitro- 
gen in  her 
milk  or  in 


1919 
E33  1920 

Fig.  39.  Graph  showing  reduction  in 
number  of  cases  of  malaria  in  an  Ameri- 
can town  in  one  year,  by  fighting  the 
mosquito  (Number  3)  which  carries  the 
disease.  Number  2 is  the  Mexican  boll 
weevil  which  eats  the  cotton,  and  Num- 
ber 1 is  the  cattle  tick  which  carries  the 
Texas  fever.  (Sec.  44,  Fig.  594.) 


THE  COTTON  BELT 


31 


beef  gets  it  from  the  plants  which  she  eats. 
When  there  is  not  as  much  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  as  plants  need  to  grow  well,  we  say  that 
the  land  is  poor  and  needs  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izer. We  can  get  it  in  commercial  fertilizer, 
which  is  costly,  or  we  can  plant  legumes,  which 
have  tiny  nitrogen  factories  on  their  roots. 
Phosphate  and  potash  are  two  other  foods 
needed  by  plants.  These  must  be  bought, 
but  they  are  not  as  expensive  as  nitrogen. 

Legumes  get  all  the  nitrogen  they  want, 
and  more  which  they  leave  in  the  ground, 
so  that  the  Cotton  Belt  farmer  now  plants  in 
the  same  field  with  his  corn  or  cotton,  helpful 
legumes,  such  as  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  velvet 
beans,  peanuts,  vetch,  or  clover.  After  the 
corn  or  cotton  crop  is 
ripe,  some  of  these 
legumes  continue  to 
grow,  forming  a thick 
mat  of  green  growth 
above  ground  and  rich 
nitrogen  lumps  below. 

After  the  corn  is 
gathered,  the  pigs  may 
come  in  and  eat  the 
other  crop.  Thus  the 
farmer  raises  two  crops 
in  one  field, — corn 
and  pork, — and  plows 

under  a mass  of  vegeta- 
tion the  next  spring.  This 
method  makes  the  ground 
richer  in  nitrogen  and 
manure  than  it  was  before 
the  corn  was  planted.  The 
parts  of  the  plants  that 
decay  in  the  soil  make 
a spongy  black  material 
called  humus.  This  gives 
the  soil  a dark  color, 
makes  it  light  and  spongy, 
helps  it  to  hold  moisture 
better,  and  to  break  up 
the  fine  particles  of  rock, 
so  the  plants  can  get  the 
plant  food  that  is  in  them. 
Humus  is  very  important 
for  plant  growth.  These 


legumes 
now  pro- 
duce large 
crops  of 
rich  stock 
food  on 
some  of  the 
level  sandy 
plains  of 
South  Car- 
olina, Geor- 
gia, Missis- 
sippi,Texas, 

and  Other  Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  42.  Where  dry  beans  and  peanuts 
parts  of  the  are  chiefly  grown  in  the  United  States. 

Cotton  Belt  and  Florida.  In  the  snowy 
northern  states,  cattle 
have  to  be  fed  in  bams 
for  half  the  year.  In 
Mississippi,  Louisiana 
and  the  rest  of  the 
Cotton  Belt,  barns  are 
scarcely  needed.  Food 
grows  nine  or  ten 
months  in  the  year, 
and  many  crops,  such 
as  clover,  vetch,  and 
oats,  are  not  hurt  by 
moderate  freezing. 

44.  The  battle  with 
the  ticks. — The  Cotton  Belt  is  now  one  of  the 
finest  places  in  the  world  for  producing  meat. 
For  a long  while  the  cattle  were  small,  sickly 
animals.  Men  have  found  that  this  condi- 
tion was  caused  by  a tick.  This  little  animal 
when  young  is  like  a tiny  spider.  It  lives  by 
sucking  the  blood  of  animals,  especially  that 
of  cattle.  If  it  sucks  the  blood  from  an 
animal  that  has  a kind  of  cattle  fever,  it 
carries  the  fever  germs  to  the  next  animal 
which  it  bites,  and  thus  spreads  the  disease. 
Men  now  destroy  these  ticks  by  dipping  the 
cattle, — ears,  horns,  nose,  and  all,— under 
the  surface  of  a tank  full  of  liquid,  which 
kills  the  ticks.  (Fig.  594.) 

45.  Better  health. — Science  does  wonderful 
things.  In  many,  many  ways  it  is  showing 
us  how  to  raise  more  and  better  plants  and 
animals.  It  is  also  teaching  us  every  day 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  41.  Sugar  cane  likes  rich  land.  What  other  fav- 
orable conditions  are  present  in  cane-growing  regions? 


IS3 

Fig.  40.  Cattle 
(1912-1913) 

A.  India 

115,980,000 
European  Rus- 
sia 33,260,000 
Argentine 

B.  28,900,000 
Germany 

20.550.000 
' Total  82,710,000 

C.  United  States 

57.240.000 


32 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  Galveston  Commercial  Association 


Fig.  43.  The  city  of  Galveston  built  this  concrete  wall  to  keep  storm  waves  from 
rushing  into  the  city,  which  stands  on  a low  sandy  island.  Why  are  stones  piled 
at  the  base  of  the  wall  ? In  summer,  the  beach  is  crowded  with  bathers. 


how  to  take  care  of  our  bodies,  so  that  we 
can  have  good  health  and  grow  to  be  strong 
men  and  women.  Among  many  other  things, 
science  has  proved  that  one  kind  of  mosquito 
carries  malaria  from  one  person  to  another, 
exactly  as  ticks  carry  fever  from  one  cow  to 
another.  The  Cotton  Belt  has  so  much  rain 
that  some  places  have  swamps  and  mosqui- 
toes. Since  we  know  the  cause  of  malaria, 
and  can  prevent  it  more  easily  than  formerly, 
the  people  in  the  Cotton  Belt  have  better 
health.  The  old  danger 
of  having  malaria  is  disap- 
pearing. 

Education  helps  health, 
and  the  Southern  states  are 
making  great  advance  in 
education.  This  region  was 
the  leader  in  starting  agri- 
cultural high  schools. 

46.  Lumber  industry. — 

When  white  men  first 
came,  the  Cotton  Belt 
was  nearly  all  in  forests  of 
good  timber.  While  these 
splendid  forests  last,  the 
Cotton  Belt  is  also  a lum- 
ber belt.  At  times  it  has 
led  all  other  parts  of  the 


country  in  lumber  output, 
and  Louisiana  is  now 
second  only  to  the  state  of 
Washington  in  lumber  out- 
put. Tall,  straight  pine 
trees  grow  on  the  sandy 
lands  of  the  Cotton  Belt. 
Oaks  grow  on  the  clay 
hills  and  the  rich  lands 
along  the  streams.  In  the 
swamps,  the  curious  cy- 
press tree  can  live  with  its 
roots  entirely  under  water, 
if  only  it  can  manage  to 
stick  out  its  knees.  (Fig. 
22.)  From  the  cypress 
timber,  shingles  are  made 
that  last  many,  many 
years,  and  cypress  is  es- 
pecially prized  for  use  in- 
side houses.  The  wood  of  the  southern  long- 
leaf  pine  is  so  hard  that  it  is  good  for  flooring, 
and  for  many  other  uses.  When  still  harder 
and  stronger  wood  is  needed,  we  use  the  oak. 

The  Cotton  Belt  forests  are  on  ground 
so  smooth  and  level  that  wagons  and  trains 
can  go  almost  everywhere  at  any  season 
of  the  year.  It  is  much  easier  to  remove 
the  lumber  from  these  southern  forests 
than  from  forests  on  the  steep,  stony, 
broken  land  in  the  mountains  of  the  eastern 


Fig.  44.  Map  to  show  distribution  of  coal  and  petroleum  in  the  United 
States.  Can  you  find  from  this  map  the  states  having  neither  coal  fields  nor 
^ petroleum?  Have  they  water  power? 


THE  COTTON  BELT 


33 


Photo.  Bryant  Studios 

Fig.  46.  A petroleum  refinery  at  Fort  Worth,  Texas.  How  many  things  here 
hold  oil?  Name  some  uses  for  this  oil. 


or  western  regions.  (Sec. 

120.  Figs.  253,  256.) 

Sawmills  by  the  hun- 
dreds are  scattered  through 
the  Cotton  Belt,  and 
lumber  is  exported  from 
every  port  between  Galves- 
ton, at  one  end  of  the 
Cotton  Belt,  and  Norfolk, 
near  the  other  end.  One 
of  the  greatest  markets 
for  hardwood  lumber  is 
Memphis,  Tennessee.  A 
few  years  ago,  Gulfport, 

Mississippi,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  was  shipping  more 
lumber  than  any  other  port 
in  the  world.  A very  small 
place  can  export  lumber. 

All  that  is  needed  are  a few  wharves  piled 
high  with  lumber,  and  a few  hundred  laborers 
to  load  the  ships  that  lie  alongside. 

47.  Manufacturing  and  cities. — Besides 
the  great  number  of  sawmills,  there  are 
many  cotton  mills.  Indeed,  the  leading 
manufactures  are  cotton  yarn  and  cloth. 
The  cotton-mill  industry  has  grown  very 
rapidly  since  1890.  Most  of  the  cotton 
mills  are  in  the  higher  part  of  the  Cot- 
ton Belt,  around  the  slopes  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains.  There  the  climate  is 


a little  cooler,  and  the  rivers  flowing  down 
from  the  mountains  have  waterfalls  to  turn 
the  wheels  (Fig.  234).  This  beautiful  rolling 
hill  country  near  the  mountains  is  sprinkled 
with  thriving  manufacturing  towns  from  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Cotton  Belt  in  North 
Carolina  through  the  higher  sections  of  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 
Almost  every  stream  that  comes  from  the 
mountains  is  harnessed  for  the  work  of  light- 
ing, or  of  transporting,  or  of  turning  the  fac- 
tory wheels.  The  South  is  justly  proud  of 
the  fact  that  the  number 


Photo.  Charles  L.  Franck 

Fig.  45.  Steamers  along  the  river  front,  New  Orleans.  What  may  he  in  the 
sacks?  These  ocean  steamers  tell  the  story  of  world-wide  commerce. 


of  spindles  in  her  cotton 
mills  has  grown  much 
more  rapidly  in  the  last 
thirty  years  than  it  has  in 
the  northern  cotton  dis- 
tricts. Millions  of  Chinese 
wear  cotton  cloth  from 
this  region  and  the  South- 
ern members  of  Congress 
are  now  much  interested 
in  shipping  and  foreign 
trade. 

When  we  study  New 
England  (Secs.  233-250) 
we  shall  see  that  her  sup- 
plies of  food  and  raw  ma- 
terials are  not  so  good  as 


34 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  47.  Perspective  view  of  New  Orleans  looking  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Inner  Harbor  Navigation 
Canal,  seen  at  the  left,  has  greatly  reduced  the  distance  for  shipping  from  the  lake  to  the  gulf.  Name  some 
things  that  are  shipped  from  New  Orleans.  (Fig.  21.)  Why  do  streams  flow  away  from  the  river? 


those  of  the  South.  Indeed,  no  other  cotton 
manufacturing  region  has  such  a collection  of 
materials — food  (Secs.  42, 50),  wood  (Sec.  46), 
coal  (Sec.  49),  water  power  (Fig.  234),  and, 
lastly,  the  cotton  itself ; for  there  outside  the 
factory  windows  are  the  cotton  fields. 

Many  Cotton  Belt  cities  and  towns  have 
mills  for  crushing  oil  out  of  cottonseed,  and 
cotton  presses  to  press  the  cotton  into  small, 
tight  bales  convenient  for  shipping,  and  almost 
all  ports  and  many  inland  towns  have  fertilizer 
factories  making  plant  food  for  the  farmers. 
Factory  products  are  increasing. 

Not  only  is  cotton  manufacturing  increas- 
ing rapidly,  but  the  enterprising  people  are 
making  a great  variety  of  articles.  By  reason 
of  the  hydroelectric  development,  this  part 
of  the  United  States  is  becoming  a manufac- 
turing as  well  as  an  agricultural  district. 
The  1920  census  shows  that  city  population 
is  increasing  faster  than  rural  population. 
What  does  this  suggest  about  manufacturing? 

Each  state  capital  has  many  thousand 


people  merely  because  it  is  a state  capital 
Atlanta  is  an  important  railroad  distributing 
center  and  cotton  market.  The  same  is  true 
of  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  and  also  of 
Tulsa,  Oklahoma,  and  Oklahoma  City,  each 
of  which  is  a thriving  city  supplying  a rich 
country,  and  giving  increasing  attention  to 
manufacturing.  The  warm  winter  of  the 
Cotton  Belt  brings  thousands  of  tourists  from 
the  north  each  year. 

48.  Seaports  and  trade. — Most  of  the  cot- 
ton manufacturing  is  done  in  towns  and  small 
cities.  The  larger  cities  are  the  seaports, 
which  are  busy  with  importing  and  exporting. 
Look  at  the  regional  map  (Fig.  21)  and  at  the 
United  States  map  (Fig.  309)  and  you  will 
see  that  the  Gulf  ports,  not  having  mountain 
barriers  behind  them,  can  serve  the  heart  of 
the  United  States  quite  as  easily  as  any 
Atlantic  port  can.  New  Orleans  has  the 
steamboats  on  the  Mississippi  and  its 
branches  to  bring  it  trade.  New  Orleans, 
Galveston,  Port  Arthur,  Mobile,  will  have 


THE  COTTON  BELT 


35 


Fig.  48.  Five  leading  rice  produc- 
ing states  in  the  United  States. 

(1919-20)  Bushels. 

A.  Louisiana 22,450,000 

B.  California 9,510,000 

C.  Texas 8,270,000 

D.  Arkansas 7,670,000 

E.  South  Carolina 90,000 


much  greater 

trade  in  the  fu- 
ture. How  will 
the  Panama 

Canal  help  this 
trade?  The  city 
of  Houston  is  a 
great  railroad 
center  with  rail- 
roads reaching  all 
of  the  territory 
between  the 
Rocky  Moun- 


tains and  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers. 
Galveston,  the  port  through  which  much  of 
the  sea  trade  of  this  region  passes,  is  the 
greatest  cotton  shipping  port  in  the  world. 
It  also  exports  much  wheat.  From  what 
states  would  the  wheat  naturally  come? 
(Fig.  72.)  Galveston  and  Mobile  are  the 
rivals  of  New  Orleans  as  the  southern  gate- 
way to  the  open  center  of  the  Continent. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Oklahoma,  and  pipe  lines  (Fig.  44)  carry 
it  to  the  steamships  on  the  Gulf  Coast  for 
shipment  to  northern  cities.  Where  else  do 
the  pipe  lines  go?  More  will  be  said  about 
petroleum  later.  (Secs.  190,  301.) 

49.  The  future — manufacturing. — Ala- 
bama produces  iron  at  Birmingham  more 
cheaply  than  any  other  place  in  the  world  (Sec. 
280),  and  rivals  Pennsylvania  in  coal  riches 
(Fig.  44).  What  other  Cotton  Belt  state  has 
coal?  The  United  States  is  now  the  leading 
sulphur  country  because  of  the  recent  discov- 
ery of  rich  deposits  near  the  Gulf  Coast  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas  (Fig.  32).  For  manu- 
facturing there  are  in  addition  the  great  raw 
materials  of  wood  and  cotton,  and  an  agri- 
culture to  produce  a won- 
derful variety  of  food. 

There  is  still  much  unused 
water  power.  The  great 
plant  at  Muscle  Shoals 
alone,  near  Florence,  Ala- 
bama, will  make  several 
hundred  thousand  horse 
power  and  may  send  power 
to  several  states. 


L 


in* 


Fig.  49.  Where  rice  is  grown  in  the 
United  States.  Why  does  Florida 
with  her  sandy  lands  not  grow  rice? 


50.  The  future — agri- 
culture.— In  the  public 
square  of  the  town  of 
Enterprise,  Alabama,  the 
people  actually  erected  a 
monument  in  1919  to  the 

cotton-boll  weevil,  be- 

...  . , , . Fig.  50.  Production 

cause  this  destructive  of  rice  in  bushels. 

insect  had  compelled  A.  India  and  Burma, 
them  to  diversify  their  R 667,oi6,ooo  (1918) 

farming  and  get  rich.  (1918) 

This  change  had  caused  c- 
the  district  to  grow  le- 
gumes and  ship  hogs  and  cattle  by  the  train- 
load (Sec.  42).  This  is  typical  of  the  new 
agriculture  that  is  making  the  South  a pro- 
gressive part  of  the  country  with  great  agri- 
cultural development  and  possibilities. 

51.  Rice  and  pecans. — Two  new  Cotton 
Belt  industries  show  how  these  states  are 
advancing.  Rice  has  been  grown  for  two  hun- 
dred years  along  the  coast  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia.  After  being  planted,  rice  needs 
to  be  flooded  in  order  to  give  it  moisture  and 
to  keep  down  the  weeds.  This  is  now  done 
on  the  large  level  fields  of  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas  (Fig.  49)  much  more  easily 
than  in  the  little  ricefields  of  China  and  Japan 
(Fig.  491).  Rice  land  west  of  the  Mississippi 
is  so  level  that  it  is  easy  to  have  ricefields  that 
cover  many  acres.  The  water  is  kept  on  the 
fields  by  means  of  banks,  which  are  made  by 
turning  up  a few  furrows  with  a plow.  The 
water  itself,  which  is  found  in  layers  of  sand 
beneath  the  fields,  is  pumped  up  by  oil-driven 
engines.  When  the  rice  is  nearly  ripe,  the 
bank  is  opened,  the  water  flows  away,  the 
ground  dries,  and  the  rice  is  harvested  by 
reapers  and  threshed  like  wheat. 

Nearly  two  million  pecan 
trees  have  been  planted  in 
the  Cotton  Belt  from  Texas  to 
North  Carolina,  since  we  have 
learned  how  to  improve  them 
by  budding  as  we  do  apples 
or  oranges.  (Secs.  82,  87.) 

Make  a list  of  the  things 
which  the  Cotton  Belt  now 
exports  to  other  regions  or  to 


36 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


foreign  countries;  of  the  things  it  might  export 
if  more  fully  used.  Make  a list  of  the  things 
the  people  there  use,  but  do  not  make. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  sketch 
in  the  Cotton  Belt.  Indicate  the  important  cities 
mentioned  in  this  chapter;  the  navigable  portions  of 
the  Mississippi  River  system  (Fig.  80);  a sec- 
tion producing  rice,  sugar,  petroleum,  forest  prod- 
ucts, much  cotton.  2.  How  was  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  cotton  region  determined?  the 
western  boundary?  3.  Make  a list  of  as  many  things 
as  you  can  think  of  which  are  obtained  from  the 
cotton  plant.  4.  Give  two  good  reasons  for  the 
extensive  forests  found  in  the  Cotton  Belt.  Name 
three  kinds  of  trees  growing  there.  State  the  most 
important  uses  to  which  the 
wood  of  each  kind  of  tree  is 
put.  5.  What  conditions  are 
favorable  to  the  production  of 
early  vegetables?  How  in 
this  respect  is  the  region  simi- 
lar to  Florida?  Why  does  the 
Cotton  Belt  raise  fewer  oranges 
than  Florida? 

6.  Why  do  the  people  of 
the  South  send  most  of  their 
cotton  to  New  England  or  old 
England  to  be  manufactured? 

Might  they  manufacture  more 
of  it  at  home?  What  condi- 
tions there  are  favorable  to 
manufacture?  unfavorable?  7. 

Plan  a trip  to  a cotton  planta- 
tion in  Mississippi.  How  far 
will  you  have  to  travel?  How 
long  will  it  take?  What  kind 
of  clothing  will  you  need? 

Through  what  states  will  you 
pass?  Over  what  railroad  or 
bodies  of  water?  Write  a let- 
ter from  a plantation  telling  a 
friend  about  your  journey. 

8.  Examine  each  picture  in 
this  chapter  very  carefully 
and  fill  out  a little  diagram  like  the  following: 


Title  of  Picture  . 

Short  Description. 

How  It  Helps  Me 
to  Learn  About  the 
Cotton  Belt. 

9.  Make  a list  of  the  cities  of  the  Cotton  Belt 
engaged  chiefly  in  manufacture,  and  state  the  relation 
which  the  location  of  each  city  bears  to  (a)  source  of 
raw  material;  (6)  power;  (c)  means  of  transportation. 

10.  Put  into  the  following  outline  the  important 
facts  you  have  learned  about  the  Cotton  Belt.  You 
will  then  better  understand  why  our  country  pro- 
duces over  half  the  world’s  cotton. 


The  American  Cotton  Crop. 


Natural  Helpers 

How  Each  Helps 

Size  of  Region 

Location 

Surface 

Soil 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Navigable  Rivers. . 

The  Laborers 

Enemies 

How  They  Hinder 

? 

? 

11.  If  the  people  of  the  Cotton 
Belt  were  shut  off  from  com- 
munication with  the  people 
in  other  parts  of  the  world,  to 
what  extent  would  they  be 
able  to  be  self-supporting? 

12.  Why  has  New  Orleans 
become  the  metropolis  of  this 
region?  13.  Write  an  im- 
aginary conversation  which 
might  have  taken  place  be- 
tween a mosquito  and  a cat- 
tle tick  that  met  one  day  on 
a Mississippi  levee.  14.  Ar- 
range a pantomime  in  your 
class  showing  how  the  cot- 
ton-boll weevil  compelled  the 
cotton  farmers  to  raise  di- 
versified crops.  15.  What  part 
has  cotton  played  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States? 

CENTRAL  FARMING 
REGION 

Part  I. — The  Prairie 
Corn  and  Small 
Grain  Belt 
52.  The  work  of  the  glaciers. — Glaciers 
once  covered  most  of  the  land  north  of  the 
Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers  with  great  moun- 
tains of  ice  (Fig.  53),  which  changed  the 
surface  and  made  some  of  the  land  better 
than  it  was  before  the  glaciers  came.  The 
glaciers  began  to  form  long,  long  ago  when 
the  winters  in  North  America  became  longer 
and  colder  for  a time.  North  of  the  Great 
Lakes  it  was  so  cold  for  such  a long  time  that 
the  snow  did  not  melt  but  lay  on  the  ground, 
even  in  summer.  Each  year  it  piled  higher 
and  higher  until  the  mass  was  many  hundreds 
of  feet  high,  The  weight  of  the  snow  on  top 


Fig.  51.  A very  large  wild  Texas  pecan  tree,  a 
natural  engine  of  nut  production.  Some  idea 
of  the  immense  size  of  this  tree  may  be  gained 
by  contrasting  it  with  the  men  beneath. 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


37 


pressed  the  snow  underneath  into  solid  ice. 
Finally  the  pile  began  to  move,  somewhat  as 
a pile  of  soft  dough  or  putty  slowly  spreads 
out  as  it  lies  on  a table.  The  huge  mass,  or 
glacier,  pushed  its  way  southward  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  until  it  reached  the  place 
where  the  sun  was  warm  enough  to  melt  the 
ice  as  fast  as  it  pushed  down  from  the  north. 
At  the  place  where  the  glacier  melted  there 
are  piles  of  dirt  and  stones  that  have  been 
carried  along  with  the  ice.  These  rough 
places  are  called  terminal  moraines. 

As  the  glacier  scraped  over  the  basins  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  out  across  the  Prairie 
Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt,  it  wore  off  the 
tops  of  the  little  hills  and  filled  up  the  little 
valleys  with  the  hilltop  earth,  thus  making 
the  country  nearly  levek  This  process 
made  the  land  easier  to  cultivate,  because  it 
was  not  so  hilly  as  it  was  before  the  ice  came. 
The  hilly  region  of  the  Ohio  Valley  begins 
where  the  glacier  stopped. 

53.  When  the  white  man  came.— About 
the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War  white 
men  began  to  explore  central  Ohio,  central 
Indiana,  and  eastern  Illinois.  The  country 
was  nearly  level,  and  much  of  it  was  covered 
with  thick  forests  of  big  trees — oak,  hickory, 
elm,  and  many  other  kinds.  Here  and  there 
were  open,  grassy  meadows  called  prairies, 
where  buffaloes  pastured  and  deer  ran  wild. 

For  a hundred  years  the  white  man  was 
busy  cutting  down  these  forests  to  make  room 
for  fields.  To  clear  the  ground,  the  splendid 
logs  were  often  rolled  into  huge  piles  and 
burned.  Ditches  were  dug  to  let  the  water 
drain  away  from  the  many  swamps  and 
marshes  that  covered  the  level  parts  of  the 
land.  Now  the  entire  region  is  a land  of 
farms  and  small  towns,  and  one  may  often  go 
many  miles  without  finding  even  ten  trees  of 

the  vast  forest  that 
once  was  there. 

To  the  westward, 
in  central  Illinois, 
Iowa, Nebraska, and 
Kansas,  there  were 
. trees  only  along  the 
Region.  streams.  I he  rest 


Fig.  53.  Map  showing  the  part  of  North  America 
covered  by  the  ancient  continental  glacier. 


of  the  land  was  level  or  gently  rolling,  and 
grass  covered,  called  prairie.  Since  the 
pioneers  from  the  east  had  always  lived  in 
a country  naturally  forested,  they  thought 
that  treeless  land  was  worthless ; but  after  a 
time  they  found  that  it  was  the  best  land 
of  all,  being  rich  and  ready  for  the  plow, 
without  requiring  the  hard  labor  of  clearing 
off  tree  roots,  stumps,  and  stones. 

54.  Making  roads  and  railroads. — Be- 
tween 1850  and  1860,  railroads  were  built 
across  the  Mississippi  and  into  this  treeless, 
grassy,  prairie  region.  The  land,  which  be- 
longed to  the  United  States  Government, 
was  so  level  that  surveyors  from  the  Land 
Office  at  Washington  often  laid  off  roads  in 
straight  lines,  running  north  and  south,  east 
and  west,  each  road  being  one  mile  distant 
from  the  next.  Thus  the  land  was  divided 
into  blocks,  each  one  mile  square.  Each 
of  the  square  miles  was  then  divided  into 
four  farms  of  160  acres  each,  and  a farm 
was  given  free  of  charge  to  any  settler  who 
would  come  and  make  his  home  upon  it. 
Every  year  for  many  years,  thousands  and 
thousands  of  families  left  the  hilly  eastern 
country  and  moved  out  to  these  free  farms 
on  the  fertile  prairies.  That  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  there  are  so  many  abandoned 
farms  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

ii 


Q 


R 


S 


39 


PHYSICAL  and  POLITICAL  MAP 

OF  THE 

NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


Capitals  are  shown  thus ST. PAUL, 

State  Boundaries 

REFERENCE 

CITIES 

• Less  than  5,000 

o 5,000  to  10,000 

O 10,000  to  25,000 

O 25,000  to  100,000 

100,000  to  250,000 
O 250,000  to  500,000 

•fa  Over  500,000 


Fig.  54. 


40 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Photo.  Eugene  J.  Hall,  Oak  Park,  III. 

Fig.  55.  Barns,  house,  silo,  cornfields,  and  potato  field  on  a farm  at  Wayne,  111. 


55.  Soil  and  surface. — The  soil  of  the 
prairies  is  mostly  deep  clay,  almost  free  from 
stone,  and  much  richer  than  the  sandy  lands 
of  the  South.  It  is  splendid  for  crops,  but 
bad  for  roads,  because  clay  makes  mud  when 
there  is  rain.  There  are  often  no  stones  in 
the  prairies  with  which  roads  can  be  made, 
and  it  is  too  expensive  to  bring  stone  from 
long  distances.  Even  to  this  day  in  neigh- 
borhoods where  land  is  worth  as  much  as 
$200  to  $300  an  acre,  the  roads  are  much 
poorer  than  they  are  in  the  Appalachian 
Valley  (Sec.  274),  or  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Coast  Plain  where  gravel  banks  make  good 
road  material. 

56.  The  name. — This  level  land  of  fertile 
soil  is  called  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain 
Belt,  because  almost  every  farmer  there 
grows  corn  and  nearly  always  one  of  the 
small  grains  also,  wheat  or  oats.  Corn  is  the 
most  important  crop  of  all,  partly  because 
the  soil  and  climate  suit  it  so  well,  and  partly 
because  corn  yields  about  twice  as  many 


Finch  & Baker,  U.S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  56.  Com  acreage  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
What  two  climate  lines  are  close  to  its  edge? 

IT 


bushels  to  the  acre  there  as  does  wheat. 
Corn,  wheat,  and  oats  are  all  grown  in  other 
regions  also  (Figs.  56,  72,  90,  93),  but  no 
other  region  grows  so  much  corn  as  this  one. 

57.  Bounds. — On  map,  Fig.  21,  find  what 
regions  bound  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small 
Grain  Belt.  Which  are  lower  than  this 
region?  Which  are  higher? 

The  western  boundary  is  set  by  a line 
where  little  rain  or  unsuitable  soil  stops  the 
good  corn  crops.  (Sec.  104).  Its  northern 
boundary  is  set  by  a region  with  a shorter 
summer,  where  the  growing  season  is  not  long 
enough  for  corn  to  ripen,  or  where  the  nights 
are  too  cool  for  such  a crop.  The  Great  Lakes 
are  so  large  and  deep  that  their  waters  stay 
comparatively  cool  all  summer.  Because  of 
the  breezes  from  the  cool  waters  of  Lakes 
Michigan  and  Erie,  the  farmers  along  their 
shores  do  not  grow  much  corn,  although  corn- 
fields thrive  a few  miles  back  from  the  lakes. 

58.  Climate. — In  winter  the  Prairie  Corn 
and  Small  Grain  Belt  is  a land  of  frost  and 
snow,  of  sleds  and  skates.  In  the  northern 
parts  the  streams  and  lakes  are  covered  with 
ice  for  many  weeks  each  year.  In  summer 
the  weather  is  as  warm  as  that  of  the  Cotton 
Belt,  but  the  season  between  frosts  is  not 
so  long.  It  is  too  short  for  cotton,  but  not 
too  short  for  corn.  Both  of  these  useful 
plants  need  a warm,  moist  summer,  but 
cotton  needs  seven  months  while  corn  can 
grow  in  five  months. 

How  does  it  happen  that  the  Corn  Belt 
and  the  Cotton  Belt  have  so  much  rain, 
while  the  region  to  the  west  has  so  little? 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


41 


Courtesy  Studebaker  Corp.  of  America 

Fig.  57.  The  Studebaker  manufacturing  plant,  South  Bend,  Indiana.  Wagons,  carriages,  automobiles,  and 
machinery  are  manufactured  here.  How  far  is  South  Bend  from  Chicago? 


To  understand  this  difference  in  the  weather 
we  need  to  know  about  the  storms  which 
make  the  rainfall  in  this  part  of  the  world. 

59.  The  cyclonic  storms. — Strangely 
enough,  there  is  system  about  these  storms. 
They  work  according  to  rules,  and  usually 
follow  about  the  same  paths.  They  may 
start  anywhere  between  southern  Texas  and 
Alberta  (Figs.  91,  94).  But  no  matter  where 
they  start,  cyclonic  storms  in  the  United 
States  travel  from  the  west,  work  easterly, 
and  pass  off  to  the  northeast.  (Fig.  65.) 

If  you  should  ride  above  one  of  these  storm 
areas  in  an  airplane,  you  would  see  the  wind 
blowing  the  tops  of  trees  in  the  same  direc- 
tion that  the  arrows  point.  (Fig.  59.)  What 
direction  is  that?  The  wind  twists  around  a 
center.  Is  the  twist  in  the  direction  taken  by 
the  hands  of  the  watch? 

The  center  of  this  storm  is  near  Kansas 
City.  The  wind  blowing  toward  it  from  the 
south  crosses  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  and 
brings  moist  air  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  wind  blowing  toward  it  from  the  south- 
west crosses  western  Texas,  and  is  therefore 
hot  and  dry.  The  wind  blowing  toward  it 
from  the  northwest  comes  from  Nebraska 
and  Dakota.  It  is  cool  and  dry. 

60.  The  rainfall. — Now  it  so  happens 
that  the  air  blows  in  toward  the  center  of 
this  storm,  and  then  goes  up  a mile  or  two 
above  the  ground  (Fig.  66).  In  going  up 
the  air  becomes  cooler.  Since  cool  air  will 
not  hold  as  much  moisture  as  warm  air,  some 
of  the  water  is  squeezed  out  of  the  air  and 


falls  as  rain.  Look  at  the  northwest  and 
southeast  quarters  of  the  storm,  Fig.  59. 
What  are  the  wind  directions  in  each? 
Which  quarter  has  the  more  water  for  mak- 
ing rain?  Why?  Which  is  warmer?  Why? 

61.  The  cyclone. — These  storms  are  called 
cyclones  because  they  turn  like  a wheel  or 
cycle.  They  twist  round  and  round  as  they 
go  across  the  country.  These  storms  are  not 
the  same  as  those  popularly  called  cyclones 
(Sec.  72).  Each  one  is  several  hundred 
miles  across.  One  or  two  are  crossing  the 
United  States  all  the  time.  They  bring  the 
rain  to  the  Cotton  Belt  and  to  the  Prairie 
Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt. 

62.  The  movement  of  the  storm. — Figure 
60  shows  the  same  storm  the  next  day.  It 
has  moved  eastward,  and  is  now  central 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Look  at  the  place  on  the  Mississippi  River 
that  had  a southeast  wind  the  first  day. 


Fig.  58.  Swine  in  the  United  States.  Compare  this 
with  the  com  map  (Fig.  56).  Why  does  Illinois  have 
fewer  swine  than  Iowa?  (Sec.  75.) 


42 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  59. 


Cyclone  center,  cyclone  area,  and  cyclone 
wind  directions. 


What  wind  has  it  the  second  day?  Where  does 
this  wind  come  from?  Which  of  these  two 
days  is  cooler  at  this  place?  Eastern  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  had  rain 
the  first  day.  They  have  clear 
weather  on  the  second  day. 

But  the  places  to  the  south 
and  east  of  the  storm  center 
are  receiving  winds  from 
the  sea,  winds  that  are  full 
of  moisture  for  making  rain. 

The  third  day  (Fig.  61), 
our  storm  has  passed  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  Valley,  and  the 
moist  rain  wind  is  blowing 
across  southern  New  England  Fig.  60.  The  same 
and  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  dry  Fis-  59  one 

clearing  wind  is  blowing  across  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  states  to  the  south. 

63.  The  storm  crosses  the  ocean. — Figure 
62  shows  that  the  storm  has  gone  out  over  the 
sea  east  of  Newfoundland.  It  blows  the  ocean 
into  waves  that  rock  and  roll  the  ships  at  sea. 

We  can  trace  the  path  (Fig.  62)  that  the 
cyclone  has  followed  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
across  the  valleys  of  the  Columbia,  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  the  St.  Lawrence  rivers,  and 
out  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

These  storms  sometimes  cross  the  Atlantic 
and  pass  over  England  and  France,  Germany 
and  Russia,  and  on  into  Asia.  Meanwhile, 
another  storm  and  yet  another  are  following 
along  behind. 

64.  When  a cyclone  passes. — When  a low 
pressure  area  is  approaching,  the  wind  is 
sucked  in  from  the  south  and  east  and  the 


weather  becomes  warmer.  When  we  are  in 
the  center  of  an  area  of  low  pressure  the  winds 
vary,  and  the  warm  moist  air  of  the  cyclonic 
area,  becoming  cool  as  it  rises,  cannot  hold  as 
much  moisture,  and  either  rain  or  snow  falls. 
When  the  cyclone  has  passed  on,  the  cold 
wind  blows  from  the  northwest  or  west,  and 
the  temperature  falls.  In  a few  days  another 
storm  comes.  Thus  every  few  days  in  sum- 
mer the  needed  rain  comes  to  the  cornfields 
and  cottonfields.  Now  you  see  why  all  the 
eastern  part  of  North  America  gets  good  rains, 
and  why  the  ocean  between  New  England 
and  old  England  is  so  often  stormy. 

65.  The  prevailing  westerlies. — Why  do 
the  cyclones  travel  eastward?  It  is  because 
the  United  States  is  in  the 
cool  northern  zone,  where 
the  prevailing  wind  blows 
from  the  west  towards  the 
east.  Naturally  the  cyclonic 
storms,  which  are  just  big, 
twisting  eddies,  are  carried 
along  by  the  more  powerful 
stream  of  the  prevailingwind, 
just  as  a little  whirling  eddy 
is  carried  along  in  a flowing 
stream  of  water. 

66.  Air  pressure  and  the 
barometer.— We  wonder  what 
it  is  that  starts  the  cyclone.  Let  us  try  an 
experiment.  Light  a short  piece  of  candle 
and  set  it  up  in  a lamp  chimney  or  even 
in  a paper  tube.  The  candle  heats  the  air, 
which  becomes  lighter,  rises,  and  draws  other 
air  in  to  take 
its  place. 

You  can  see 
these  move- 
ments of  the 
air  by  hold- 
ing a smok- 
ing piece  of 
paper  near 
the  bottom 
of  the  lamp 
chimney. 

Some- 


cyclone  as  that  of 
day  later. 


times  the 


Fig.  61. 


Where  the  same  cyclone  was 
two  days  later. 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


43 


Fig.  62.  The  same  cyclone  three  days  later,  and  the  path  it  has  followed 
air  becomes  light  over  a part  of  the  earth’s 
surface,  just  as  it  does  over  the  candle. 

The  weight  of  the  air  is  measured  by  an 
instrument  called  a ba- 


Kansas,  and  the  heavy  air 
pushes  up  the  light  air,  just 
as  it  does  in  the  lamp  chim- 
ney. 

68.  Starting  the  cyclone. 
- — A cyclonic  storm  begins 
at  the  place  where  a center 
of  air  rises,  becomes  lighter 
than  the  air  surrounding  it. 
As  it  rises,  the  heavy  air 
pushes  it  up  and  rushes  in 
from  all  directions  to  take 
its  place,  as  the  air  did  in 
our  lamp-chimney  experi- 
ment (Sec.  66).  The  air, 


rometer.  If  the  air  is 
heavy,  the  barometer 
is  said  to  be  “high”; 
if  the  air  is  light,  the 
barometer  is  said  to 
be  “low”.  On  the 
average,  at  sea  level 
the  air  presses  about 
fifteen  pounds  to  the 
square  inch. 

67.  The  high  ba- 
rometer and  the  low  Fig.  63. 
barometer. — If  the  ba- 
rometer is  high,  the  pressure  of  the  air  may 
be  fifteen  and  a half  pounds  per  square  inch, 
or  2232  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  If  the 
barometer  is  low,  the  pressure  of  the  air  may 
even  be  100  or  150  pounds  less  per  square 
foot.  That  is  a great  pressure  difference. 
Now  if  the  barometer  in  one  region,  let  us  say 
in  Kansas,  becomes  low  while  the  barometer 
is  high  on  all  sides,  there  is  less  pressure  on  the 
farms  of  Kansas  than  there  is  on  the  farms  in 
Dakota  or  Louisiana.  It  is  like  the  experi- 
ment with  the  lamp  chimney.  The  heavy  air 
around  the  lamp  chimney  rushed  in  to  take 
the  place  of  the  lighter  air.  That  is  just  what 
happens  in  our  cyclone  (Fig.  66).  The  heavy 
air  in  Dakota  and  Louisiana  flows  toward  the 
lighter  air  in  the  center  of  the  “low”  in 


rushing  toward  this  center,  twists  around, 
much  as  water  twists  when  it  runs  out 
through  the  hole  at  the  bottom  of  a basin 
or  of  a bath  tub,  or 
through  a round  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  a 
tomato  can. 

These  great  twisting 
cyclones,  several  hun- 
dred miles  across,  are 
pushed  along  toward 
the  east  by  the  pre- 
vailing westerly  wind. 
How  long  did  it  take 
those  in  Fig.  65  to  go 


The  same  cyclone,  and  “H”,  the  cold  wave  1000  miles? 


or  high  area  following  it. 


69.  The  cold  wave. 


— The  cyclone,  with  its  warm  weather  and 
its  rain,  is  not  the  cause  of  all  of  the  rough 
weather  we  get.  The  cold  spells  called  cold 
waves  are 
quite  anoth- 
er  thing. 

Cold  waves 
are  caused 
by  an  area 
of  heavy  air 
or  high  ba- 
rometer, 
which  is,  as 
you  know, 
the  opposite 

of  the  cy  ^ The  same  cyclone  and  cold 

clone  Or  wave  one  day  later.  (Fig.  63.) 


44 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  65.  Paths  of  six  lows,  or  cyclones,  in  March, 
1921.  Dots  show  center  at  8 a.  m.;  figures  give  dates. 


“low.”  In  Sec.  67  we  learned  that  a high 
barometer  may  show  the  air  to  be  more  than 
one  hundred  pounds  heavier  to  the  square 
foot  than  is  the  air  in  a place  where  there  is 
a low  barometer.  When  this  is  so,  the  heavy 
air  flows  out  in  all  directions  from  the  high 
barometer,  just  as  water  does  when  you  pour 
it  into  the  middle  of  a flat  dish.  As  this  air 
comes  down  from  above  it  has  but  little 
water,  and,  therefore,  it  makes  clear  weather 
as  well  as  cool  weather. 

Fig.  63  is  the  same  as  Fig.  60,  except  we 
see  also  in  Fig.  63  the  high  barometer,  or  cold 
wave,  which  brings  clear  weather  to  follow 
the  low  barometer,  or  warm  rainy  time.  On 
this  map,  the  cyclone  is  central  in  Kentucky 
and  the  cold  wave  is  central  in  Montana, 
with  a northwest  wind  blowing  from  the  cool 
high  toward  the  warm  low  or  cyclone.  Fig. 
64  is  the  same  as  Fig.  61,  with  the  cold 
wave  added.  We  see  that  the  cyclone  has 
gone  on  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley,  and  the 
cold  wave  has  reached  the  Cotton  Belt.  The 
north  wind  and  the  northwest  wind  are  now 


Fig.  67.  Paths  of  five  highs,  or  cool  waves,  in  March, 
1921.  Dots  show  center  at  8 a.  m.;  figures  give  dates. 


blowing  clear  and  cool  where  two  days  before 
the  weather  was  warm  and  rainy. 

70.  The  weather  procession. — It  is  these 
two  barometer  brothers,  the  high  and  the 
low,  that  give  us  our  weather, — warm  with 
rain  when  the  barometer  is  low,  and  cool 
and  clear  when  the  barometer  is  high.  This 
pair  follow  each  other  across  the  United 
States  in  a procession  that  never  stops,  for 
as  soon  as  a low  goes  off  to  sea,  or  dies  out, 
a high  comes  along  after  it.  The  high  in 
its  turn,  passes  off  to  sea  or  dies  out,  and 
another  low  follows  it.  Thus,  on  and  on, 
on  and  on  they  go,  never  stopping,  for  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  and  millions  of  years. 
The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  at 
Washington  prints  a map  every  day  show- 
ing the  weather  as  it  is  at  eight  o’clock  in  the 
morning.  Such  a map  is  shown  at  Fig.  156. 
Perhaps  you  can  get  some  of  these  maps  for 
your  school,  if  you  write  to  the  Weather 
Bureau  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  them. 
When  you  write  you  might  also  ask  where 
the  nearest  weather  bureau  is. 

71.  The  thundershower. 
— To  understand  how  much 
the  cyclones  help  the  Prairie 
Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt, 
we  need  to  know  one  thing 
more  about  the  rain.  In 
winter  these  cyclones  usu- 
ally cause  it  to  rain  or  snow 
all  day.  In  the  summer- 
time, however,  a cyclone 


Fig.  66.  The  directions  of  air  currents  and  the  location  of  rain  area  in  a cycle"' e 
crossing  the  United  States. 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


45 


Fig.  68.  Five  leading  corn-produc- 
ing states,  1919-20: 

Bushels 

A.  Iowa 444,900,000 

B.  Illinois 297,580,000 

C.  Nebraska 219,850,000 

D.  Indiana 179,910,000 

E.  Missouri 177,104,000 

often  gives  us  hot,  muggy 
weather,  with  sunshine  most 
of  the  day  but  with  a thun- 
dershower in  the  afternoon. 
In  summer  the  cyclones  advance  eastward 
more  slowly  than  in  winter,  because  the 
westerly  wind  is  weaker  in  summer.  The 
air  near  the  earth  becomes  very  warm, 
because  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  heated 
by  the  sun.  The  heated  air  expands  and  gets 
light  so  that  a few  cubic  miles  of  it  are  pushed 
up  by  the  heavier,  cooler  air,  very  much  as  a 
piece  of  wood  floats  in  a tub  when  water  is 
poured  in.  As  this  air  goes  up,  the  pressure 
on  it  grows  less,  with  the  result  that  it  ex- 
pands. Expanding  cools  it  again.  To  see 
that  air  is  cooled  by  expanding,  let  a little 
of  the  compressed  air  out  of  an  automobile 
tire  or  bicycle  tire,  and  notice  how  cool  the 
escaping  air  feels.  Since  cool  air  will  hold 
less  moisture  than  warm  air,  big  white  clouds 
form  in  the  heated  air  that  rises  on  a summer 
day,  just  as  little  clouds  form  over  the  spout 
of  the  boiling  teakettle.  Sometimes  the 
water  falls  as  rain;  hence  the  thunder- 
shower. 

The  lightning  of  a thunderstorm  is  the 
electricity  jumping  between  clouds  or  be- 
tween the  clouds  and  the  earth.  You  can 
make  some  electric  sparks 
by  rubbing  a rubber  comb 
against  a woolen  cloth  on  a 
cold  day.  Sometimes  if  you 

Fig.  69.  Bushels  of  com  (1919-20): 

A.  Ohio 162,440,000 

Indiana 179,910,000 

Illinois 297,580,000 

Iowa 444,900,000 

Missouri 177,140,000 

Kansas 103,440,000 

Nebraska 219,850,000 

South  Dakota 98,400,000 

1,683,660,000 

B.  The  rest  of  the  United  States 1,361,750,000 

C.  Europe  (1912-13) 632,665,500 

D.  South  America  (1918-19) 213,790,000 


Fig.  70.  Five  leading  hog-  /-  — \ 
producing  states,  1919-20:  e-OarStf,  o1'5=3tefif1 

Number  I — 1 1 i 

A.  Iowa 10,416,000  S \ / ) 

B.  Illinois 5,438,000  B 

C.  Indiana 4,622,000  I — 1 ! _ “• 

D.  Missouri 4,467,000 

E.  Ohio 4,287,000  ^ 

stroke  a cat’s  fur  in 
cold  weather  you  can  i A - — __ 

see  sparks  of  electricity  and  hear  them  snap. 
The  sparks  that  you  see  are  really  very  small 
flashes  of  lightning. 

One  big  summer  cyclone  may  cause  fifty 
or  even  a hundred  thunderstorms  to  occur 
in  a single  afternoon.  They  may  be  scattered 
over  three  or  four  states,  each  one  may  be 
only  two  or  three  miles  wide,  but  it  may 
wet  a strip  many  miles  long  because  the 
wind  blows  it  forward.  The  storm  pours 
down  rain  as  it  goes.  Often  one  farm  will 
get  a soaking  rain,  while  a farm  a mile  away 
will  get  only  a sprinkle. 

72.  The  tornado  is  a very  small  cyclone 
blowing  with  terrible  force.  Sometimes  when 
the  thunderclouds  form  in  the  level  country 
of  the  central  part  of  the  United  States,  the 
thundercloud  rises  very  quickly,  and  the 
air  rushing  in  to  take  its  place  is  set  whirling 
in  a small  area,  like  the  water  when  it  goes 
out  of  the  bottom  of  a washbasin  or  out 
through  a hole  in  the  bottom  of  a can.  These 
small  whirling  storms  are  called  tornadoes; 
they  are  the  most  terrible  storms  of  all. 
Nothing  can  stop  them.  Sometimes  they 
blow  down  houses  and  barns,  uproot  big 
trees  and  carry  men  and  horses  for  long  dis- 
tances through  the  air.  Fortunately  these 
tornadoes  are  rarely  more  than  a quarter 
of  a mile  wide,  usually  less  than  that,  and  ex- 
tend only  a mile  or  a very  

Fig.  71.  Hogs  (number),  1919-20:  <-vi 

A.  Europe 68,596,000  1 1 

B.  Ohio 4,287,000  f 

Indiana 4,622,000 

Illinois 5,438,000  c i 1 

Iowa 10,416,000  S ''g 

Missouri 4,467,000  vf 

Kansas 2,143,000  b , 

Nebraska 3,595,000 

South  Dakota  . . 1,713,000 

36,<ftl,000 

C.  Rest  of  the  United  var— — 

States 36,474,000 

D.  South  America . . 24,437,000  h 


46 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


stead  to  have  two  fields  of 
corn.  Why  does  he  raise 
several  crops?  Because  in 
this  way  there  will  be  work 
at  different  seasons  for  him- 
self, his  teams,  and  his  ma- 
chinery. By  raising  several 
crops,  he  has  more  steady 
employment,  since  the  crops 
need  attention  at  different 
times. 

A farmer  often  plans  his 
work  as  follows.  In  spring, 
when  the  snow  melts,  and 
the  ground  dries  so  that  it 
can  be  worked  without  be- 
coming lumpy,  the  fanner, 
while  the  weather  is  yet  cool,  prepares  his 
last  year’s  cornfield  for  oats.  Oats  like  cool 
weather.  Next,  he  plows  a field  for  corn, 
and  when  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  he  plants 
that  heat-loving  crop.  The  oat  crop  requires 
no  work  from  planting  time  until  harvest, 
so  the  months  of  May  and  June  are  free 
for  busy  times  in  the  cornfield.  The  young 
corn  plants  must  be  cultivated  repeatedly  to 
keep  out  the  weeds,  which  otherwise  would 
take  the  plant  food  away  from  the  corn. 
By  late  June  or  early  July,  when  the  weeds 
in  the  cornfield  are  killed,  the  corn  plants 
are  as  high  as  the  farmer’s  waist  and  need 


Fig.  72.  United  States  winter  wheat  acreage.  Note  a climate  line. 

few  miles.  It  is  fortunate  that  they  seldom 
occur.  Out  of  1000  thunderstorms,  999 
bring  merely  rain  and  cooler  weather  with- 
out a tornado. 

73.  The  thundershower  and  summer 
rain. — The  thundershowers  provide  most  of 
the  summer  rain  in  all  of  the  states  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  They  are  very  good  for 
crops  because  they  give  moisture;  but  since 
they  are  soon  over,  their  clouds  do  not  for  long 
keep  away  the  sunshine  which  is  so  necessary 
for  good  plant  growth.  Taken  all  together, 
the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt  has  a 
climate  which  is  very  favorable  for  the  farmer. 

74.  The  four-crop  farm.— 

Look  at  the  resources  this 
region  possesses:  rich  soil; 
smooth,  nearly  level  land; 
good  rainfall,  and  a health- 
ful climate.  No  wonder  it  is 
the  greatest  food-producing 
region  in  North  America. 

Many  of  the  farms  in  this 
great  region  are  still  one- 
fourth  of  a square  mile  in 
size,  and  contain  160  acres. 

The  farmer  often  has  four 
fields — one  field  in  corn,  one 
in  wheat  or  oats,  one  in  hay, 
and  one  in  pasture.  Some- 
times the  farmer  has  no  Fig-  '73,  A hay  loader  at  work  in  Iowa.  The  two-wheeled  rake  in  the  rear  piles 
. „ . , , “ . . the  hay  into  a long  windrow  or  pile.  The  loader  drags  the  hay  up  the  incline, 

pasture  field,  choosing  in-  and  the  men  place  it  on  the  wagon. 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


47 


no  more  care  until  harvest- time.  Wheat, 

oats,  and  hay  now  ripen,  and  the  farmer 
is  very  busy  cutting  these  crops  and  putting 
them  into  barns  or  stacks. 

Soon  the  threshing  machine,  drawn  by  a 
tractor  that  is  to  run  it,  comes  groaning  up 
the  dusty  road  to  thresh  the  oats  or  wheat. 

In  August  the  Corn  Belt  farmer  has  a 
little  vacation,  and  can  cut  the  weeds  along 
the  roadside,  repair  the  fences,  and  visit  his 
friends.  In  September,  October,  and  No- 
vember, he  is  busy  again,  harvesting  the  corn 
and  planting  winter  wheat.  The  farm  wagon 
must  be  filled  many  times  to  take  the  ears  of 
corn  from  the  field  to  the  corncrib.  Some- 
times there  are  as  many  as  eighty  or  one 
hundred  bushels  on  each  of  the  acres  planted 
in  com.  As  you  travel  through  Ohio,  In- 
diana, Illinois,  and  Iowa  in  the  summer,  you 
see  fields  of  corn,  corn,  corn,  until  you  wonder 
what  can  be  done  with  it  all. 

In  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the 
Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt,  the 
farmer  usually  grows  oats  in  addition  to 
corn,  because  (1)  oats  love  moisture,  and  do 
well  in  cool  places;  (2)  they  usually  follow 
corn  in  the  scheme  of  crop  rotation,  and 
(3)  they  are  used  as  the  feed  crop  for  work 
animals.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  this 
region,  a farmer  usually  raises  wheat,  much 
wheat,  instead  of  oats,  because  it  does  well 


with  less  rain  than  corn  or  oats  require. 
Here  wheat  is  planted  in  the  autumn,  lives 
through  the  winter,  and  is  harvested  in  June 
and  July. 

75.  Farm  animals. — In  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt, 
near  Chicago  and  other  markets,  the  farmer 
often  sends  his  corn,  oats,  and  hay  to  the 
city  to  be  sold.  But  farther  west,  in  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  most  of 
the  corn,  oats,  and  hay  are  fed  to  the  animals 
on  the  farm,  so  that  instead  of  having  to  pay 
freight  on  ten  pounds  of  corn  and  hay,  the 
farmer  pays  freight  on  only  one  pound  of 
pork  or  beef.  The  animal,  you  see,  is  an 
economical  way  of  sending  the  bulkier  prod- 
uce to  market.  The  maps  of  corn  produc- 
tion and  hog  production  (Figs.  56,  58)  show 
that  this  grain  and  these 
animals  are  produced  in 
the  same  places;  indeed, 
the  corn  may  be  said  to 
make  the  pork. 

Corn  also  makes  the  beef 
and  mutton.  Each.'-  year 
hundreds  of  thousands  of 
sheep  and  cattle  come  east 
by  train  from  the  ranches 
in  the  dry  western  country 
to  the  Corn  Belt  farms,  to 
eat  and  become  fat.  In 
July  a farmer  may  have  no 
animals  except  his  team, 
but  late  in  summer  he  may 
buy  sixty  cattle  or  five 
hundred  sheep  to  be  fat- 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 

Fig.  74.  Horse  power  cuts  the  hay,  rakes  it  up,  drags  it  to  the  stack  and 
pulls  the  rope  (at  right)  that  lifts  and  drops  the  hay  on  the  stack. 


48 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  77.  An  airplane  view  of  the  plant  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co., 
Dayton,  Ohio.  Name  the  cities  of  Ohio  which  are  larger  than  Dayton. 
Locate  each.  Which  has  the  best  opportunity  for  trade? 


Courtesy  National  Cash  Register  Co. 


tened  in  the  winter  and  sold 
in  the  spring.  These  ani- 
mals arrive  lean,  but  after 
a few  months  of  fattening 
on  the  Corn  Belt  farm  they 
are  sent  on  to  the  meat- 
packing plants  in  the  cities, 
especially  to  Chicago,  Cin- 
cinnati, St.  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  and  Omaha.  There  a 
pig  or  an  ox  is  made  into  more 
than  a hundred  different 
commercial  products.  Noth- 
ing is  wasted.  Even  the 
bones  are  made  into  knife 
and  brush-handles,  buttons, 
and  bone  meal  for  fertilizer. 

76.  Cities. — There  are  few  very  large  cities 
in  this  region.  (Figs.  21, 54.)  The  nearly  level 
farmland  on  the  Prairies  makes  it  easy 
for  railroads  to  reach  any  point;  therefore, 
in  this  region  one  place  is  about  as  good  for 
a city  as  another.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  many  of  the  cities  are  about  the  same 
size.  Columbus,  Indianapolis,  Kansas  City, 
Omaha,  Des  Moines,  and  Topeka  are  rail- 
road centers  for  shipping  corn  and  animals 
from  surrounding  farms;  each  has  meat- 


Photo.  Louis  R.  Bostwick,  Omaha,  Neb. 

Fig.  76.  Stockyards  in  Omaha,  Nebr.  Name  other 
cities  in  the  Corn  Belt  that  have  stockyards. 


packing  plants,  factories  for  making  farming 
implements,  and  many  wholesale  and  retail 
stores  to  supply  the  surrounding  country. 

St.  Louis  has  become  larger  than  any  of 
the  other  cities,  because  there  steamboats 
can  help  the  railroads  with  the  traffic.  The 
city  has  a great  wholesale  trade  with  the  rich 
region  to  the  southwest.  It  has  a lumber 
supply  from  the  Ozark  Plateau  (Fig.  21),  and 
its  factories,  employing  thousands  of  people, 
manufacture  machinery,  shoes,  clothing,  and 
many  other  articles. 

St.  Louis  has  not  grown  so  rapidly  in  the 
last  twenty  years  as  have  Chicago,  Detroit, 
and  New  York,  which  are  located  where 
summers  are  cooler,  and  where  deep-water 
steamships  can  help  to  move  freight.  (Fig. 
315.)  We  shall  find  later  (Sec.  321)  that  Chi- 
cago, which  is  just  outside  the  Prairie  Corn 
and  Small  Grain  Belt,  is  largely  supported 
by  products  from  and  trade  with  this  region. 

77.  Extending  the  Corn  Belt. — The  area 
of  the  corn  country  is  increasing  because 
people  are  learning  to  grow  corn  farther 
north  and  farther  west.  New  and  improved 
varieties  of  corn  are  being  found,  some  of 
which  need  less  water  than  the  old  varieties. 
(Sec.  108.)  For  this  reason  the  Corn  Belt 
is  steadily  creeping  westward  into  the  land 
of  less  rain. 

Some  new  varieties  grow  more  quickly 
than  the  old  varieties,  and  therefore  can 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


49 


ripen  in  the  shorter  summer  of  the  north. 
For  this  reason  the  Corn  Belt  is  creeping 
steadily  north  as  well  as  west.  Several  weeks 
before  it  is  ripe  enough  to  use  as  grain,  the 
whole  corn  plant  can  be  put  into  a silo  (Fig. 
55)  and  kept.  How  does  the  silo  move  the 
northern  limit  of  the  Corn  Belt? 

78.  Agricultural  future  of  the  region. — 
There  is  no  other  such  grain  belt  in  the  entire 
world.  Land  does  not  increase,  but  popula- 
tion does.  Consequently  the  world  wants 
each  year  more  wheat  and  meat,  and  the 
price  of  these  foods  has  been  rising  most  of 
the  time  since  1900.  The  Prairie  Corn  and 
Small  Grain  Belt  sends  these  products  to 
nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States  which 
lies  to  the  eastward  and  southward.  Europe 
and  the  West  Indies  also  buy  them.  The 
high  price  of  produce  makes  the  American 
farmer  able  to  pay  a higher  price  for  his 
farm.  Thus  land  that  was  given  away  in 
1860  and  1870  is  now  worth  as  much  as  $200 
or  even  $300  an  acre.  What  does  it  cost  to 
get  a 160-acre  farm  now?  What  did  it  cost 
fifty  or  sixty  years  ago?  (Sec.  54.) 

This  region  is  unlike  the  Cotton  Belt  and 
Florida  in  that  nearly  all  the  land  is  already 
in  use.  To  obtain  more  produce  the  farming 
methods  are  being  steadily  improved,  and 
crop  yields  are  increasing  year  by  year.  But 
strange  to  say,  the  farm  population  is  de- 


Fig.  79.  Can  you  explain  how  this  Missouri  farmer  is 
getting  his  wagonload  of  corn  ready  for  market?  Pork 
from  our  Prairie  States  is  an  important  export. 

creasing  in  many  sections.  One  reason  for 
this  is  that  so  many  new  machines  have  been 
invented  for  doing  farm  work.  The  most 
important  new  farm-machine  is  the  tractor. 
(Fig.  17.)  By  means  of  it  and  other  ma- 
chines, the  farmer  can  cultivate  more  acres, 
and  therefore  he  needs  less  help.  This  is 
one  reason  why  the  farm  population  is  de- 
clining in  numbers.  Each  year  people  move 
from  the  farms  of  this  region  to  Canada,  to 
our  own  western  states,  and  to  the  cities  in 
many  parts  of  our  country. 

79.  Development  of  manufacturing. — 
Thus  far  the  manufacturing  has  been  chiefly 
preparing  meat  and  cereals  for  the  market, 
and  making  machinery,  fencing,  and  farm 
supplies.  Aside  from  food 
or  machinery,  the  lead- 
ing manufactured  article 
for  shipment  to  other  re- 
gions is  automobile  tires, 
of  which  Akron  is  the  chief 
manufacturing  center  in 
the  United  States.  Manm 
facturing  in  general  is  in- 
creasing, especially  in  the 
cities  of  the  eastern  part  of 
this  region.  The  coal  map 
(Fig.  44)  shows  the  loca- 
tion of  good  supplies  of 
coal. 

This  region  is  rich  in 
coal  and  food;  it  is  near  to 
lumber,  iron,  and  cotton 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  78.  Partly  dressed  hogs  roll  in  steady  procession  by  a line  of  workmen. 
Each  man  does  his  special  work  on  each  carcass  as  it  is  passing. 

3—11 


50 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


them  for  this  geography;  what 
good  thing  about  the  Corn  Belt 
would  you  show  him  in  each 
picture? 

Part  II.  Ohio  Valley 
80.  Location  and  climate. 
— The  Ohio  Valley  region 
(Fig.  21)  has  three  sides. 
What  regions  bound  it? 
The  summer  is  much  like 
that  of  the  neighboring 
regions, — warm  with  fre- 
quent rains — a good  cli- 
mate for  crops.  The  winter 
is  a mixture  of  Corn  Belt 
winter  and  Cotton  Belt 


Fig.  80.  Can  you  tell  how  navigable  rivers  may  help  the  Central  Farming  winter.  One  day  the  Warm 
Region  in  the  future?  Compare  with  political  maps  and  cities  map.  (Fig.  314.)  sout^  wjn(j  ^]ows  up  from 


districts.  As  wool  and  rubber  are  light  and 
easy  to  carry  they  can  readily  be  imported. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Complete  the  following  chart: 

How  Mother  Nature’s  Helpers  Aid 
the  Corn-Belt  Farmer. 


Names  of  Helpers. 

Soil 

Surface 

Temperature 

Cyclones 

Rivers 

Glacier 


What  Work  They  Do. 


2.  Tell  why  the  Corn  Belt  has  become  the  home  for 
thousands  of  domestic  animals.  3.  How  were  the 
boundaries — north,  south,  east,  west — for  the  Corn 
Belt  determined?  4.  What  do  you  mean  by  rotation 
of  crops?  Why  does  the  farmer  rotate  his  crops? 
Tell  how  a Corn  Belt  farmer  rotates  his  crops.  5. 
How  many  states  in  this  region  have  coal?  (Fig.  44.) 
In  which  parts  of  this  region  have  manufacturing 
industries  the  best  chance  to  increase? 

6.  Suppose  your  town  newspaper  has  engaged  you 
to  hike  across  country  from  Akron,  Ohio,  to  Wichita, 
Kansas.  Write  the  story  of  your  journey  through  the 
Corn  Belt  towns  and  cities.  7.  If  a high  range  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  extended  eastward  to  South 
Carolina  just  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  what 
would  be  the  climate  of  the  Corn  Belt? 

8.  Corn  goes  to  market  “on  the  hoof.”  Explain. 
9.  How  do  the  people  in  the  Corn  Belt  help  to  supply 
your  needs?  What  products  does  the  region  in  which 
you  live  send  to  them?  10.  Might  these  people  be 
called  your  neighbors?  Why?  11.  What  is  the 
population  of  St.  Louis?  (See  Appendix.)  of  your 
town?  Can  you  give  two  good  reasons  for  the  differ- 
ence? 12.  Imagine  you  had  taken  the  pictures  found 
in  this  chapter,  and  had  wished  Dr.  Smith  to  use 


the  Gulf,  and  a warm  rain  falls.  The  birds 
sing,  the  grass  begins  to  grow,  and  it  seems 
almost  like  spring.  The  next  day  a cold 
wind  rushes  in  from  the  north,  the  ground 
freezes,  and  you  think  you  are  in  Canada, 
so  sudden  is  the  change.  Why  is  this  winter 
weather  so  very  changeable,  with  its  mixture 
of  warm  waves  and  rains,  cold  waves  and 
snow?  (Sec.  70.)  The  snow  rarely  lies  on 
the  ground  very  long  at  a time. 

81.  Surface. — If  the  Ohio  Valley  were  as 
level  as  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain 
Belt,  it  would  be  a part  of  it,  for  corn  is  also 
the  chief  crop  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  Hills  make 
the  chief  point  of  difference  between  it  and 
its  northern  neighbor.  The  surface  of  nearly 
all  the  valley  is  composed  of  hills  so  steep  that 


Fig.  81.  Plant  of  the  Republic  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Youngs- 
town, O.  In  this  section  the  river  has  a very  flat  valley. 
Why?  (Sec.  52.)  Railroads  can  run  in  all  directions. 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


51 


Courtesy  Kentucky  Agr.  Exp.  Station 

Fig.  82.  Can  you  see  parts  of  the  original  surface  of 
this  land  that  have  not  been  cleared,  plowed,  and 
gullied?  Can  you  tell  why  the  gully  is  the  worst 
resource  destroyer  there  is?  See  Figs.  4, 491, 525. 

roads  do  not  run  due  north  and  south  or  east 
and  west,  as  they  do  in  the  Corn  Belt;  instead 
they  go  in  the  valleys  and  around  the  hills 
where  it  was  easier  to  build  them.  The  place 
at  the  north,  where  the  level  land  ends  and 
the  hills  begin,  is  the  place  where  the  glacier 
stopped  (Sec.  52).  The  hills  were  carved  out 
by  streams  running  to  the  Ohio  River. 

Originally  there  were  a few  grassy  plains 
where  deer  and  buffalo  pastured,  but  most 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  was  covered  with  glorious 
forests.  In  this  region  of  fertile  soils  and 
plentiful  rains,  walnut,  poplar,  oak,  and 
pecan  trees  grow  to  great 
size,  the  trunks  sometimes 
reaching  a diameter  of  six 
feet,  and  a height  of  a hun- 
dred feet  or  even  more. 

82.  Men  and  hills. — How 
have  men  made  a living 
in  this  hilly  country?  In 
many  places  they  cleared 
the  forest,  plowed  the  hill- 
sides, and  planted  corn,  just 
as  was  done  in  the  Corn 
Belt.  Now  most  things 
have  a good  side  and  a bad 
side,  and  this  is  true  with 
some  of  our  crops,  even  the 
very  valuable  corn  and  cot- 
ton. The  summer  rain  of 


the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  is 
splendidly  suited  to  many  crops,  but  it  needs 
watching.  Try  this.  Go  examine  school  yard, 
roadside,  or  plowed  field  after  a heavy  rain 
and  see  how  deep  are  the  little  gullies  that  this 
one  rain  has  cut  as  it  carried  bare  earth  away. 
Since  our  soil  is  mostly  made  by  the  decaying 
of  the  rock  beneath  it  and  often  only  one  inch 
of  rock  decays  in  many,  many  years  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  plow  the  hilly 
land  and  grow  such  cultivated  crops  as  corn, 
tobacco  and  cotton,  without  having  the  soil 
wash  away  faster  than  it  is  made.  In  parts 
of  many  foreign  countries  the  soil  has  been 
all  carried  away,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  the  hill  lands  are  already  much 
less  productive  than  the  level  lands.  What 
is  the  cure?  Three  things  in  the  Ohio  Valley 
give  answer — the  sheep  and  apples  mentioned 
below,  and  a new  tree  crop  agriculture. 
(Sec.  87.) 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  the  farmers 
of  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  West  Virginia 
have  found  a better  way  to  use  their  hills. 
Instead  of  plowing  them,  they  allow  thick 
grass  to  grow.  With  its  roots  it  holds  the  earth 
in  place,  and  with  its  tops  it  pastures  many 
flocks  of  sheep.  This  section  has  prospered 
and  has  become  famous  for  its  merino  sheep, 
a Spanish  breed,  producing  heavy  fleeces  of 
long,  fine,  soft  wool.  (Figs.  84,  627.) 


Courtesy.  Ohio  Exp.  Station 

Fig.  83.  Rolling  hill  country  of  Ohio  Valley.  Compare  with  Figs.  2,  4 and  82. 
Name  the  states  in  which  these  hills  may  be  seen.  (Fig.  21.) 


52 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


In  parts  of  southern  Ohio  the  farmers  are 
now  able  to  grow  apples  on  their  hills  with- 
out gullying  and  ruining  the  land.  Some 
years  ago  a professor  in  the  Ohio  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  found  some  orchards  on 
hihs  where  the  land  had  become  so  poor  that 
the  trees  would  not  grow  an  inch  a year,  or 
produce  any  fruit.  He  fed  each  of  the  trees 
with  a few  handfuls  of  nitrate  of  soda,  which 
is  a commercial  fertilizer,  rich  in  nitrogen. 
Then  the  trees  fairly  jumped,  and  sent  out 
twigs  a foot  and  a half  long  the  first  season. 
The  next  year  they  bore  fruit.  Now  hun- 
dreds of  acres  of  these  grass-covered  hills 
are  dark  green  in  summer  with  the  healthy 
leaves  of  well-fed  apple  trees.  In  the 
autumn  the  trees  are  heavy  with  fruit. 

83.  Limestone  plains. — In  the  midst  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  are  two  nearly  level  plains, 
with  land  so  rich  that  the  districts  are  famous 
for  agriculture.  The  rock  beneath  the  soil 
of  these  plains  is  limestone.  We  saw  in  the 
Black  Belt  of  Alabama  and  the  Black  Land 
of  Texas,  that  limestone  forms  a fertile  soil 
when  it  decays.  These  plains,  each  several 
thousand  square  miles  in  extent,  are  the 
Nashville  Basin  and  the  Kentucky  Blue 
Grass  Region.  Nashville  is  the  center  of 
the  Nashville  Basin;  Lexington  is  the  center 
of  the  Blue  Grass  District.  If  trees  are  not 
allowed  to  shade  the  ground,  the  Blue  Grass 
Region  becomes  covered  with  a tough,  thick 
turf  of  a bluish-green  grass,  which  is  excellent 


Fig.  85.  A Kentucky  tobacco  farmer  hanging  up  green 
tobacco  to  cure  in  the  tobacco  shed.  Why  is  Louisville 
the  world’s  greatest  tobacco  market?  (Fig.  54.) 


for  pasture.  For  many  years  this  limestone 
plain  was  famous  as  the  place  where  the 
finest  carriage  and  race  horses  in  the  United 
States  were  raised.  The  automobile  has 
hurt  this  business;  consequently,  the  beau- 
tiful horses  are  now  seen  in  only  a few 
places,  and  the  rest  of  the  Blue  Grass  Region 
raises  splendid  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  tobacco, 
and  hemp.  Hemp  is  a plant  from  whose  big 
stalk  the  fibers  are  taken  to  make  cheap  rope. 

The  limestone  plains  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  and  also  some 
of  the  hilly  sections  of  the 
Ohio  Valley  have  many 
thousands  of  acres  of 
tobacco,  making  this  re- 
gion the  leading  tobacco 
section  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  city  of 
Louisville  the  greatest  to- 
bacco market  in  the  world. 
Each  year  tobacco  buyers 
from  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe 
come  here  to  buy  supplies. 

Tobacco  is  a crop  need- 
ing much  labor  of  the 


Courtesy  A.  C.  Bigelow 

Fig.  84.  Sheep  breakfasting  on  com  fodder  in  wintertime.  In  summer 
these  sheep  make  good  use  of  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio  hills. 
(Sec.  82.)  In  how  many  ways  may  com  and  grass  be  sent  to  market? 


THE  CENTRAL  FARMING  REGION 


kind  that  boys,  girls,  and  women  can  do. 
Many  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  help  grow 
tobacco  do  not  go  to  school  very  much.  The 
tobacco  plant  takes  so  much  plant  food  that 
it  leaves  the  soil  poor.  The  grower  usually 
waits  several  years  before  growing  tobacco  a 
second  time  on  the  same  field,  and  even  then 
it  must  be  heavily  fertilized. 

The  rocks  beneath  these  two  limestone 
regions,  as  in  other  limestone  regions,  are 
honeycombed  with  caves.  (Fig.  19.)  One 
of  these  is  the  famous  Mammoth  Cave,  in 
Kentucky,  a wonder  of  nature  which  many 
tourists  go  to  see.  In  this  cave  people  can 
go  boating  on  the  stream  that  helped  to 
carry  away  the  limestone  and  make  the  cave. 

84.  Flood  plains. — Along  the  Ohio  River 
and  its  branches  in  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois,  wide  areas  of  lowland  are  covered 
from  time  to  time  by  muddy  flood-waters 
from  the  overflowing  rivers.  Then  people 
go  about  in  boats  in  the  woods  and  fields 
for  miles  and  miles.  These  floods  sometimes 
raise  the  river-level  as  much  as  fifty  feet  at 
Cincinnati.  When  the  water  goes  down,  it 
leaves  on  the  flooded  land  a layer  of  mud 
rich  enough  to  fertilize  many  heavy  crops  of 
corn,  so  that  com  is  grown  there  year  after 
year  (Sec.  587).  Sometimes  an  occasional 
summer  or  autumn  flood  spoils  the  crop,  but 
this  happens  so  rarely  that  these  cornlands 
of  the  flood-plains  are  very  valuable. 


Courtesy  Ohio  Exp.  Station 


Fig.  87.  Crop  from  two  rows  of  apple  trees  ready  for 
market  in  a southern  Ohio  hilltop  orchard.  One  row  of 
trees  had  nitrate  of  soda.  The  other  had  none.  (Sec. 

82.)  Do  you  think  it  pays  to  use  fertilizer?  Why? 

85.  Transportation  and  cities. — No  region 
of  the  United  States,  except  the  plain  along 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  has  rivers  so  well  placed 
for  good  boat  service.  Make  a sketch  map 
of  this  district,  marking  the  navigable  rivers 
(Fig.  80)  with  double  lines.  The  Ohio  has 
been  an  important  highway  since  the  days 
of  the  first  settlement  of  the  country  west  of 
the  Appalachians.  Kentucky  was  the  first 
state  west  of  the  mountains,  and  the  first 
large  settlements  there  were  close  to  the  Ohio, 
because  its  waters  were  the  great  highway. 
All  the  trade  that  the  settlers  had  was  by 
means  of  the  flatboats  that  took  produce 
down  the  Ohio,  but  which  could  not  be 
brought  back  again  (Sec.  9). 
Much  work  has  been  done 
to  remove  rocks  and  deepen 
the  channel,  and  many 
steamboats  and  barges  now 
carry  freight  up  and  down 
the  Ohio  very  cheaply. 
Cincinnati  and  Louisville, 
the  great  cities  of  the  Ohio 
Valley  Region,  are  on  the 
banks  of  this  stream.  Both 
have  a large  wholesale  trade 
with  the  small  towns  and 
the  country  stores,  and  each 
also  has  many  factories, 
meat-packing  plants,  ma- 
chine shops,  and  iron  works. 


54 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Cincinnati  has  also  fine  potteries  and  tan- 
neries. The  other  cities  of  the  Ohio  Valley 
Region  are  smaller  than  the  two  great  river 
ports.  Nashville  is  the  capital  of  Tennessee; 
Lexington  is  a horse  market;  and  Evansville 
is  a great  market  for  hardwood  lumber,  some 
of  which  is  brought  on  rafts  and  steamboats 
from  the  forested  hills  of  Kentucky  and  from 
the  Appalachian  Plateau.  Wheeling,  Parkers- 
burg, and  Huntington,  West  Virginia,  in  the 
upper  part  of  this  district,  are  among  the 
many  towns  which  manufacture  iron,  steel, 
and  glass.  The  coal  mines  of  southeastern 
Ohio,  and  West  Virginia,  and  natural  gas  help 
the  growth  of  manufacturing  in  this  section. 

86.  Resources  for  manufacturing. — The 
Ohio  Valley  has  great  resources  for  manu- 
facturing. Coal  is  at  hand  in  West  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Tennessee.  An- 
other coalfield  underlies  a part  of  Kentucky 
and  Indiana  (Fig.  44).  Explain  how  its 
location  between  the  North  and  the  South 
gives  it  an  unusual  food  supply.  Look  at 
the  map  of  navigable  rivers  (Fig.  80)  and 
explain  how  it  has  unusual  transport  advan- 
tage for  an  inland  region.  Cotton,  wood, 
iron,  food,  and  power  are  at  hand.  What  will 
result  from  the  building  of  a canal  from  the 
Ohio  to  Lake  Erie  as  is  now  planned? 

87.  A possible  new  agriculture. — One  of 
man’s  great  discoveries  is  the  art  of  grafting 
and  budding  trees.  By  this  means  a million 
bitter-fruited  thorny  orange  trees  have  been 
given  thornless  and  sweet-fruited  tops  like 
the  one  original  seedless  navel  orange  tree 
from  which  they  all  came.  The  same  thing 
has  been  done  with  the  Baldwin  apple  and 
many  other  fruits.  After  centuries  of  failure, 
men  have  recently  learned  how  to  graft  the 
nut  trees.  We  can  now  make  groves  and 
orchards  like  these  rare  best  trees.  The 
people  of  California  have  developed  many 
kinds  of  fruit  and  nut  trees  which  were  never 
known  to  the  North  American  Indians,  or 
to  the  early  settlers.  Now  a large  part  of 
the  state  is  devoted  to  growing  these  new 
products,  and  the  state  is  famous  for  its 
wonderful  wealth  from  these  sources.  The 
Ohio  Valley  offers  us  a rich  start  for  a new 


tree-crop  agriculture.  It  has  wild  hickories 
and  pecans  whose  kernels  come  out  in  whole 
halves,  walnuts  whose  meats  come  out  in 
whole  quarters. 

In  this  Ohio  Valley,  wild  persimmons,  hick- 
ory nuts,  acorns,  and  walnuts  have  fed  many 
hogs  since  white  men  came.  These  wild 
products,  called  “mast”,  fed  many  wild 
animals  in  the  time  of  the  Indians  and  before. 
Nature  invites  man  to  take  these  trees,  im- 
prove them  (Sec.  51),  and  use  them  as  a start 
in  a rich,  new  tree-crop  agriculture  which  will 
hold  the  soil  (Sec.  82),  make  food  for  animals 
and  food  for  men,  and  finally  will  yield  val- 
uable wood  and  logs. 

Experiments  here  and  there  show  that  this 
kind  of  tree  farming  may  be  very  productive. 
(Secs.  455,  559,  560.)  If  we  keep  on  with  our 
schools  and  our  scientific  agriculture,  the 
American  hills  should  surely  have  grassy 
slopes  covered  with  orchards  of  apple,  wal- 
nut, hickory,  oak,  persimmon,  cherry,  mul- 
berry, honey  locust,  and  other  fruiting  trees. 
The  cherries  can  be  dried  and  canned.  The 
mulberries  will  be  eaten  eagerly  by  pigs  and 
chickens;  the  acorns  by  the  pigs  and  sheep. 
Cattle  will  eat  honey-locust  beans  instead  of 
corn.  The  persimmon  has  long  been  a very 
important  source  of  food  in  China,  and  is 
already  to  be  found  in  American  markets. 
Many  other  kinds  of  trees  now  unused,  in 
this  country  and  in  other  countries,  may  be 
made  profitably  fruitful  if  given  the  same 
degree  of  scientific  care  as  has  been  given 
to  change  the  apple,  the  orange,  and  the 
walnut  from  unpromising  wild  trees  to  the 
splendid  varieties  we  now  have.  * 

These  trees  can  grow  on  pastured  hills, 
while  the  level  lands  in  valley,  on  hilltop,  or 
terraced  slope  (Fig.  525)  can  have  an  inten- 
sive agriculture  yielding  corn,  oats,  hay, 
garden  vegetables,  and  other  crops  for  which 
the  earth  must  be  plowed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  the  Corn  Belt?  Give  a reason  for  this 
difference.  In  which  would  you  prefer  to  live  ? 
Why?  2.  How  are  the  boundaries — west,  east, 
north,  south — determined?  3.  Where  might  a fac- 


THE  NORTHERN  WHEAT  REGION 


55 


tory  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Ohio  Valley  buy  coal? 
iron?  How  could  they  be  shipped?  4.  Complete  the 
following  chart  for  the  important  cities  of  the  Ohio 
Valley: 


Name  of  City. 

Location. 

What  I Should  Remember 
About  This  City. 

5.  Tell  why  the  winter  weather  and  the  surface  of 
the  land  make  gullies  worse  in  Tennessee  than  in  Iowa. 

6.  How  did  the  Ohio  River  and  its  tributaries  aid 
in  the  early  exploration  and  settlement  of  our  country? 
Explain  their  value  to-day.  7.  Of  what  benefit  would 
it  be  to  this  region  for  the  schools  to  organize  apple 
clubs?  8.  As  a member  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  compose  a letter  addressed  to 
the  farmers  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  suggesting  means  to 
increase  the  production  and  value  of  their  farms. 

9.  Compare  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  that  part  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  that  can  grow  corn  year  after  year, 
with  that  in  Florida.  Explain  the  difference. 

THE  NORTHERN  WHEAT  REGION 


Fig.  90.  Oat  acreage  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Compare  this  with  the  wheat  maps.  (Figs.  72,  93.) 

corn.  We  could  ride  on  for  days  and  days, 
and  go  several  hundred  miles  across  a wide, 
level,  treeless  plain,  and  every  day, 
at  almost  every  hour  of  the  day,  we 
should  see  scattered  farm  houses  and 
fields  of  wheat  and  oats.  This  sec- 
tion is  called  the  Northern  Wheat 
Region  because  here  wheat  is  the 
chief  thing  the  farmer  has  to  sell. 
Wheat  is  as  important  to  him  as 
cotton  is  to  the  farmer  of  the  Cotton 
Belt. 

We  should  notice  also  that  here 
the  wheat  was  still  green  at  a season 
when,  a short  distance  away  in  Iowa 
and  Nebraska,  wheat  was 
being  threshed.  What  is 
the  reason  for  this  differ- 
ence? Climate  gives  the 
answer.  When  is  wheat 
sown  in  the  Prairie  Corn 
and  Small  Grain  Belt? 
(Sec.  74.) 

89.  The  spring  wheat  cli- 
mate.— In  the  Northern 
Wheat  Region  the  winter 
is  so  cold  and  dry  that 
winter  wheat,  which  is  sown 
in  the  fall  (Sec.  74),  does 
not  live  well  there.  There- 
fore varieties  called  spring 
u 


J58.  General  view. — If  we  should  take  an 
automobile  journey  late  in  July  and 
travel  northwestward  through  south- 
ern Minnesota,  we  should  notice  that 
in  the  course  of  the  day’s  journey 
there  are  fewer  and  fewer  fields  of  tall, 
tasseled  corn  and  more  and  more  fields 
of  wheat.  This  would  mean  that  we 
were  crossing  one  of  those  lines  of 
gradual  change  along  which  climate 
causes  crops  to  change.  We  would  be 
leaving  the  Corn  Belt  and  entering  the 
Northern  Wheat  Region,  where  the 
summer  is  too  cool  and  too  short  for 


Fig.  89.  Rainfall  of 
Winnipeg,  Canada, 
21.7  inches  per  year. 
Can  you  explain 
how  this  rainfall 
suits  spring  wheat? 


Fig.  88.  The  world’s  wheat  acreage.  We  have  so  few  statistics  from  China 
and  Afghanistan  that  we  can  only  show  the  region  by  slanting  lines. 


Fig,  91. 


£ 

O 

u 

w 

« 


OJp20  0C'<g 


3pnq.i5.EI  ^ 3Aiq.EJEdLUO0 


lEUBJqioo 


Coconut  O^h 


h 


O 


(Eijoueijs  o 


Fig.  91. 


3pnq.15.Ei  SAiqEJEduioo 


Longitude 110° West 105° from 100° Greenwich 


58 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station 


Fig.  92.  Experiment  plats  at  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station.  There  are  several  hundred  such  experiment 
stations  in  the  world.  What  good  do  they  do?  The  trees  were  planted  to  make  a windbreak  on  the  very  flat  plain. 
Farmers  on  the  plains  often  plant  such  windbreaks.  Will  this  land  wash  away  as  hilly  land  does?  (Fig.  82.) 


wheataregrown.  Therainfallof theNorthern 
Wheat  Region  is  in  most  years  wonderfully 
suited  to  spring  wheat.  During  the  spring 
thaw,  the  soil  is  moist  enough  to  be  plowed 
easily,  and  there  are  few  rains  to  disturb  the 
planting,  which  is  done  in  April  and  May; 
hence  the  name,  spring  wheat.  Most  of  the 
rainfall  of  the  year  comes  within  a few 
months  after  the  wheat  is  planted  (Fig.  89) 
and  the  wheat  plants  grow  like  tall,  thick 
grass.  Wheat  and  all  the  other  grain  plants 
are  just  big  grasses.  In  late  summer  the  rains 
grow  less  at  the  very  time  when  the  wheat 

needs  the 
sunshine 
and  dry 
weather  to 
ripen  it. 

90.  Sur- 
face and 
soil. — The 
best  part 
of  this 
Northern 
Wheat  Re- 
gion is  the 
Red  River 
Valley  of 


the  North,  comprising  part  of  Minnesota, 
part  of  North  Dakota,  and  a large  area 
in  Manitoba.  As  the  glacier  (Fig.  53)  that 
once  covered  northern  North  America  slowly 
melted  away,  it  stood  as  a dam  across  this 
valley.  What  is  now  the  Red  River  Valley 
was  then  a very  large  lake  of  muddy  glacial 
water,  which  had  an  outlet  over  the  divide 
into  the  Minnesota  River  (Fig.  54).  When 
the  glacier  finally  melted,  the  water  of  this 
lake  flowed  into  Hudson  Bay,  leaving  the 
old  lake  bed  a plain  so  flat  that  often  you 
can  not  guess  which  way  its  waters  will  flow. 
The  soil  is  rich  and  as  soft  and  fine  as 
meal,  for  it  is  made  of  the  mud  that 
settled  on  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  There 
are  no  forests  on  most  of  this  land.  There 
is  no  better  place  in  the  whole  world  to  use 
farm  machines,  for  there  is  not  a stick,  stone, 
stump,  root,  or  hill  to  interfere  with  their 
work. 

Northwestward  from  this  wide,  flat  valley, 
the  wheat  region  extends  on  over  tens  of 
thousands  of  square  miles  of  other  good  land 
very  much  like  that  of  the  Prairie  Corn  and 
Small  Grain  Belt.  The  region  yields  large 
crops  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  flax- 
seed. 


Fig.  93.  Spring  wheat  acreage  of  the 
United  States.  Compare  this  with  the 
winter  wheat  map.  (Fig.  72.) 


Fig.  94 


60 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co- 

Fig.  95.  A hay  rake  and  hay  wagon  in  South  Dakota.  How  many  of  the 
workers  in  this  picture  might  be  replaced  by  the  tractor  seen  in  Fig.  73? 


91.  Bounds. — Most  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  Northern 
Wheat  Region  are  made  by 
climate.  We  do  not  know 
just  where  they  are,  because 
weather  is  always  uncertain, 
and  men  have  not  been  in 
the  Northwest  long  enough 
to  become  fully  acquainted 
with  the  climate.  Men  are 
learning  more  and  more 
about  raising  crops  in  new 
countries,  so  that  land  once 
thought  to  be  useless  is  now 
divided  up  into  good  farms. 

The  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Northern  Wheat  Region 
is  the  eastern  edge  of  the  plain  and  the 
beginning  of  a rough,  rocky  country.  (Sec. 
333.)  The  northern  boundary  is  the  line 
where  the  summer  becomes  too  short  for 
grain  to  ripen.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
wheat  belt  the  grassy  plain  is  dotted  with 
small  ponds,  lakes,  and  clumps  of  trees.  As 
you  go  north,  the  trees  increase  in  number, 
until  finally  the  whole  plain  is  covered  with 
a forest  that  extends  many  hundreds  of 
miles  to  the  northward.  The  southern  part 
of  this  forest  may  some  day  be  cleared  and 
turned  into  farms,  if  the  climate  is  found 
to  be  suitable,  and  if  more  room  for  farms 
is  needed.  Here  and  there  in  a forest  clear- 


ing as  far  north  as  60°  N.  latitude,  some 
fur  trader  raises  a little  field  of  wheat. 

The  western  boundary  is  made  in  part 
by  a wall  of  mountains,  the  easterly  range  of 
the  Rockies.  Through  southern  Alberta, 
southern  Saskatchewan,  western  North  Da- 
kota, and  western  South  Dakota  the  boun- 
dary is  made  by  another  climate  line,  the 
place  where  the  summers  are  so  often  too  dry 
for  a good  crop  of  wheat  that  the  farmers 
rarely  try  to  grow  it  there. 

92.  Free  land. — This  vast  northern  plain 
is  the  only  remaining  place  in  North  America 
where  settlers  can  still  go  and  have  good, 
productive  land  given  to  them  for  nothing. 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  96.  A frontiersman’s  sod  house  and  barn  in  Saskatchewan.  No  other  cheap  prairie  house  is  so  warm.  Why? 

n 


THE  NORTHERN  WHEAT  REGION  61 


In  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  land  was  being  given  away 
in  the  upper  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri Valleys.  (Sec.  54.)  Then  the 
railroads  were  extended  northward, 
and  the  rush  to  the  new  frontier 
carried  settlers  through  Dakota 
and  Minnesota  into  Manitoba. 

New  railroads  are  now  being  built 
northward  across  the  plains  of 
Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  where 
empty  land  still  awaits  the  coming 
of  the  settler. 

93.  The  settler’s  life  on  the 
prairies. — When  the  new  settler 
goes  to  live  on  the  160  acres  of 
land  given  to  him  by  the  Cana- 
dian government,  he  finds  that  in 
June  his  land  is  a level  expanse 
of  green  grass,  dotted  with  bright 
flowers.  If  the  settler  wants  to 
save  money  and  yet  build  a house 
quickly,  he  may  make  a house  of 
sod  and  buy  only  the  windows  and 
doors.  The  plow  turns  over  a strip 
of  prairie  sod  three  or  four  inches  Fis-  97 • 
thick  and  a foot  wide.  It  is  not  much  work 
to  chop  the  sod  strip  into  lengths  with  a 
spade  and  then  to  build  the  house.  Even 
the  roof  is  sometimes  made  of  sods,  which 
are  placed  upon  poles  brought  from  the 
banks  of  a stream  or  lake,  or  hauled  by 
wagon  from  the  railroad  station  perhaps 
twenty  miles  away.  The  “soddie”  (Fig.  96) 


of  the  new  settler  is  the  cheapest 
warm  house  of  the  plains. 

The  settler  needs  only  a small 
bam  to  shelter  his  team,  tools, 
and  cow,  because  for  a few  years 
he  will  grow  only  wheat  or  flax- 
seed. After  the  grain  has  been 
threshed,  it  can  be  covered  up 
with  straw  for  a few  days  or 
weeks,  until  it  can  be  hauled  to 
the  grain  elevator  at  the  railroad 
station. 

Frost  comes  early  in  September, 
and,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
region,  the  ground  freezes  hard 
in  October,  so  the  winter  is  long 
and  lonely.  Every  few  days,  for 
many  weeks,  the  thermometer  is 
from  twenty  to  forty  degrees 
below  zero.  The  bitter  cold  bliz- 
zard winds  sweep  with  fury  across 
the  treeless  plain. 

94.  The  cliinook  wind. — If  the 
settler  lives  near  the  foot  of  the 
Rockies,  he  has  from  time  to  time 
in  the  winter  a queer  warm  wind, 
called  the  chinook.  It  blows  down  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  mountains.  In  the  evening 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow;  in  the  morn- 
ing the  snow  is  melted  and  gone.  Because  of 
the  chinook,  the  western  part  of  the  Cana- 
dian plains  has  warm  days  in  winter  and  less 
snow  cover  than  has  the  eastern  part. 

95.  Grain  and  dairy  farming. — Wheat  is 


A head  of  oats. 


Courtesy  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada 

Fig.  98.  Plowing  the  flat  plains  of  southern  Saskatchewan.  Tractors  often  have  twenty  to  forty  horse  power. 


62 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


the  chief  crop,  because  it  is  the  most  valuable 
grain  that  will  grow  in  the  region;  but  oats, 
barley,  and  rye  are  also  grown,  for  they  do 
not  have  to  be  harvested  at  the  same  time 
as  the  wheat.  On  many  of  the  wheat  farms 
there  is  a herd  of  dairy  cows.  Cattle-keeping 
in  this  region  differs  from  that  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain 
Belt.  The  winter  is  shorter  in  the  com  dis- 
tricts, and  there  cattle  can  find  their  own 
living  for  a longer  time  than  in  the  north. 
Since  animals  must  be  fed  in  bams  from 
September  to  May,  farmers  in  the  Northern 
Wheat  Region  must  have  animals  that  give 
great  returns.  The  cow  with  her  milk  yields 
more  return  than  an  animal  which  is  kept  and 
fed  for  two  or  three  years  and  is  then  sold  for 
meat  only.  The  farmer  has  time  to  milk 
cows  in  the  winter;  so  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese  are  more  important  to  the  people  in 
the  new  country  of  the  Northern  Wheat  Re- 
gion than  to  those  in  the  longer-settled  re- 
gions of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Missouri. 

96.  The  potato. — The  short,  cool,  damp 
summers  and  the  soft,  mealy  soil  of  this 
region  exactly  suit  the  potato  plant.  There 
is  probably  no  place  in  the  world  where 
potatoes  can  be  grown  more  easily.  Before 
the  World  War  they  were  grown  in  the  Red 
River  Valley  at  a cost  of  twenty-five  cents 
a bushel.  The  potato,  however,  is  so  heavy 
and  so  easily  spoiled  by  freezing  that  in 


cold  countries  it  cannot  be 
shipped  for  great  distances. 
For  these  reasons  the  people 
of  the  eastern  cities  get  their 
supply  of  potatoes  from 
nearer  home.  North  Amer- 
ica could  easily  grow  forty 
times  as  many  potatoes  as 
it  does,  but  we  do  not  need 
them  yet.  As  a result,  much 
potato  land  of  the  north  and 
west  is  unused. 

97.  Government  aid. — 
The  Canadian  states  are 
called  provinces.  Their 
governments  do  many 
things  to  help  the  citizens 
with  business  affairs.  They  help  farmers 
to  buy  good,  pure  seed,  and  cattle  of  good 
breeding.  In  some  cases  government  cream- 
eries are  ran  to  help  farmers  sell  their  milk. 
There  are  many  agricultural  colleges  and 
schools,  and  men  in  experiment  stations  are 
teaching  the  people  better  ways  of  farming. 

98.  Transportation  and  cities. — The  early 
settlers  near  the  Atlantic  coast  could  market 
some  of  their  produce  by  water,  but  the 
Northern  Wheat  Belt  is  so  far  from  the 
coast  that  it  had  to  remain  unsettled,  the 
roaming  ground  of  the  buffalo  and  the  hunt- 
ing ground  of  the  Indian,  until  the  railroads 
came.  The  railroad  brought  the  wheat- 
grower  to  the  new  land,  and  now  on  every 
autumn  day  tens  of  thousands  of  farmers’ 
wagons  haul  wheat  from  threshing  machines 


Courtesy  Dept,  of  Immigration  and  Colonization,  Ottawa,  Canada 

Fig.  100.  School  children  with  their  banners  at  an  agri- 
cultural fair  in  Alberta. 


THE  NORTHERN  WHEAT  REGION 


63 


Fig.  101.  Wheat  production,  1918- 
19:  (Average 

bushels) 

B.  Northern  Wheat  Region 

Minnesota 56,053,500 

North  Dakota 80,436,000 

South  Dakota 46,167,500 

Manitoba  (Canada)  45,698,500 

Saskatchewan 95,213,000 

Alberta 24,941,500 

348,510,000 

A.  All  the  rest  of 
the  United  States 
and  Canada 775,420,000 

to  railroad  stations.  Freight  trains  are 
laboring  southeastward  toward  Minneapolis 
and  Lake  Superior  with  millions  of  bushels  of 
wheat,  most  of  which  goes  to  Europe  by  way 
of  lake  boats  from  Duluth,  Minnesota,  and 
from  Port  Arthur  and  Fort  William,  Ontario. 
The  grain  reaches  the  steamboats 
late  in  the  season,  and  only  about 
one-fifth  of  it  can  be  taken  down 
to  Buffalo  and  Montreal  before  the 
lakes  freeze  over  for  the  winter. 

The  rest  of  the  grain  of  that  season 
is  stored,  and  comes  down  to  the 
Atlantic  ports  the  next  spring. 

Most  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the 


Winnipeg  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Canadian 
part  of  this  district.  It  is  located  on  the 
Red  River,  and  steamboats  bring  it  grain 
from  the  south.  It  has  the  best  location  of 
any  city  in  western  Canada.  Like  Chicago, 
Winnipeg  is  a railroad  center,  and  you  cannot 
travel  west  by  train  without  passing  through 
it.  Look  at  Fig.  308,  and  tell  why  the  rail- 
roads from  west  to  east  draw  in  at  Chicago 
like  the  rays  of  a fan.  For  how  great  a dis- 
tance do  Lake  Winnipeg  and  Lake  Winnipe- 
gosis  block  railroads  from  going  east?  (Fig. 
91.)  How  long  is  Lake  Michigan?  (Fig.  309.) 

100.  Future  agriculture. — As  the  popula- 
tion of  America  grows  larger  and  larger, 
this  region  may  become  one  of  the  three 
greatest  sources  of  food  supply. 
The  other  great  food  sources  are 
the  Central  Farming  Region  and 
the  Cotton  Belt.  Bread,  butter, 
cheese,  meat,  potatoes,  and  beets 
can  be  produced  in  the  Wheat 
Region  in  great  quantities.  There 
farm  machinery  can  help  greatly: 
the  tractor  can  do  wonders  on  such 
American  part  of  this  region  goes  Fig.  102.  The  leading  wheat-  level  land.  Thus  the  farmer  there 
to  Minneapolis  to  be  ground  into  producing  nations,  1912-13:  may  some  day  divide  his  farmland 

A'  UnStadtes.  . . 746^820 '0 C)0  into  six  fields>  raisinS  cr0Ps  in 

B.  European  regular  order  somewhat  as  follows: 

C.  BntishSia  731>260>000  (i)  wheat,  to  send  away  to  distant 
India — 366,600,000  cities;  (2)  oats;  (3)  barley;  (4) 

D Austria-  328>640>000  hay  for  his  own  horses  and  cows; 


flour,  and  to  Duluth  for  shipment 
to  our  eastern  cities. 

We  do  not  expect  to  find  many 
cities  in  a region  so  far  from  the 
sea  and  so  recently  settled  as  is 
the  Northern  Wheat  Belt.  The 
cities  are  chiefly  trading  cities,  busy  supply- 
ing the  farmers,  and  forwarding  the  grain 
that  comes  to  them  from  the  country  railroad 
stations.  The  cities  are  all  small  except 
three:  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Winnipeg. 

99.  The  wheat  cities. — Minneapolis  and 
St.  Paul,  “The  Twin  Cities,”  have  become 
the  metropolis  of  the  part  of  this  region 
which  lies  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
two  reasons  for  this:  (1)  The  head  of  navi- 
gation on  the  Mississippi  makes  a natural 
trade  center  for  a wide  region;  (2)  water- 
wheels driven  by  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony 
have  made  Minneapolis  the  great  flour-mill- 
ing center.  Have  you  seen  an  advertisement 
of  Minneapolis  flour? 


E.  Austria- 

Hungary  244,770,000  (5)  pasture  for  his  cows.  The 
sixth  field  could  be  one-half  in  beets  for  the 
cows,  and  one-half  in  potatoes  for  men. 
The  160-acre  farm  of  this  region  might  then 
yield  the  following  products  each  favorable 
year:  wheat,  25  acres,  25  bushels  per  acre; 
potatoes,  12}/2  acres,  200  bushels 
per  acre;  milk,  30  cows,  3500 
quarts  per  cow.  European  lands 
are  made  to  yield  as  much  and 

Fig.  103.  Five  leading  wheat-produc- 
ing states  in  the  United  States,  1919-20: 

(Bushels) 

A.  Kansas 144,560,000 

B.  North  Dakota 61,800,000 

C.  Nebraska 60,570,000 

D.  Illinois 52,610,000 

E.  Oklahoma 50,140,000 


64 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


1.  Account  for  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  in  the  Wheat  Belt.  Of 
what  advantage  is  its  levelness? 


© Minneapolis  Civic  and  Commerce  Assn. 

Fig.  105.  Falls  of  the  Mississippi  at  Minneapolis,  the  center  of  the  world’s 
largest  flour-mill  district.  What  advantages  bring  these  mills  to  Minneapolis? 


2.  How  have  the  Great  Lakes  helped  this  region? 

3.  Make  the  following  comparisons: 

How  I distinguish  between  different  regions. 


Topic. 

Cotton 

Belt. 

Cohn 

Belt. 

Northern 

Wheat 

Belt. 

Location 

States  in  region . . . 
Temperature: 

(a)  Jan.(Fig.328) 

(b)  July(Fig.329) 
Rainfall  (Fig.  158). 
Products: 

(a)  mineral 

(5)  agricultural . 

(c)  grazing 

( d ) forests 

Chief  cities 

QUESTIONS 


4.  Why  have  the  “Twin  Cities”  become  the 
metropolis  of  the  American  portion  of  this  region? 
Winnipeg,  of  the  Canadian  section?  5.  Can  you  find 
out  how  alcohol  may  be  made  from  potatoes?  To 
what  interesting  use  may  this  fuel  be  put?  6.  Port 
Nelson  and  Boston  are  the  same  distance  from  Liver- 
pool. Canadians  hope  to  ship  grain  to  Europe  by 
Hudson  Bay  ports.  (Fig.  94.)  How  will  this  influence 
Winnipeg,  Montreal,  the  Canadian  farmer,  and  the 
English  consumer? 

7.  Does  butter  require  more  labor  to  produce  than 
beef?  Why?  Which  costs  more  per  pound?  Which 
of  these  products  belongs  to  intensive  agriculture? 

THE  GREAT  PLAINS  AND  LOWER  RIO 
GRANDE  REGION 

Part  I.— The  Great  Plains 

102.  The  ranch  and  the  plain. — What 

regions  bound  the  Great  Plains?  (Fig.  91.)  In 


Courtesy  Winnipeg  Board  of  Trade 

Fig.  104.  Portage  Avenue,  Winnipeg.  Locate  the  city. 
(Fig.  94).  Why  may  it  be  referred  to  as  the  “Chicago 
of  Canada”? 


more  in  the  regions  where  intensive  agri- 
culture is  employed.  This  system  is  much 
like  that  in  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a good 
example  of  intensive  agriculture,  because  the 
land  produces  many  crops  and  large  yields. 

Compare  the  population  per  square  mile 
in  Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  and  the  Canadian 


provinces. 

We  do  not  at  present  need  such  great  quan- 
tities either  of  dairy  produce  or  of  potatoes; 
but  if  the  price  of  gasoline  should  go  much 
higher,  we  may  have  to  use  alcohol  to  run 
motorcars.  If  that  time  comes,  the  Northern 
Wheat  Belt  farmer  may  spend  the  winter 
haulingloads  of  frozen  pota- 
toes to  the  alcohol  distil- 
leries. 

101.  Manufacture.  — At 

present  there  is  but  little 
manufacturing  in  this  re- 
gion, although  thousands 
of  square  miles  of  this  land 
are  underlaid  with  coal.  Its 
quality  is  rather  poor,  but 
it  could  easily  be  made  to 
furnish  power  for  many 
large  manufacturing  cities. 


IVI 


N 


65 


Copyright,  The  John  C.  Winston  Co. 


Longitude 


West 


110°  from 


Greenwich 


Fig.  106. 


66 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Courtesy  Amarillo,  Texas,  Board  of  Trade 

Fig.  107.  ~ Cattle  by  a water-tank  on  the  high  plains  of  Texas.  What  does  the  windmill  do? 


this  vast  region  one  may  often  see  only  wide 
plains  without  a house  or  a crop  or  a tree. 
Here  and  there  a wire  fence  runs  in  a straight 
line  to  such  a great  distance  that  one  can  not 
see  the  end  of  it.  A man  on  horseback  comes 
riding  along  beside  the  fence.  He  wears  a 
broad-brimmed  hat  and  leggings,  and  on  his 
hands  are  gauntlets.  Tied  to  his  saddle  are  a 
coil  of  wire,  a hammer,  a bag  of  staples,  and  a 
pair  of  pinchers.  He  is  a ranchman,  riding 
around  his  fences  to  see  if  they  need  to  be 
mended.  His  ranch  covers  four  square  miles, 
but  it  has  only  about  160  cattle  on  it.  His 
house  is  down  in  a little  valley  protected  from 
the  wind.  A well  has  been  dug  and  a wind- 
mill pumps  water.  Every  day  the  cattle 
come  to  drink,  and  then  go  back  again  to 
pick  their  living  on  the  distant  pasture.  The 
ranch  is  sometimes  divided  into  three  fields: 

two  large 
ones  used 
for  graz- 
ing, and  a 
smaller  field 
in  the  valley 
where  grass 
is  allowed  to 

Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  gTOW.  This 
Fig.  108.  Alfalfa  acreage  in  the  United  j g c u £ j n 
States.  Can  you  trace  some  rivers  by 

the  strings  of  alfalfa  land?  summer  for 

u 


hay,  and  used  to  feed  the  cattle  when  snow 
covers  the  range. 

Why  does  it  take  so  large  a farm  to  sup- 
port one  family?  (Fig.  158.)  Why  is  the 
plain  treeless  from  Canada  to  Mexico,  except 
near  the 
streams 
and  in 
the  Black 
Hills?  (Sec. 

109.)  The 
grass  grows 
in  bunches, 
rather than 
in  a thick 
turf  as  it 
does  in  the 

Corn  Belt  and  on  the  Ohio  Valley  hills,  and 
is  commonly  called  “bunch  grass.” 

103.  Indians  and  buffaloes. — White  men 
have  not  been  long  in  this  region.  In  1869 
came  the  first  transcontinental  railroad,  from 
Omaha  to  San  Francisco,  built  over  wide 
plains  and  high  mountains  by  the  aid  of  the 
United  States  Government.  (Fig.  309.)  At 
that  time  the  Great  Plains  were  almost  entire- 
ly without  white  settlers.  Roving  bands  of 
Indians,  living  in  buffalo-skin  tents,  camped 
here  and  there,  hunting  deer,  antelope,  and 
buffalo,  millions  of  which  made  their  home 


Fig.  109.  Map  showing  how  Kafir  com, 
a new  crop  from  a dry  foreign  land,  is 
helping  American  farmers  in  lands  of 
light  rain.  (Sec.  108.) 


THE  GREAT  PLAINS  AND  THE  LOWER  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY  67 


mm 


_ 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  110.  Buffalo  at  home  on  the  plains  of  Alberta.  How  are  the  animals  protected  from  cold  winds? 


z 

< 

-> 

cr  c 
< 

l2< 

> 

< 

2 

3 D - 

3 0-1- 
U L 
1/3  C 

z o 

1 

ill 

ill 

flL 

III 

L 

111 

ill 

on  these  pastures.  Like  birds,  the  buffaloes 
migrated  south  in  autumn,  and  north  in  spring. 

No  one  knows  for  how  many  thousands 
and  thousands  of  years  these  animals  had 
traveled  up  and  down  the  plains  before  the 
white  man,  the  great  destroyer  of  nature, 
made  a sudden  change  in 
things.  At  first  vast  herds 
of  buffalo  sometimes 
stopped  the  trains  on  the 
new  railroad;  but  the  re- 
peating rifle  had  just  been 
invented,  and  in  a short 
time  the  hunter,  the  cow- 
boy, and  the  farmer  had 
slaughtered  so  many  buf- 
faloesthattheywerealmost 
extinct.  There  still  remains 
one  small,  wild  herd,  numbering  about 
300,  which  ran  away  into  the  forested 
country  around  Great  Slave  Lake  in  Canada, 
beyond  the  country  of  the  white  man,  and 
away  from  the  repeating  rifle.  The  only 
other  buffaloes  left  are  those  protected  by 
men  and  kept  like  cattle  in  zoological  gar- 
dens, private  parks,  and  government  pre- 
serves. There  is  a large  preserve  in  Canada, 
and  one  in  Yellowstone  Park,  Wyoming. 
The  buffaloes  are  now  increasing,  and  may 
some  day  become  again  the  beef  cattle  of 
the  plains. 

104.  Surface  and  streams. — Much  of  the 


Fig.  111.  Rainfall  of 
Pueblo,  Colo.,  12.52 
inches  per  year. 
This  is  the  Great 
Plains  type. 


surface  of  the  plains  is  so  level  that  it  seems 
absolutely  flat,  yet  careful  surveys  show  that 
it  slopes  up  toward  the  Rocky  Mountains 
a few  feet  in  every  mile.  The  eastern  edge 
of  the  plain  is  about  2000  feet  in  height. 
At  the  base  of  the  Rockies  it  is  from  5000 
to  6000  feet  high.  At  places  in  the  plain, 
layers  of  nearly  level  stone  come  to  the 
surface,  making  long  lines  of  hills,  or  breaks 
like  huge  steps,  with  the  plain  several  hun- 
dred feet  higher  to  the  west  of  the  step  than 
it  is  to  the  east  (Fig.  123). 

In  parts  of  the  Dakotas  and  Montana  are 
thousands  of  square  miles,  areas  larger  than 
New  Jersey  or  Maryland,  where  the  land 
consists  of  rolling  hills  with  clay  soil.  In 
western  Nebraska  is  another  large  area  with 
hills  of  sand  called  the  “ Sand  Hills.”  Good 
grass  grows  there  on  the  sandy  soil.  Near 
the  comer  of  Ne- 
braska and  South 
Dakota  is  another 
kind  of  country 
called  the  “Bad 
Lands,”  the  soil  of 
which  is  hard  clay. 

Much  of  it  is  en- 
tirely bare,  because  Fife leSin^Stef (Site)*: 
most  of  the  falling 


A.  Colorado 190,000 

water  runs  off  B.  Michigan  130,000 

nnicVl  v hpfnrp  C.  California 120,000 

q u i c K i y D e I o r e D JJtah 110;000 

plants  can  get  it.  E.  Nebraska 60,000 


68 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  113  The  Bad  Lands  of  South  Dakota  (Sec.  104). 

Why  was  this  once  a hiding  place  for  cattle  thieves? 

Because  the  Bad  Lands  are  without  grass,  the 
rain  has  cut  their  surface  into  thousands  and 
thousands  of  little  gulleys.  In  some  of  the 
hollows  between  the  hills,  however,  a little 
soil  gathers,  and  in  such  places  enough  pas- 
ture can  be  found  to  support  a few  cattle. 

There  are  not  many  streams  in  such  a 
level  land  of  little  rain.  A few  rivers,  fed 
by  the  snows  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  flow 
across  the  plain.  In  the  north,  where  the 
mountains  are  higher  and  there  is  more  snow, 
these  streams  are  larger  than  in  the  south. 

The  Missouri  and  South  Saskatchewan  are 
the  largest  streams  of  this  great  region. 

How  much  of  the  Missouri  is  navigable? 

(Fig.  80.) 

105.  Cattle  raising. — Some  early  settlers 
of  the  plains  tried  to  grow  wheat  and  corn, 
as  they  had  done  in  the  Corn  Belt.  On 
account  of  the  small  rainfall,  the  crops  failed 
and  cattle  and  sheep  raising  were  tried. 

These  have  proved  successful. 

The  bunch  grass  stands  on  the  plains  all 
winter,  and  is  as  good  for  the  animals  as  is  the 
hay  in  the  barn,  if  only  there  is  enough  of  it. 

There  is  so  little  snow  that 
the  grass  is  rarely  covered 
up  for  long;  and  the  cattle, 

like  the  buffalo  antelope  Slightly  modified  from  Bowman,  “Forest  Physiography” 

, i , , ’ Fig.  114.  Cross  section  from  east  to  west  through  the  Black  Hills.  It  shows 

ana  aeer,  used  to  piCK  tneir  how  underlying  rocks  pushed  and  bent  upward  the  level  rock  layers  of  the 
Own  living  on  the  plains.  Great  Plains  which  were  afterwards  worn  away  by  rains  and  streams.  B B 
T\/r  u t i i e-ii  i is  a layer  of  limestone.  In  what  part  of  this  section  is  it  the  surface  rock? 
lviucn  01  tne  land  Still  be-  Water  falling  on  A soaks  into  the  ground  and  runs  under  the  tight  layer  D, 
longs  to  the  Government  an(*  wiH  fl°w  out  °f  wells  (C)  if  their  outlet  is  lower  than  the  surface  at  A. 
, fi  r1  l S°ut.k  Dakota  has  many  artesian  wells  fed  by  Black  Hills  water.  There  are 

Decause  tne  LrOvernment  flowing  wells  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  in  Australia,  and  in  many  other  places* 


does  not  give  it  away  in  tracts  large  enough 
for  a ranch. 

Many  large  bands  of  sheep  roam  over 
the  eastern  parts  of  Wyoming  and  Montana, 
and  the  cattle-men  sometimes  fight  the 
sheep- men,  because  the  sheep  not  only  eat 
the  grass  so  closely  that  none  is  left  for  the 
cattle,  but  their  feet  also  give  out  an  oil 
that  is  so  distasteful  to  the  cattle  that  they 
will  not  eat  even  good  grass  after  sheep 
have  walked  over  it. 

106.  Irrigation  water. — It  is  easy  to  irri- 
gate the  plains  where  the  streams  bring  water 
from  the  mountains.  In  a short  time  after 
the  region  was  settled,  all  the  water  that 
flowed  in  such  rivers  as  the  Arkansas  and 
the  Platte,  was  used  up  near  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  and  long  stretches  of  good  land 
lay  dry,  begging  for  water. 

The  United  States  Government  now  helps 
with  irrigation  work  by  building  large  dams 
across  the  streams  back  in  the  mountains. 
The  part  of  the  valley  above  the  dam  fills 
up  and  becomes  a lake  or  reservoir.  Thus 
enough  water  is  held  to  irrigate  thousands  of 
farms  on  the  Great  Plains;  these  farms  then 
produce  crops  without  rain.  (See  Figs.  115, 
140.)  The  Canadian  Government  does  the 
same  thing.  It  has  built  large  irrigation 
works  on  the  South  Saskatchewan  like  those 
that  our  Government  has  made  on  the 
Missouri,  the  Big  Horn,  the  Platte,  the  Yel- 
lowstone, and  other  streams.  In  Montana, 
the  Missouri  River  in  some  places  flows 
through  a deep  valley,  which  is  so  narrow 
that  there  is  but  little  land  over  which  the 
water  can  be  made  to  flow.  But  there  is 
coal  beside  the  stream.  This  is  used  to  run 
engines  that  pump  water  up  to  the  fields  on 
the  level  plain  back  of  the  high  banks. 

B BAD  C 

1 l 


THE  GREAT  PLAINS  AND  THE  LOWER  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY  69 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 


Fig.  115.  An  irrigation  project  in  South  Dakota.  Water  is  carried  from  a river  to  a reservoir  in  another  valley. 
Why  does  the  North  Canal  wind  around  so  much?  Why  is  there  uncultivated  land  in  the  midst  of  the  irrigated 
area?  The  straight  lines  are  land-survey  lines  one  mile  apart.  Each  square  represents  a section  (a  square  mile), 
36  of  which  make  a township.  One  township  is  shown  with  each  section  numbered  as  on  the  Government  maps. 

107.  Irrigated  crops. — Alfalfa,  the  chief 
crop  grown  on  the  irrigated  land  of  all  this 
region,  makes  the  best  of  hay.  In  winter,  or 
in  seasons  of  drought  when  pasture  fails, 
sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  come  in  from  the 
pastures  on  the  dry  plains  and  are  fed  from 
the  alfalfa  stacks.  The  farmer  grows  alfalfa, 
but  he  sells  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  These 
are  the  chief  products  of  the  Plains.  It  is 
fortunate  that  the  irrigated  land  is  scattered 
in  many  rich  valleys,  so  that  the  alfalfa 
stacks  can  be  close  to  the  ranges  where  the 
sheep  and  cattle  eat  grass  to  get  a part  of 
their  living.  (Sec.  105.) 

In  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  River,  in 
eastern  Colorado,  is  a trucking  district  from 
which,  in  summer,  the  famous  Rocky 
Ford  cantaloups  are  sent  by  hundreds  of 
carloads  to  eastern  markets.  In  some  of  the 
other  irrigation  districts  many  potatoes  are 
grown,  but  they  are  so  far  from  the  market 
(Sec.  96)  that  sometimes  the  pigs  have  to  eat 
the  potatoes.  Sugar  beets,  which  are  also 
grown,  furnish  pulp  for  cows  and  sugar  for  men. 

Beets  are  easier  to  market  than  potatoes. 

108.  Dry  farming. — Since  the  failure  of 
the  first  farmers  who  came  to  the  Great 


Plains  (Sec.  105),  there  has  been  much  study 
to  find  new  crops  or  new  methods  by  which 
farmers  could  succeed  on  this  wide  land  of 
little  rain.  One  of  the  new  ways  is  to  plow 
a field  and  let  it  lie  bare  for  a year,  so  that 
there  are  no  plants  in  it  to  use  the  moisture. 
The  next  year  a crop  is  sown.  It  receives 
the  rain  of  that  year,  and  uses  also  some  of 
the  rainwater  remaining  in  the  ground  from 
the  year  before.  By  this  “summer  fallow- 


Courtesy  Colorado  Agricultural  College 

Fig.  116.  A bucking  horse  trying  to  throw  his  cowboy 
rider.  Note  leather  chaps  (leggings)  tanned  with  the 
hair  on. 


70 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  117.  Map  showing  where  most  of  the  world’s  sheep  are  grown, 
the  leading  ocean  trade  routes  and  their  products. 

ing, ” one  of  the  methods  of  “dry  farming,” 
some  grain  is  now  grown  in  parts  of  the 
Great  Plains,  and  in  many  other  regions  of 
little  rain  (Sec.  133,  Fig.  461). 

Another  way  to  make  this  region  more 
useful  is  to  find  new  crops  suited  to  dry  land. 

Plant  explorers  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
Government  have  found  in  the  dry  parts  of 
China  a cousin  of  the  corn  plant  called 
sorghum,  and  in  dry  South  Africa  they  found 
another  cousin  called  Kafir  corn.  (Fig.  109.) 

Both  of  these  grains  make  crops  in  seasons 
in  which  the  corn  of  Illinois  would  fail 
because  of  drought.  The  crops  are  not  often 
sent  to  market  but  are  used  for  feeding  farm 
animals  where  the  crops  are  grown.  New 
drought-resistant  kinds  of  winter  wheat  are 
being  grown  in  western  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, in  eastern  Colorado  and  Wyoming, 
and  northern  Texas. 

109.  The  Black  Hills. — The  rock  layers 
of  the  Great  Plains  are  usually  flat  except 
in  the  Black  Hills.  (Fig.  114.) 

These  mountains 
are  forest  covered 
and  have  many  rich 
gold  and  silver  min  es. 

Fig.  118.  The  five  lead- 
ing cattle-raising  states 
in  the  United  States, 

1919-20.  Milch  cows  and 
cattle.  (Number) 

A.  Texas...  5,480,000 

B.  Iowa 4.360,000 

C.  Nebraska  3,490,000 

D.  Kansas..  3,230,000 

E.  Missouri  2,680,000 


Note 


| A 

S'" 

3 

cdl  ,1 

,55, 


110.  Cities. — Would  you 
expect  to  find  many  cities, 
or  any  large  cities  in  such  a 
region?  The  largest  city  is 
Denver,  a great  trade 
center.  The  location  of 
the  city  is  beautiful  be- 
cause the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains tower  above  it.  A few 
miles  to  the  south,  at  the 
foot  of  Pike’s  Peak,  is  Colo- 
rado Springs,  a famous 
health  resort.  Denver  and 
Pueblo  stand  on  the  western 
edge  of  the  plain.  They 
are  gateways  from  the  plains  into  the  moun- 
tains, and  from  the  mountains  into  the  plains. 

These  cities  draw  support  from  both 
mountains  and  plains.  They  have  many 
smelters,  which  melt  ores  from  many  moun- 
tain mines,  and  they  have  stores  which  keep 
supplies  for  the  mining  towns  in  the  moun- 
tains as  well  as  for  the  ranches  and  farms 
of  the  plains.  The  other  towns  of  the  Great 
Plains  are  much  smaller,  supported  by  rail- 
road repair  shops  on  the  several  lines  that 
cross  the  plains,  and  by  stores  which  often 
supply  people  living  many  miles  away. 

111.  Coal. — In  several  places  coal  is  found 
beneath  this  plain.  (Fig.  44.)  The  quality 
is  not  as  good  as  that  of  the  coal  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio,  but  the  quantity  is  abundant. 
If  France  had  all  the  coal  of  the  Great  Plains, 
she  would  be  richer  in  coal  than  all  the  rest 
of  Europe  combined.  Will  this  coal  make 
manufacturing  cities  in  the  Great  Plains? 

1 12.  Population.— This  large  region,  which 
is  from  300  to  400  miles  wide  and  1500 
miles  long,  is  larger  than  England,  France,  and 
Germany  combined,  but  it 
now  has  fewer  people  than 
Chicago  or  Philadelphia. 


Fig.  119.  The  five  leading  sheep- 
raising  states,  1919-20. 

(Number) 

A.  Wyoming 3,600,000 

B.  Idaho 3,070,000 

C.  Ohio 2,960,000 

D.  California 2,940,000 

E.  New  Mexico 2,670,000 


THE  GREAT  PLAINS  AND  THE 

113.  Devel- 
o p m e n t . — 
Plainly,  this 
will  be  a 
land  of  large 
ranches  for 
many  years, 
but  it  may 
easily  pro- 
duce butter 
and  dried 
milk  if  need 
arises. 

The  cool 

nights  that  come  with  high  elevation  make 
the  climate  good  for  potatoes.  If  the  demand 
should  arise,  the  irrigated  sections,  which  can 
be  considerably  enlarged,  might  grow  great 
quantities  of  potatoes.  Enormous  quanti- 
ties are  now  grown  at  Greeley,  Colorado. 

By  the  use  of  the  tractor  and  of  the  new 
drought-resisting  crops,  such  as  Kafir  corn, 
sorghum,  Turkey  Red  wheat,  and  barley, 
large  areas  of  this  country  may  be  cultivated 
and  made  to  produce  great  quantities  of  food. 

This  land  should  always  be  the  home  of 
those  who  love  animals,  the  out  of  doors, 
the  wind,  the  sunshine,  and  the  wide  spaces 
of  the  earth. 

Part  II. — The  Lower  Rio  Grande  Valley 

114.  A hot,  dry  land. — South  of  latitude 
32°  the  high  plains  slope  down  to  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  slope  is  rough,  dry,  and 
hot.  The  ranchers  here  keep  many  long- 
haired goats  that  supply  the  wool  for  mak- 
ing mohair  cloth. 

The  loWer  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  is  low 
and  hot.  It  is  made  up  of  sand  dunes,  swamps 
along  the  coast,  thickets  of  stunted  chaparral 
and  mesquite  trees,  and  wide  stretches  of 
poor  pasture  land  scattered  with  shrubs. 

Add  water  and  this  land  blossoms  with 
crops.  Rich  irrigation  districts  lie  along  the 
streams.  Laredo  and  Brownsville  are  well 
known  because  they  send  onions  and  other 
vegetables  to  northern  markets  early  in  the 
spring.  Several  places  are  now  growing 
oranges  and  grapefruit. 


LOWER  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY  71 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  states  and  countries  included  in  this  re- 
gion. 2.  What  advantages  has  life  on  the  Great  Plains 
over  life  in  the  Cotton  Belt?  What  disadvantages? 

. 3.  Name  the  products  typical  of  the  Plains.  What 
goods  does  your  region  produce  in  return  for  the 
products  you  receive  from  them?  4.  Why  is  Denver 
called  the  “Mile-high  City”?  (Fig.  91.)  Tell  why  it 
has  become  the  metropolis  of  the  Plains  area. 

5.  Suggest  reasons  for  considering  the  Great  Plains 
as  a region  separate  from  its  neighbors.  6.  Measure 
with  your  map  scale  its  length  and  breadth.  How 
many  countries  the  size  of  France  might  be  placed 
within  the  Plains  area?  7.  Find  this  region  on  Figure 
494.  Will  it  ever  have  a city  the  size  of  Chicago? 

8.  Write  the  story  told  you  by  an  old  Indian  chief  of 
his  life  on  the  Plains  when  he  was  a boy,  and  of  the 
many  changes  which  have  taken  place  since.  9.  Find 
all  the  interesting  facts  you  can  about  any  one  of  the 
following:  The  Belle  Fourche  Irrigation  Project; 
Dry  Farming;  the  City  of  Pueblo;  Colorado  Springs. 
10.  Why  does  the  rancher  of  the  Great  Plains  ship 
his  cattle  to  the  Corn  Belt?  (Sec.  75.) 


Fig.  121.  Once  upon  a time  some  men  who  did  not 
know  the  habits  of  rivers  made  the  Rio  Grande  an  inter- 
national boundary.  On  its  flood  plain  this  stream,  like 
all  other  streams  on  flood  Dlains,  flows  in  curves,  called 
meanders,  cuts  the  outside  of  its  curve  and  changes 
its  course.  People  along  its  banks  are  always  won- 
dering in  which  country  they  will  be  after  the  next  flood. 


Fig.  120.  The  map  of  New  England 
in  the  center  of  Texas  helps  us  under- 
stand how  large  are  Texas  and  the 
regions  which  it  helps  to  make. 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  122.  An  electric  locomotive  pulling  four  million  pounds 
of  freight  over  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  one  day  this 
locomotive  will  pull  over  the  mountains  more  freight  than 
a thousand  horses  could  pull  across  in  a week. 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 

THE  SOUTHERN  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


115.  What  are  the  Rocky  Mountains? — 

Geographers  have  given  the  name  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  great  mountain  system 
that  extends  from  New  Mexico  to  Alaska. 
It  is  composed  of  many,  many  ranges. 
Name  three  of  them  (Fig.  91).  Many 
beautiful,  wide  valleys  lie  between  these 
ranges  of  the  Rockies.  Some  of  them  are  as 
large  in  area  as  one  or  two  of  the  counties  of 
an  eastern  state.  Sometimes  they  are  called 
“parks.”  In  Wyoming  the  high  valley  of 
the  upper  portions  of  the  North  Platte  River 
is  so  wide  that  it  is  called  the  Laramie  Plains. 
This  valley  is  higher  than  the  tops  of  any 
of  the  mountains  of  New  England. 

116.  How  the  mountains  appear. — The 
Rocky  Mountains  are  a wonderland  of  high, 
sharp  peaks  and  great  mountain  ranges, 
many  of  which  are  snow-covered  all  winter 
and  most  of  the  summer.  To  reach  the  top 
of  most  of  these  lofty  peaks,  a traveler  must 
climb  all  day  on  foot,  at  the  risk  of  his  life, 


and  when  he  has  reached  the  top,  especially 
in  Canada,  he  can  sometimes  see  nothing  but 
other  snow-capped  peaks  and  jagged  rocks. 
There  seems  to  be  an  endless  procession  of 
peaks,  in  front  of  him,  behind  him,  to  the 
right,  and  to  the  left,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see. 
Below  the  snow-capped  peaks  are  places 
where  in  summer  there  are  wide  pastures,  and 
still  lower  down  on  the  mountainsides  there 
are  forests  of  evergreens  clinging  to  the  rocky 
slopes.  Here  and  there  are  beautiful  valleys 
dotted  with  farms  and  mining  towns.  High 
up  the  mountains,  in  gorges  and  canyons, 
clear,  cold  streams  tumble  and  roar  in  foam- 
ing white  waterfalls  as  they  rush  down  to 
flow  at  last  into  some  irrigation  ditch  in  the 
Great  Plains  far  to  the  eastward. 

117.  Bounds  of  the  region. — White  men 
have  settled  in  these  mountains  and  built 
railroads  through  them  as  far  north  as  Peace 
River  in  latitude  56°.  In  latitude  55°  the 
Canadian  Grand  Trunk  Railroad  crosses 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


73 


Fig.  123.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  at  the  western  edge  of  the  Great  Plains,  one  can  see  many  scenes 
like  this.  What  signs  of  man’s  work  can  you  find  ? Point  out  the  bench  land.  (Sec.  124.) 


over  from  the  wheat  country  into  the  valley 
of  the  Skeena  River,  and  reaches  the  Pacific 
Coast  at  Prince  Rupert.  To  the  north  of 
this  white  men  have  not  settled  the  moun- 
tains, except  at  a few  fur-trading  posts. 
The  region  is  left  to  roving  bands  of  Indians, 
and  to  grizzly  bears,  caribou,  and  other  wild 
animals.  We  call  this  region  the  Southern 
Rocky  Mountains. 

118.  Crowds  and  lonely  men. — Although 
these  mountains  are  in  most  places  a region 
of  few  people  and  of  lonely  men,  crowds  of 
men  work  together  at  the  mining  towns  and 
in  the  lumber  camps.  The  lonely  men  are 
the  prospectors  looking  for  ore  deposits,  the 
forest  rangers  watching  for  forest  fires,  and 
the  solitary  sheep  herders  tending  their  flocks. 

119.  Mining  and  cities. — Mining  is  the 
chief  industry  of  this  region,  many  deposits 
of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  having  been 
found  here.  Most  of  the  cities  in  the  moun- 
tains were  built  at  the  mines.  Many  of 
these  settlements  began  as  mining  camps  far 
from  a railroad.  Sometimes  dozens,  hun- 
dreds, and  even  thousands  of  men  have  lived 
for  a time  in  these  tent  towns,  away  back 
in  the  mountains  where  the  only  freight 
carrier  was  the  pack  mule,  with  bundles 
balanced  across  his  saddle.  The  pack  mule 
clambering  over  the  rocks  could  do  the  work 
if  the  gold  or  silver  deposits  were  rich  enough 
to  pay  the  high  freight.  The  cost  of  living 


was  very  high  at  first  because  the  men  had  to 
live  on  food  brought  from  a great  distance. 

The  largest  of  these  many  mining  cities 
is  Butte,  Montana,  where  live  thousands  of 
people  who  work  in  the  copper  mines  in  the 
wonderful  hill  of  Butte.  This  hill  is  seamed 
through  and  through  with  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  veins  of  copper.  Anaconda, 
Helena,  and  Great  Falls  are  busy  smelting 
ores  of  copper,  gold,  and  silver.  Electric 
power  for  much  of  this  district  comes  from 
the  falls  of  the  Missouri  River  at  Great  Falls. 
Cripple  Creek,  Victor,  and  Leadville  are 
mining  towns  in  Colorado. 

The  town  that  depends  upon  the  mine  may 
not  be  long-lived,  for,  at  best,  mining  is  an 
industry  that  takes  all  of  its  product  out,  and 
finally  leaves  nothing  but  a hole  in  the  ground. 

The  future  promises  gigantic  mining 
industries  here.  In  Idaho,  Montana,  and 
Wyoming,  there  are  enormous  deposits  of 
phosphate  rock  which  we  can  use  when 
others  are  worked  out.  In  the  Green  River 
Plateau  at  the  corner  of  Utah,  Wyoming, 
and  Colorado  is  100  square  miles  of  shale 
rock  several  hundred  feet  thick  and  yielding 
a barrel  of  petroleum  to  the  ton  when  dis- 
tilled (Sec.  141).  We  may  soon  find  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  working  here  in  one  of  the 
world’s  greatest  industries. 

120.  Lumbering  in  the  mountains. — Al- 
though the  tops  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are 


II— 4 


74'  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Fig.  124.  Machinery  for  concentrating  copper  ore  at  the  Anaconda  Copper 
Mining  Company,  Anaconda,  Montana.  Why  does  it  take  large  sums  of 
money  to  run  a copper  mine? 


for  the  most  part  bare  rock,  the  lower  slopes 
are  cut  into  hundreds  and  thousands  of  little 
side  valleys  and  gulches,  wherever  green 
trees  cling  to  the  steep  and  rocky  slopes. 
Altogether  these  mountains  have  tens  of 
thousands  of  square  miles  of  forest,  but 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  taking  lumber  to 
the  distant  city  markets,  only  a very  small 
part  of  the  timber  has  been  used.  How  far 
is  it  from  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  to 
Chicago?  from  West  Virginia  to  Chicago? 

It  is  hard  to  take  lumber  from  the  moun- 
tains for  two  reasons:  first,  in  many  places 
the  land  is  too  rough  for  roads  to  be  made; 
and,  second,  the  streams  are  too  rocky  to 
float  the  logs.  Sometimes  small  logs  are  used 
to  build  a chute  or  slide  several  thousands  of 
feet  in  length  down  a mountainside.  Upon  it 
other  logs  can  coast  down.  Sometimes  the 
logs  go  at  such  speed  that  if  they  jump  out 
of  the  chute  they  tear  themselves  to  pieces 
on  the  rocks.  The  only  way  to  stop  them 
1-  at  the  end  of  the  chute  is  to 

have  them  jump  into  a pond 
of  water.  (Fig.  126.)  In  other 

Tq  Fig.  125.  The  five  states  leading  in  gold 

production  (1919-20): 

A.  California $15,851,750 

B.  Colorado  8,931,350 

C.  South  Dakota 4,745,550 

D.  Nevada 4,107,000 


places  the  lumber,  sawed 
into  boards,  is  floated  for 
miles  down  the  rocky  valley 
in  a wooden  flume  or  trough. 

121.  National  forests. — 
Our  Congress  very  wisely 
decided  to  keep  many  of 
these  forest  lands  as  the 
property  of  all  the  people. 
The  United  States  Govern- 
ment owns  many  thousands 
of  square  miles  of  forests 
covering  a large  part  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region. 
A part  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture, 
called  the  Forest  Service, 
has  charge  of  these  forests, 
and  is  protecting  them  until  the  time  comes 
to  use  the  trees.  The  forest  has  two  great 
enemies — over-pasturing  and  fire.  Of  these, 
fire  is  much  the  worse. 

The  National  forests  are  watched  and 
protected  by  forest  rangers.  The  ranger 
makes  long  lonely  rounds  on  foot  or  on 
horseback,  or  more  recently  by  airplane, 
looking  for  fires,  because  one  fire  may  kill 
centuries  of  growth.  He  climbs  high  cliffs, 
mountain  peaks,  and  even  lookout  towers, 


Courtesy  West  Coast  Lumberman’s  Assn. 

Fig.  126.  A Rocky  Mountain  lumber  camp,  log  chute, 
and  storage  pond.  Could  you  move  a log  in  a pond? 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


75 


so  that  he  can  look  far,  far  away  across  the 
forest.  If  he  should  see  through  his  spy- 
glass the  smoke  from  a small  fire,  he  would 
signal  for  help  to  put  out  the  blaze  before  it 
could  spread.  The  fire  fight  is  all  planned  in 
advance.  Axes,  shovels,  and  other  tools  are 
in  readiness.  The  places  to  work  have  all 
been  planned,  but  even  with  the  best  of  care 
the  fires  sometimes  leap  through  the  tops  of 
the  evergreen  trees  and  run  with  the  wind, 
killing  millions  of  fine  trees.  Careless  camp- 
ers, miners,  and  sheep  herders  start  some  of 
the  fires,  and  some  are  started  by  lightning. 
The  forester  tries  to  protect  the  forest  so 
that  it  will  be  a forest  for  all  time. 

122.  Vacation  land. — The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains are  a glorious  vacation  land  for.  those 
who  love  mountain  scenery,  and  who  enjoy 
wild,  uninhabited  places.  On  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  Colorado 
Springs  is  Pike’s  Peak,  to  the  top  of  which 
runs  a railway  that  enables  people  easily  and 
comfortably  to  reach  its  summit,  over  14,000 
feet  high.  If  you  love  high  climbing,  there  are 
snowpeaks  and  glaciers  waiting  for  you.  If 
you  love  to  climb  only  a little,  there  are 
wooded  spurs  and  lower  mountains  to  explore. 


Courtesy  National  Park  Service 

Fig.  128.  Campers  having  a vacation  on  Bear  Lake, 
Colorado.  Where  do  they  cook? 


If  you  like  to  fish,  you  can  wade  up  the  rocky 
bed  of  trout  streams  in  which  perhaps  no 
other  person  has  fished  for  a year. 

Many  of  the  more  beautiful  and  wonderful 
places  of  this  region  have  been  set  aside 
as  parks  by  the  American  and  Canadian 
governments.  In  this  way  such  places 
belong  to  all  the  people  for  all  time.  The 
Yellowstone  Park,  in  the  corners  of  three 
states,  is  larger  than  the  states  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Delaware  com- 
bined, and  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  National 
parks.  Since  no  one  may 
hunt  there,  bears,  elk  and 
bison,  abound,  and  some  are 
as  tame  as  cows,  and  come 
close  to  visitors  to  be  fed. 

Yellowstone  Park  has 
wonderful  geysers,  and 
there  also  are  waterfalls 
and  volcanic  mountains  of 
glass-like  rock.  The  won- 
derfully colored  walls  of  the 
canyon  of  the  Yellowstone 
River  are  more  than  1000 
feet  high.  It  is  too  bad 
that,  for  most  of  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  it  is 
such  a long  journey  from 
home  to  this  land  of  de- 
light. 


Fig.  127.  Lake  McDermott,  a lake  in  the  Glacier  National  Park,  Montana. 
Can  you  see  the  timber  line  on  Grinnell  Mountain?  Similar  views  may  be 
had  in  other  parts  of  the  Rockies.  In  this  part  the  Government  has  made 
roads  and  camps  so  that  tourists  can  live  in  the  mountains  very  inexpensively. 
Where  would  you  like  to  camp,  and  what  would  you  do  here? 


76 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


123.  Agriculture. — When  the  first  miners 
came  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  food  was 
very  expensive  because  it  had  to  be  brought 
from  such  great  distances.  The  first  farmers 
in  valleys  near  the  mining  towns  or  camps 
sold  their  fruits  and  vegetables  at  prices 
that  were  several  times  as  high  as  prices  in 
New  York  or  Chicago.  This  made  farming 
very  profitable  in  the  mountain  valleys  and 
more  farmers  came,  until  finally  there  was 
a sad  day  when  the  crops  were  so  large  that 
the  home  market  did  not  need  all  that  there 
was  to  sell.  Some  had  to  be  sent  away  across 
the  Great  Plains  to  the  eastward.  Before 
that  time  the  farmer  in  the  mountain  valley 
had  been  able  to  get  eastern  market  prices 
for  his  produce,  plus  the  railroad  freight  and 
the  wagon  haul  to  the  mining  camp.  But 
when  he  sent  his  goods  to  the  eastern  mar- 
kets, he  had  to  take  the  eastern  price,  less 
the  cost  of  carriage  to  that  market.  This 
cut  into  his  profit  so  much  that  he  now  raises 
grass  and  hay  in  many  Rocky  Mountain 
valleys.  He  could  produce  many  other  crops 
if  only  he  could  market  them  profitably. 

124.  Bench  lands  and  fruit. — When  moun- 
tain glaciers  covered  some  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  reached  down  to  the  plains, 
many  of  the  smaller  mountain  valleys  were 


lakes.  Some  of  these  glacial  lakes  were  filled 
with  sand  and  earth  that  was  washed  down 
from  the  hills.  Since  the  glaciers  disappeared, 
the  streams  have  cut  valleys  in  these  filled-up 
lake  beds,  leaving  step-like  land  called  ter- 
races or  benches  (Fig.  123).  Bench  land 
makes  very  fine  farms.  It  is  level,  smooth, 
and  free  from  stones,  and  the  good  soil  is 
many  feet  deep.  Many  of  the  benches  can  be 
irrigated  by  water  from  mountain  streams. 
In  some  of  the  valleys,  orchards  of  peaches, 
apples,  and  cherries  have  been  planted;  in 
others,  hay  and  grain  are  raised.  In  some?, 
valleys  there  is  not  enough  water  for  irriga- 
tion, but  wheat  is  grown  by  dry  farming 
(Sec.  108). 

125.  Crop  rotation. — One  irrigated  Colo- 
rado bench  farm  has  the  following  system: 
first  year,  potatoes;  second  year,  wheat; 
third  year,  barley.  After  the  barley,  al- 
falfa is  sown,  which  makes  hay  during  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years.  In  the  seventh 
year  the  land  is  again  plowed,  and  the 
rotation  begins  with  potatoes.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  mountain  valley 
is  just  right  for  potatoes,  and 
there  is  plenty  of  water, 
so  that  an  acre  of  land 
very  often  yields  400 


Courtesy  “ The  Country  Gentleman” 

Fig.  129.  An  irrigated  peach  district  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Find  the  orchards,  shade  trees  around  the 
houses,  a river,  and  two  irrigation  canals.  The  large  one  with  the  bridge  over  it  leads  into  a tunnel.  The 
smaller  canal  at  a higher  level  is  in  a wooden  flume.  Its  water  can  be  seen  at  the  left  and  at  the  right  of  the 
picture.  Why  would  you  say  the  cliff  at  the  right  had  layers  of  hard  rock  and  layers  of  softer  rock? 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


77 


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bushels.  The  potatoes  are 
of  fine  quality  for  hotel  use. 

The  wheat  goes  to  market; 
the  barley  and  alfalfa  fatten 
thousands  of  lambs,  brought 
in  from  the  ranches,  before 
being  sent  to  Chicago, 

Omaha  and  Kansas  City 
packing  houses. 

126.  Sheep  and  cattle. — 

The  sheep  from  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  are  more 
valuable  than  all  the  other 
crops  that  are  sold.  When 
summer  dries  the  grass 
upon  the  lower  lands  to  the 
east  and  the  west,  the  sheep 
herders  with  their  dogs  and 
pack  horses  drive  the  flocks 
up  on  the  mountain.  There  the  sheep  pas- 
ture in  the  open  valleys  and  browse  through 
the  forests,  and  even  go  to  the  grass- 
lands above  the  tree  line,  where  there  are 
large  areas  of  summer  pasture.  In  the 
autumn  the  sheep  eat  the  barley  and  alfalfa 
of  the  valley  farms;  thus  these  crops  go 
to  market  in  the  cheapest  way.  (Sec.  75.) 
Many  cattle  also  are  pastured  in  this  region. 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 

Fig.  130.  Map  showing  the  irrigation  projects  which 
the  United  States  Government  has  built  for  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  main  railroads  of  the  region. 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 

Fig.  131.  A Wyoming  farmer  irrigating  his  alfalfa  field  with  water  from 
the  Shoshone  reservoir.  The  ditch  is  dammed  for  a few  hours  by  a piece  of 
canvas,  which  turns  the  water  into  the  field.  Why  is  it  often  necessary  to  level 
the  fields  before  irrigating  them? 

127.  Future. — Tell  about  the  future  of  the 
town  that  mines  gold,  silver,  or  copper  (Sec. 
119);  of  the  town  that  ships  lumber  and 
wood-pulp  for  paper-making  (Sec.  121). 
The  Rocky  Mountain  waterfalls  can  furnish 
power  for  many  cities.  Already  on  a railroad 
going  to  Seattle  from  Chicago,  electricity 
from  water  power  is  used  for  440  miles  on 
the  steep  grades  in  the  mountains. 

If  the  needs  of  our  people  make  it  necessary 
to  use  fully  the  resources  of  this  region,  we 
may  expect  the  national  and  private  forests 
to  be  carefully  protected  from  fire,  so  that 
they  may  regularly  yield  harvests  of  wood. 
Many  lower  slopes  as  well  as  higher  slopes 
can  be  pastured;  the  valleys  can  be  made 
into  orchards,  or  intensively  cultivated  in 
vegetables,  potatoes,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and 
alfalfa.  Some  reservoirs  have  been  built  to 
hold  water  in  the  mountain  valleys  until  the 
farmers  want  it  to  irrigate  the  plains  below. 
Some  day  nearly  all  the  water  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  may  thus  be  held  until  the  season 
comes  when  it  is  needed  for  crops.  On  its 
way  down  to  the  plains  it  can  turn  water 
wheels,  make  power  for  lighting  and  even 
heating  houses,  and  run  factories  and  rail- 
roads for  two  or  three  hundred  miles  around. 
There  will  be  another  advantage  because  the 
dams  will  prevent  floods. 


78 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN 
AND  THE  GREAT 
BASIN 

128.  Rich  volcanic  soil. — 
A farmer  in  the  state  of 
Washington  had  a thou- 
sand acre  wheatfield  on 
which  he  grew,  in  one  year, 
forty-six  thousand  bushels 
of  wheat.  This  is  a very 
large  yield  indeed.  The 
average  yield  of  wheat  in 
the  United  States  is  only 
about  one-third  as  much 
per  acre.  Still  more  won- 
derful to  relate,  this  field  had 

© Scenic  America  Co.  Courtesy  National  Park  Service  . . , „ , . 

Fig.  132.  Rocky  Mountains  in  Glacier  National  Park,  Montana.  The  snow-  D6en  in  Wheat  for  thirty- 
field  merges  into  the  rough  and  melting  glacier.  What  may  the  water  do?  one  successive  years.  The 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  states  are  wholly  or  in  part  within  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Region?  2.  Complete  the  following 
chart: 

The:  Products  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


Grazing. 

Mining. 

Forestry. 

Agriculture. 

3.  Under  what  conditions  will  most  of  the  present 
uncultivated  valley  lands  be  taken  up  with  farms? 

4.  Why  do  sheep  rather  than  cattle  graze  for  the 
most  part  on  the  mountain  pasture? 

5.  Complete  the  following: 

How  I Study  the  Towns  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 


Name  of  Town. 

Location. 

What  I Should  Remember 
About  It. 

6.  Why  should  our  government  preserve  large  areas 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  national  forests?  How 
is  the  airplane  useful  in  protecting  these  great  forests? 

7.  Relate  a story,  such  as  might  have  been  told  you 
by  a lone  prospector,  of  his  wandering  life  among 
these  mountains  in  search  of  gold. 

8.  Why  are  the  Rockies  forested  while  the  adjacent 
plains  and  plateaus  are  treeless?  What  is  meant  when 
the  Rockies  are  spoken  of  as  a watershed?  What 
effect  do  the  Rockies  have  upon  the  Great  Plains? 
upon  irrigation?  9.  Arrange  a mock  trial  of  one 
of  your  classmates.  Charge  him  with  causing  a great 
forest  fire  while  camping  in  the  mountains.  10.  De- 
bate the  following  question:  “Resolved,  that  it  would 
be  better  for  the  United  States,  had  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains been  level  land.”  11.  If  you  had  a week  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  what  would  you  choose  to  do? 
12.  Tell  one  fact  which  you  have  learned  about  the 
southern  Rocky  Mountains  from  each  picture  and 
map  in  this  chapter. 


farmer  of  Indiana  or  other  eastern  wheat- 
growing states  never  thinks  of  raising  wheat 
for  more  than  two  or  three  years  on  the 
same  ground,  because  the  crop  becomes 
poor,  and  the  land  must  be  given  a rest  by 
growing  some  other  crop.  Why  do  the 
Washington  wheatfields  yield  so  much? 
Two  strange  words  give  the  answer:  volcano 
and  lava.  Once  upon  a time  great  volcanoes 
poured  out  floods  of  melted  rock,  called  lava, 
that  flowed  like  water,  and  covered  nearly 
200,000  square  miles  of  land  in  the  Columbia 
Basin  and  the  Great  Basin.  How  do  men 
know  this?  Some  river  canyons  help  to  tell 
us.  Examine  Fig.  134. 

129.  The  Snake  River  canyon. — This  river, 
like  many  other  streams  in  this  basin,  has 
cut  through  the  lava  a narrow,  deep  valley,  or 
canyon  (Fig.  142).  The  Snake  River  canyon 
is  several  hundred  miles  long,  three  to  four 
thousand  feet  deep.  In  the  wall  of  that  can- 
yon one  can  see  layer  after  layer  of  lava  rock  of 
various  colors,  sometimes  with  the  upper  edge 
of  one  flow  turned 
into  a layer  of  soil 
and  then  buried  by 
the  next  flow  (Fig. 

134).  At  the  bottom, 
is  the  surface  of  the 

old  land  surface  that  _ 

was  buried  by  lava.  sin  and  the  Great  Basin. 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN  AND  THE  GREAT  BASIN 


79 


130.  Why  lava  soils  are  rich. — The  lava 
has  been  on  the  surface  long  enough  to 
decay  and  turn  into  a deep  soil,  so  very  rich 
that  it  makes  the  Washington  wheat-fields 
yield  more  per  acre  than  those  of  any  other 
wheat  region  in  America.  Why  is  lava  soil  so 
rich?  Because  it  is  new.  Most  soils  are 
second-hand  soils,  third-hand  soils,  or  even 
older  than  that.  Think  for  a moment  of 
the  sands  of  Florida.  They  were  washed  down 
there  when  Florida  was  sea  bottom.  The 
geologists  will  tell  you  that  the  rocks  in 
Georgia,  from  which  some  of  the  Florida  sand 
was  washed,  were  made  of  material  washed 
there  from  some  other  place.  Soil  may  have 
been  moved  in  this  way  many  times.  All  this 
washing  soaks  out  some  of  the  plant  food,  and 
leaves  many  of  the  old  soils  poor.  But  the 
lava  is  fresh,  new  stuff  out  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  and  is  rich  in  plant  food.  This  lava 
soil  covers  about  200,000  square  miles  of 
the  surface  of  the  wide  upland  region  lying 
between  the  Rocky  Mountain  System  and 
the  Pacific  Mountains. 

131.  Bounds  and  climate. — Name  four 
mountain  ranges  that  bound  this  region. 
The  northern  part,  drained  by  the  Columbia 
River,  is  called  the  Columbia  Basin.  The 
southern  part,  with  no  stream  reaching  the 
sea,  is  called  the  Great  Basin.  (Map, 
Fig.  91.)  Because  of  its  fertile  soil  the 
people  of  the  Columbia  Basin  like  to  call 
their  region  “ The  Inland  Empire.” 

The  Basin  region  has  a healthful  climate, 
which  is  much  milder  than  that  of  the  Great 
Plains  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rockies, 
because  the  prevailing  winds  are  warmed 
by  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  is 
but  little  snow  in  winter,  and  while  the 
summer  sun  is  hot,  the  nights  are  cool.  If  it 
only  had  enough  rainfall  everywhere  for 
good  agriculture,  the  Basin  region  would  be 
a better  agricultural  country  than  France 
or  Germany. 

Part  I. — The  Columbia  Basin 

132.  Agriculture. — The  great  drawback  to 
agriculture  in  the  Columbia  Basin  is  the  light 
rainfall.  How  much  does  it  have  per  year? 


(Fig.  158.)  Only  in  the  higher  parts  of  eastern 
Washington  and  eastern  Oregon  is  there 
enough  for  wheat  and  barley.  Lower  dis- 
tricts in  both  Snake  and  Columbia  valleys 
are  so  dry  that  they  are  used  only  for  pas- 
ture, except  in  those  lucky  places  where 
water  from  mountain  streams  can  irrigate  the 
valleys.  There  heavy  harvests  of  alfalfa,  corn, 
potatoes,  wheat,  oats,  sugar  beets,  fruits,  and 
other  crops  are  grown  intensively  in  many  rich 
farming  districts.  The  sheep  and  cattle  pas- 
ture on  the  ranges  and  in  the  mountains,  but 
fatten  on  the  alfalfa  in  the  irrigated  valleys. 

133.  Wheat. — Most  of  the  little  rain  that 
does  fall  comes  in  the  winter  season.  Con- 
sequently winter  wheat  does  well  because  it 
is  a native  of  countries  having  winter  rain 
and  dry  summers.  The  plant  thrives  in  the 
rains  of  the  mild  winter,  and,  in  the  bright 
sunshine  of  the  dry  summer,  ripens  large, 
fat  grains.  In  the  eastern  states,  where  beat- 
ing summer  rains  are  frequent,  the  wheat 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 

Fig.  134.  The  side  of  the  canyon  of  Salmon  River, 
Idaho,  showing  the  different  layers  of  lava.  What 
signs  of  water  work  do  you  see  here? 


80 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 

Fig.  135. — A view  across  an  irrigated  valley  in  the  Columbia  Basin,  Yakima, 
Washington.  Did  you  ever  see  an  apple  box  with  the  name  Yakima  on  it? 


must  be  cut  before  the  heads  are  fully  dry, 
and  then  must  stand  in  shocks  or  stacks  until 
dry  enough  to  be  threshed.  But  in  the 
Columbia  Basin  the  summer  weather  is  so 
free  from  storm  that  the  ripe  wheat  may  wait 
several  weeks  before  it  is  cut.  The  climate  is 
so  dry  that  harvesting  and  threshing  are  done 
at  one  time  by  using  a great  machine  called 
the  combined  harvester,  that  cuts  the  wheat, 
threshes  out  the  grain,  and  even  puts  it  into 
sacks  which  it  carries  along.  Wagons  meet 
the  harvester,  and  haul  the  grain  to  the 
station. 

In  many  places  in  eastern  Washington, 
eastern  Oregon,  and  Idaho, 
where  the  rainfall  is  a little 
less  than  20  inches,  wheat 
is  grown  by  the  dry-farming 
system  (Sec.  108). 

134.  Apples.  — On  the 
western  edge  of  the  Colum- 
bia Basin  are  three  small 
irrigated  valleys  famous  for 
apples.  They  are  the 
valleys  of  the  Hood  River, 
in  Oregon,  and  of  the  Yak- 
ima and  the  Wenatchee  in 
Washington.  All  three  rise 
in  the  Cascade  Mountains 
and  bring  water  to  the  apple 
orchards  in  the  valleys  be- 
low. Millions  of  school- 
boys and  girls  have  seen 


this  handsome  fruit  which 
is  sent  in  beautifully  labeled 
boxes  to  cities  and  small 
towns  east  of  the  Rockies. 

135.  Transportation  and 
cities. — The  United  States 
Government  has  built  a 
canal  around  the  rapids  in 
the  Columbia  River,  at  the 
place  where  the  river  breaks 
through  the  Cascade  Range. 
Thus  steamboats  can  now  go 
up  the  river  and  its  branch, 
the  Snake,  as  far  as  Idaho. 
(Fig.  80.)  Otherwise  trans- 
portation in  the  basin  is  by 
railroads  which  cross  the  Cascades  to  Seattle, 
Tacoma,  Olympia,  and  Portland.  Eastward 
these  roads  cross  the  Rockies,  and  make  the 
long  mutes  to  St.  Paul  and  Chicago.  From 
these  cities  many  manufactured  goods  are 
forwarded  to  the  distributing  centers  of  the 
Inland  Empire.  Yakima,  Walla  Walla,  and 
Spokane,  Washington,  and  Boise,  the  capital 
of  Idaho,  have  many  wholesale  stores  that 
supply  farmers  in  the  plain  and  the  miners  in 
the  mountains.  The  region  has  been  settled 
too  recently  to  have  much  manufacturing. 

The  very  fertile  soil  and  the  good,  whole- 
some climate  make  this  region  one  of  the 


Fig.  136.  Looking  up  Hood  River  Valley,  Oregon,  at  Mt.  Hood.  What  us 
is  man  making  of  this  valley?  Why  is  the  snow  peak  like  a reservoir? 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN  AND  THE  GREAT  BASIN 


81 


world’s  great  natural  grain-producing  cen- 
ters. The  country  is  so  new  that  a part 
of  central  Oregon,  although  it  has  enough 
rain  for  wheat,  has  as  yet  no  railroads. 
Many  more  mountain  valleys  may  be 
turned  into  storage  lakes  to  increase  irriga- 
tion. (Fig.  138.)  Even  then,  thousands  of 
square  miles  of  fertile  soil  must  depend  for 
their  water  upon  a rainfall  that  is  too  small. 
However,  there  is  the  Columbia  River,  a 
great  stream  fed  by  the  snows  on  the  moun- 
tains of  British  Columbia.  Much  water 
flows  along  in  its  deep  valley,  several  hundred 
feet  below  the  fertile,  rolling  plains  that  are 
thirsty  for  water.  Can  man  find  some  way 
to  get  water  from  the  big  river  up  to  the  rich, 
rolling  plains  above?  It  is  an  interesting 
problem  that  Nature  gives  to  man.  Already 
long  canals  are  planned  to  irrigate  land  west 
of  Spokane  with  water  from  the  upper 
Columbia. 

Electric  power  from  mountain  waterfalls 
on  both  sides  of  the  Basin  could  be  carried 
to  all  parts  of  the  Basin  (Fig.  194).  This  re- 
source gives  great  possibility  of  manufacture. 
The  cities  nearer  the  sea  have  a better  loca- 
tion in  this  respect,  and  they  too  have  elec- 
tric power  from  mountain  plants. 

Part  II.— The  Great  Basin 

136.  Swimming  where  you  cannot  sink. — 
How  would  you  like  to  swim  in  a lake 
where  you  could  not  sink?  The  people  of 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  137.  The  Mormon  Temple  and  the  Tabernacle 
ftt  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 


© Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  138.  Comparison  between  the  Arrowhead  Dam, 
348.5  feet  high,  built  to  hold  irrigation  water  in  Idaho, 
and  the  Flatiron  Building,  286  feet  high,  New  York 

City.  Drawn  to  scale.  Of  what  is  the  dam  made? 

Salt  Lake  City  do  this  whenever  they  go 
down  to  the  beach  of  Great  Salt  Lake  to 
bathe.  The  water  is  heavy  with  salt. 

137.  Streams  that  do  not  reach  the  sea. — 
The  basin  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains and  the  Wasatch  is  shut  in  by  moun- 
tains so  that  winds  from  the  sea  cannot 
bring  much  rain.  As  a result  it  has  less  rain 
than  any  other  part  of  the  United  States  (Fig. 
158).  No  stream  reaches  the  sea.  The  Mis- 
sissippi, you  remember  (Sec.  36),  carries  mud 
and  sand,  with  which  it  builds  a delta  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  the  streams  that  flow 
down  into  the  Great  Basin  must  leave  their 
sand  and  mud  in  the  Basin  itself. 

In  some  places  the  streams  take  up  salt 
from  the  mountain  rocks,  and  make  salty 
lakes.  In  other  places  they  gather  a little 
soda,  which  is  carried  into  the  lakes  year 
after  year.  One  such  lake,  called  Soda  Lake, 
is  so  full  of  soda  that  millions  of  tons  may 
be  had  by  evaporating  its  waters.  Another 
small  lake  in  California,  called  Sarles  Lake,  is 
so  nearly  dried  up  that  its  bed  is  full  of  coarse 
grains  of  salt  much  like  sand.  In  between  the 
salt  grains  a little  water  remains,  which  is 
full  of  potash.  (Sec.  43.)  During  the  World 
War,  when  our  supply  of  potash  from  Ger- 
many was  shut  off,  some  potash  was  manu- 
factured by  evaporating  the  water  from  this 
lake. 


82 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Courtesy  Dept,  of  Interior 

Fig.  139.  A western  valley  before  irrigation;  a poor  pasture.  It  takes 
several  thousand  acres  of  it  to  support  a family. 


For  millions  of  years  the  rains  have  been 
beating  on  the  mountains  in  and  around  the 
Basin,  and  the  streams  have  carried  away 
the  mountain  soil  and  with  it  built  up  level, 
flat  plains.  Some  of  these  valleys  are  now 
so  level  that  after  a big  rain  the  water  stands 
in  lakes  which  are  only  a few  inches  deep  and 
many  miles  long.  After  a few  weeks  of  sun- 
shine the  lake  becomes  a plain  of  mud  which, 
as  it  dries,  cracks  up  into  cakes  that  are  so 
hard  they  ring  beneath  the  hoofs  of  a gallop- 
ing horse  (Fig.  141).  Old  beaches  can  be 
plainly  seen  on  the  hills  above  many  of  the 
lakes  of  the  Great  Basin.  These  interesting 
old  beaches  were  made  long  ago  when  the 
rainfall  was  greater  than  it 
now  is,  and  the  surface  of 
the  lakes  was  higher. 

138.  Death  Valley.— 

Most  of  the  Great  Basin 
is  a plateau  from  4000  to 
5000  feet  in  height,  but 
the  land  in  Death  Valley, 

California,  is  lower  than 
the  level  of  the  sea.  So 
little  rain  falls  near  Death 
Valley  that  no  lake  exists 
in  the  valley  bottom,  and 
many  miners  have  died  of 
thirst  and  heat  as  they 
searched  here  for  gold.  It 
is  strange  to  think  that  only 


a hundred  miles  away  from 
Death  Valley,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
in  the  same  state  of  Cali- 
fornia, there  are  beautiful 
cool  evergreen  forests  and 
plenty  of  rain.  The  Wa- 
satch Ranges  at  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  Basin  are  also 
covered  with  fine  forest. 

139.  Rich  garden  spots. 
— The  Basin  soils  are  rich 
because  they  have  not  had 
the  fertility  taken  out  of 
them  by  soaking  rains  or 
the  roots  of  many  hungry 
plants.  Only  water  is 
needed  and  this  is  furnished  by  the  streams 
from  the  Sierra  and  Wasatch  which  supply 
two  of  the  important  irrigated  districts  of 
the  United  States.  Utah  has  the  greater  of 
these  two  irrigated  districts.  Indeed  most 
of  the  farmers  of  the  state  depend  upon  the 
Wasatch  waters  which  cause  the  rich  Basin 
soils  to  produce  splendid  crops  of  wheat, 
potatoes,  sugar  beets,  peaches,  apples,  pears, 
cherries  and  other  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Alfalfa  is  a very  important  crop  and  helps 
to  feed  the  sheep  and  cattle  from  Basin 
ranches  and  the  mountain  pastures;  and 
many  dairy  cows  as  well.  The  first  irrigation 
in  the  United  States  was  started  by  the 


Courtesy  Dept,  of  Interior 

Fig.  140.  Sugar  beets.  The  same  valley  shown  in  Fig.  139,  after  irrigation 
has  made  it  a farm.  A farm  of  40  to  80  acres  now  supports  a family. 


THE  COLUMBIA  BASIN  AND  THE  GREAT  BASIN 


83 


Mormons  in  this  land  of 
grain,  alfalfa,  cattle,  and 
fruit.  In  one  case,  a tunnel 
now  brings  water  through 
the  Wasatch  Mountains 
from  a branch  of  the  Colo- 
rado River  into  the  Great 
Basin.  It  flows  down  and 
irrigates  some  of  the  rich, 
level  plains  that  stretch 
away  to  the  westward  from 
the  foot  of  the  Wasatch. 

The  waters  of  the  Truckee 
and  the  Carson  rivers,  fed 
by  the  melting  snows  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  are  carefully 
stored  in  reservoirs  built  by 
the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. When  needed  the  water  is  let  out  on 
the  plains  around  Carson  City,  where  several 
hundred  thousand  acres  of  the  rich  desert 
soils  are  irrigated,  producing  large  crops  of 
sugar  beets,  alfalfa,  wheat,  fruit,  and  potatoes. 
Elevation  makes  the  nights  of  the  plateau  so 
cool  that  not  much  corn  is  grown.  Alfalfa 
(Fig.  108)  is  the  chief  Basin  forage  crop. 

140.  Dry  farming  and  ranching. — In  parts 
of  eastern  Utah  enough  rain  falls  to  produce 

wheat  every 
other  year 
by  the  sum- 
mer fallow 
system. 
(Sec.  108.) 
In  other 
places  there 
is  a scanty 
growth  of 
cactus,  salt 
bush,  grease 
wood,  and 
other  desert 
plants, 
along  with 
bunch grass, 
which  fur- 
nish a little 
pasture  for 
sheep  and 


Fig.  141.  A summer  view  of  a Great 
Basin  playa  lake.  Silver  Lake,  Cali- 
fornia, a flat  expanse  of  salty  mud 
cracked  open  and  baked  hard.  Would 
it  make  a good  field?  What  is  it  like 
at  the  time  of  rains?  (Sec.  137.) 


Courtesy  National  Electric  Light  Association 

Fig.  142.  Snake  River  Canyon.  A low  dam  and  water-power  plant.  The 
big  building  helps  us  to  understand  how  high  the  canyon  wall  is. 

cattle.  Some  of  the  mid-Basin  ranges  are 
high  enough  to  catch  a little  rain,  and  are 
scantily  forested.  Here  and  there  a little 
stream  comes  out  to  irrigate  a field  or  two. 
In  some  other  places  there  is  no  water. 

141.  Mining. — The  broken  rocks  of  the 
mountains  give  the  prospector  a good  chance 
to  find  ores,  and  many  rich  mines  have  been 
opened  in  the  Great  Basin.  Virginia  City, 
Nevada,  was  once  a very  famous  silver-min- 
ing center.  Then  gold  mines  were  found  at 
Tonopah,  Goldfield,  and  Bullfrog,  and  many 
miners  went  to  work  in  the  hot,  treeless 
desert.  The  population  of  the  state  nearly 
doubled  between  1900  and  1910.  Recently 
copper  ores  have  been  found  so  near  the 
surface  in  eastern  Nevada  that  ore  can  be 
scooped  up  by  steam  shovels  and  loaded  into 
freight  cars.  Utah  also  has  copper.  Bing- 
ham, near  Salt  Lake  City,  has  one  of  the 
largest  copper  mines  in  the  world.  We  may 
expect  prospectors  to  find  still  more  mines  in 
the  Basin  ranges.  A great  industry  may 
arise  from  the  oil  shales.  These  are  already 
being  worked  at  Elko,  Nevada.  As  early 
as  1852,  the  Mormon  settlers  put  up  a home- 
made still  and  boiled  petroleum  out  of  the 
shale  rocks  (Sec.  119).  For  many  years 
the  Scotch  have  been  distilling  petroleum 
from  oil  shales  not  so  rich  as  those  of  Nevada, 
Utah,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming. 


84 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Photo.  Brown  Bro3.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  143.  Tonopah,  a town  in  the  Nevada  desert  without  shade  trees,  crops, 
streams,  or  grass,  but  gold  mines  brought  railroads  and  prosperity. 


142.  Power  from  the  sun. — The  Colorado 
River  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
are  near  enough  to  send  electric  power  to 
this  region  by  wire,  but  it  is  possible  that 
some  day  men  will  find  a way  to  get  power 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  If  that  happens, 
Death  Valley  and  the  Mohave  Desert,  with 
their  blazing  heat,  may  become  as  important 
as  any  coal  field  in  the  world,  because 
millions  of  horse  power  could  be  constantly 
sent  by  wire  over  the  mountains  to  the 
coasts  and  valleys  of  California,  where  it  is 
comfortable  for  people  to  live  and  work,  and 
where  it  is  easy  to  carry  on  commerce. 


ence?  3.  Trace  the  railroads 
(Fig.  309)  which  connect  the 
basin  area  with  the  outside  world. 
State  the  western  terminus  of 
each  road;  the  eastern  terminus. 
What  do  these  roads  haul?  4. 
Locate  the  Columbia,  Snake, 
Hood,  Yakima,  Wenatchee  rivers. 
Tell  definitely  the  service  each 
renders  to  the  people  living  in  its 
valley.  5.  Name  and  locate  the 
chief  irrigation  projects  (Fig.  130) 
in  the  two  basins.  Will  it  ever  be 
possible  to  irrigate  as  much  as  one 
quarter  of  this  region?  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer.  6. 
Which  basin  can  irrigate  the 
larger  part  of  its  land? 

7.  How  is  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  Great  Basin  and  the 
Columbia  Basin  determined?  8. 
What  does  the  railroad  map  (Fig. 
494)  tell  you  about  the  Colum- 
bia Basin  ? the  Corn  Belt  ? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 
9.  Describe  the  journey  which  a box  of  apples 
would  make  on  the  way  from  Hood  River  to 
London.  10.  Prepare  a poster  advertising  these 
apples  to  the  people  in  London.  11.  Why  are  basin 
lakes  so  salty?  12.  Make  a short  catalog  of  the 
pictures  in  this  chapter  as  in  question  No.  9,  page  36. 

13.  Write  a short  news  article  for  your  school  paper 
on  “Power  from  the  Sun.”  14.  What  would  it  mean 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Would  you  prefer  to  live  in  the  Columbia  Basin 
or  in  the  Great  Basin?  Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 
What  would  you  do  for  a living?  2.  What  is  the 
population  of  Nevada  per  square  mile?  of  your  state? 
(See  Appendix.)  How  do  you  account  for  the  differ- 

How  I Distinguish  Between  the  Great  Basin 
and  the  Columbia  Basin. 


Great 

Basin. 

Soil 

Rainfall  (Fig.  158) 

Temperature  (Figs.  328,  329)  . 

Rivers 

Agricultural  products 

Mineral  products  . 

Water  for  irrigation  and  power 
Cities . 7 

Columbia 

Basin. 


Fig.  144.  Map  of  North  America  showing  annual 
average  rainfall.  What  rainfall  line  divides  the  United 
States  into  two  nearly  equal  parts? 


I: 1 Under  10  inches 

^ 10  to  20  « 

20  to  40  «. 

ggg  40  to  80  « 

Over  80  « 


SOUTHWESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAINS 


85 


to  say  that  the  railroads  planted 
the  apple  orchards?  15.  Model 
in  damp  sand  the  Basin  areas: 
show  the  eastern  mountains,  the 
basins,  and  the  western  moun- 
tains. Indicate  in  some  interest- 
ing way  the  rivers,  cities,  and 
chief  products  of  these  regions. 


SOUTHWESTERN 
PLATEAUS  AND 
MOUNTAINS 
143.  Character  and  ap- 
pearance. — The  South- 
western Plateaus  reach 

from  northwestern  Colorado  „ t ..  , D , c . 

Courtesy  National  Park  service 

southward  through  New  Fig.  146.  A view  from  Zuni  Point,  showing  the  Colorado  River  and  the 
Mexico  and  old  Mexico  to  marvelous  canyon  it  has  cut  in  the  rocks  of  the  high  plateau.  (Fig.  239.) 


a point  about  a hundred  miles  south  of  the 
City  of  Mexico.  Nearly  all  of  the  surface 
of  this  plateau  is  higher  than  any  part  of  the 
Appalachian  Plateau.  The  Mexican  part  of 
the  plateau  or  high  plain  is  higher  than  the 
American  and  therefore  has  a cool,  healthful 
climate,  although  within  the  tropics.  People 
need  warm  bed  clothing  at  night. 

This  vast  region  is  a dry  and  lonely 
land.  Only  in  the  highest  parts  is  there 
enough  rain  to  support  forests.  On  most 
of  the  plateaus  the  bare  earth  shines  out 
between  scattering  clumps  of  bunch  grass 
and  shrubs,  for  the  water  supply  is  very 


scanty.  In  every  hillside  are  “barrancas,” 
or  gullies,  that  run  with  water  only  in  the 
few  short  hours  of  rain.  An  American 
soldier,  hunting  for  the  Mexican  bandit  Villa, 
had  traveled  many  weary  days  over  the 
Mexican  part  of  this  plateau.  He  said  of 
it,  “ This  is  a country  with  more  streams  and 
less  water,  with  more  cows  and  less  milk,  and 
where  you  can  look  farther  and  see  less  than 
in  any  other  country  of  the  world.”  Water 
is  so  very  scarce  that  the  natives  have 
learned  to  go  for  a long  time  without  it. 
If  you  ask  an  Arizona  Indian  to  have  a 
drink  of  water,  he  will  sometimes  say,  “No, 
thank  you,  I drank  yesterday.” 

At  many  places  on  the  surface  of  the  pla- 
teau there  are  flat  topped  hills  called  mesas 
(Spanish  for  table).  (Fig.  148.) 

144.  Bounds. — Bound  the  Southwestern 
Plateaus.  On  the  northwest  is  a wild  cliff 
called  Hurricane  Ledge  (Fig.  239).  On  the 
southwest  are  the  high  mountains  of  western 
Mexico,  where  the  Indian  tribes  rarely  see  a 
white  man.  In  Texas  and  northwestern 
Mexico,  the  eastern  edge  of  the  plateau  gives 
way  to  the  lowlands  by  great  “breaks,”  or 


© Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  145.  A petrified  forest  (logs  turned  to  stone),  dry 
gullies,  and  dry  land  vegetation  at  Walbrook,  Arizona. 


frar-u i^— — i ■ ■ ■ nti  -TySi*fi  I ■i  nnml^— ■ 

Fig.  147.  Diagram  to  show  the  broadening  of  valleys 
from  youth  to  old  age.  A young  valley  is  shown  at  1. 
In  time  this  valley  will  deepen  and  broaden  as  2,  and 
later  as  3, 4,  5.  Figs.  142  and  146  show  young  valleys. 


86 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


© Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  148.  A Hopi  Indian  village  on  the  top  of  a mesa, 
Hopi  Reservation,  Arizona.  Would  this  place  be  hard 
or  easy  to  defend? 

steps,  somewhat  like  the  cliff  in  Fig.  129. 
South  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  plateau  is  a mountain,  which 
rises  above  the  plateau  one  or  two  thousand 
feet,  and  then  plunges  steeply  down  toward 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as  the  western  mountains 
do  toward  the  Gulf  of  California  and  the 
Pacific. 

145.  Colorado  Plateau  and  Canyon. — The 

most  interesting  part  of  all  this  plateau  is 
that  called  the  Colorado  Plateau,  drained 
by  the  Colorado  River.  This  section  is  quite 
different  from  its  neighbor,  the  Great  Basin. 
The  Great  Basin,  you  remember  (Sec.  137), 
has  valleys  filled  with  soil  washed  from  the 
mountains.  In  the  Colorado  Plateau  this 
whole  country  is  high,  the  rivers  have  carved 
deep  canyons  in  the  hard,  bare  rocks  (Fig. 
239).  A special  railroad  has  been  built  to 
the  place  called  Grand  Canyon,  Arizona,  at 
the  edge  of  a very  famous  valley.  Many 
tourists  go  there  to  look  into  the  deepest 
gorge  in  the  world.  There  one  may  sit  on 
the  edge  of  a precipice  (Fig.  146),  and  look 
straight  down  for  thousands  of  feet,  even  a 
mile,  and  see  at  the  very  bottom  of  the  valley 


the  river  shining  like  a little  silver  thread. 
This  famous  river  has  cut  its  gorge  through 
rocks  of  many  colors.  In  the  morning,  one 
side  of  the  canyon  lies  in  deep  shadow.  The 
variously-colored  carvings  on  the  other  side 
shine  in  the  sun.  The  view  changes  every 
hour.  A thundercloud  may  rise  up  from  the 
river,  and  while  it  is  still  far  down  in  the 
canyon  will  throw  back  its  moisture  in  a 
shower.  The  top  of  the  cloud  shines  in  the 
sun,  while  lightning  flashes  in  the  gloom 
beneath  the  cloud,  and  thunder  echoes  from 
cliff  to  cliff. 

146.  People. — On  these  Plateaus  the  na- 
tive Indian  makes  up  a larger  share  of  the 
people  than  in  any  other  part  of  our  country. 
Several  thousand  Navajo  Indians  live  on 
their  reservation  located  near  where  the 
corners  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah 
join.  Many  Indians  support  themselves 
by  raising  sheep,  by  selling  hand-woven 
blankets,  and  by  working  on  the  railroads. 
The  Hopis  still  make  their  living  by  raising 
sheep,  and  by  tending  little  patches  of  irri- 
gated corn  down  in  the  valleys.  They  make 
their  homes  in  interesting  villages  on  the  tops 


Courtesy  “The  Journal  of  Heredity" 


Fig.  149.  Hopi  com  is  a dry  land  plant.  Its  tops  are 
short  and  small.  Its  sprouting  stem  is  so  long  that 
it  can  be  planted  deep  and  thus  get  moisture.  The 
shaded  part  of  this  figure  shows  the  depth  of  earth  in  a 
box  for  testing  sprouting  ability  of  different  com  varie- 
ties. Only  the  Hopi  corn  succeeded  in  very  deep  planting. 


SOUTHWESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAINS 


87 


Courtesy  Mining  and  Scientific  Press 

Fig.  150  A.  Sacramento  Hill,  near  Bisbee,  Arizona,  in 
February,  1913,  before  open  mining  of  copper  ore  com- 
menced. Open  mining  is  done  with  steam  shovels. 


Courtesy  Mining  and  Scientific  Press 

Fig.  150  B.  The  same  hill  as  in  Fig.  150A,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1920.  In  sixteen  more  ye  ars  the  hill  will  all  be  gone 
and  its  billion  pounds  of  copper  will  be  in  use. 


fri 


630 


Fig.  151.  The  five  leading  copper- 
producing  states  (1918-19  average 
production  in  pounds): 

A.  Arizona 653,010,000 

B.  Montana 251,350,000 

C.  Michigan 216,400.000 

D.  Utah 188,560,000 

E.  Nevada 85,470,000 

of  high,  steep  mesas.  (Fig. 
148.)  Hundreds  of  years 
ago  the  forefathers  of  the 

tribe  built  the  vil-  H — 

lages  on  mesas  because  those  places 
were  easy  to  defend  against  hostile 
Indian  tribes. 

In  the  Mexican  part  of  the 
plateau  a third  part  of  the  people 
are  full-blooded  Indians;  even  more 
are  part  Indian  and  part  Spanish; 
and  about  a quarter  are  Spanish- 
speaking white  people  who  rule  the 
country.  It  is  only  in  the  Amer- 
ican parts  of  this  plateau  that  the 
white  people  actually  outnumber 
the  Indians. 

The  population  is  much  denser 
in  the  Mexican  than  in  the 
section.  The  City  of  Mexico  is 
than  any  American  city  between  Kansas 
City  and  the  Pacific  Coast.  Nine-tenths  of 
the  people  of  Mexico  live  on  this  plateau 
because  it  is  much  cooler  and  more  healthful 
than  the  hot  lowlands  near  the  ocean. 

147.  Agriculture. — Since  rain  is  so  scanty 
here,  little  of  the  land  can  be  cultivated,  and 


ISO  m 

Fig.  152.  The  five  lead- 
ing copper-producing 
nations  (1917-18  aver- 
age production  in 
pounds) : 

A.  U.S..  .1,897,320,000 

B.  Chile. . .239,770,000 

C.  Japan  . .218,010,000 

D.  Mexico  133,600,000 

E.  Canada  113,990,000 
American 

larger 


most  of  it  is  in  sheep  and  cattle  ranches.  It 
is  so  diy  that  in  many  parts  fifty  or  sixty 
acres  of  land  are  required  to  keep  one  steer; 
and  much  land  is  required  to  support  one 
family.  Many  of  the  plateau  sheep  and 
cattle  go  to  the  corn  farms  to  be  fattened. 

Here  and  there  where  water  can  be  secured, 
little  patches  of  land  are  irrigated  by  Indians 
and  white  men.  The  Pecos  and  upper  Rio 
Grande  water  many  rich  alfalfa  fields. 
It  is  only  on  the  Rio  Grande  that  we 
find  a large'  storage  irrigation  sys- 
tem. This  is  supplied  by  the  Ele- 
phant Butte  reservoir,  situated  a 
short  distance  above  El  Paso,  and 
built  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment in  1908.  The  flood  water 
stored  in  this  lake  irrigates  the  plains 
around  El  Paso.  Hundreds  of 
farmers  now  grow  crops  of  grain  and 
alfalfa  on  land  which  before  the 
coming  of  water  was  only  a desert. 

In  the  Mexican  section  the  chief 
crops,  where  water  can  be  had,  are 
corn  and  beans.  Many  of 
the  people  live  almost  en- 
tirely on  the  monotonous 
diet  of  com  cakes  baked 
over  an  open  fire,  and  beans 
seasoned  with  chili  pepper. 

Fig.  153.  Copper  production, 

1917,  in  pounds: 

A.  World 3,147,258,000 

B.  United  States.  . .1,886,120,721 


88  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


148.  Mining  and  transportation. — Precious 
metals  have  long  been  the  chief  wealth  and 
the  chief  export  of  Mexico.  This  country  is 
often  called  the  metal  storehouse  of  the 
world,  and  nearly  all  the  Mexican  metal  is 
in  this  plateau  and  the  mountains  along 
its  edges.  The  Spaniards  conquered  the 
natives  because  they  had  such  wealth  in 
gold  and  silver.  Metals  will  doubtless  be 
the  chief  export  a hundred  years  hence,  as 
they  have  been  for  four  hundred  years 
past.  In  the  past,  silver  has  been  the  chief 
product  of  the  mines,  many  of  which  could 
be  reached  only  by  mule  trains,  which 
traveled  for  two  or  three  hundred  miles 
inland  from  the  seacoast  over  rough 
paths  where  wagons  could  not  go.  Under 
such  difficulties  only  the  richest  ores 
could  be  used.  Ore  was  dug  out  by  hand, 
and  carried  in  sacks  on  the  backs  of  men 
who  climbed  up  ladders  to  the  top  of  the 
mine.  The  ore  was  crushed  by  the  “arras- 
tra,”  a stone  wheel  which  was  rolled  on  a 
stone  floor.  The  rolling  wheel  worked  the 
heavy  metal  into  wide  cracks  in  the  floor. 
After  the  lighter  dust  and  particles  of  stone 
were  swept  away,  the  silver  was  taken  out 
of  the  cracks  with  a spoon  and  carried  off 
on  muleback  for  further  refining  in  smelters. 

After  American  railroads  had  been  built 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  South- 
western Plateaus  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  lines 
were  extended  into  Mexico.  Mexican  lines 
were  also  built  from  Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico 
over  the  steep  mountain  wall  into  the  plateau. 
Engines,  pumps,  and  efficient  mining  ma- 


Courtesy  Mexican  Embassy 


Fig.  154.  The  Post  Office  building  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 
Many  other  beautiful  buildings  are  to  be  seen  in  the  city. 


chinery  from  the  United  States  and  Europe 
can  now  be  taken  to  many  Mexican  mines, 
and  the  output  of  metal  has  been  greatly 
increased.  There  are  so  many  workers  in 
these  mines  that,  except  for  cattle,  there  is 
little  food  left  for  export  from  this  part  of 
the  country,  and  some  is  imported  from  the 
United  States. 

The  American  part  of  these  plateaus  is 
also  rich  in  metals.  Such  great  deposits  of 
copper  have  been  found  in  Arizona  that  this 
state  now  produces  more  copper  than  any 
other  state,  and  more  than  any  single  foreign 
country.  Bisbee,  Globe,  and  Jerome  are 
three  of  the  larger  mining  towns  where  men  of 
many  lands  have  come  to  do  the  work  of 
digging  metal.  Among  them  we  may  see 
white  men  from  the  eastern  states,  native 
'American  Indians,  native  Mexican  Indians, 
Spanish  half-breeds,  Italians,  Greeks,  Poles, 
and  many  other  Europeans,  and  also  a few 
Chinese  and  Japanese. 

149.  The  need  for  good  government. — 
The  most  important  question  about  the 
future  of  the  Mexican  part  of  this  country 
concerns  the  kind  of  government  it  will 
have.  There  has  been  so  much  fighting  in 
Mexico  that  it  is  difficult  to  run  a farm,  a 
mine,  or  a school  there,  or  even  to  live  in 
peace.  In  New  Mexico,  government  officials 
are  elected  by  ballot.  Across  the  border,  in 
Mexico,  the  officials  have  too  often  elected 
themselves  with  the  aid  of  bullets,  because 
so  many  of  the  people  are  impatient  and 
uneducated.  On  the  American  side  a man 
can  work  and  be  sure  of  his  liberty  and  his 
property.  On  the  Mexican  side  a mine 
owner  has  often  said  to  the  jefe  or  magistrate, 
"I  want  some  men  to  work  my  mine.” 

“All  right,”  the  jefe  has  replied. 

Then  he  has  gone  down  the  road,  arrested 
the  first  half  dozen  poor  men  he  saw,  put 
them  in  jail,  and  fined  them  fifty  dollars 
each.  The  mine  owner  has  paid  the  fines,  and 
has  made  the  men  work  for  him  to  pay 
him  back.  This  system  of  keeping  a man 
for  debt  is  called  peonage.  It  is  common  in 
many  Central  American  and  South  American 
countries. 


SOUTHWESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAINS 


89 


Such  injustice  has  too 
often  discouraged  the  people 
of  Mexico.  Where  such 
things  happen,  it  is  easy  to 
understand  why  there  are 
few  schools  and  few  indus- 
tries of  any  sort;  and  why 
the  people  are  so  poor  that 
they  must  live  almost  en- 
tirely on  corn  cakes  and 
beans.  Mexico  needs  to 
learn  the  art  of  good  gov- 
ernment. 

150.  Unused  resources. — 

The  Southwestern  Plateaus, 
especially  the  Mexican  part, 
have  great  resources  of  silver,  copper,  and 
other  metals.  Some  mines  have  deposits  so 
rich  that  it  will  take  at  least  a hundred  years 
to  work  them  out. 

The  beautiful  forests  on  the  highlands  and 
mountains  can  produce  much  good  timber, 
if  the  trees  are  not  destroyed  by  fire  or  cleared 
off  for  pasture.  The  pastures  of  both  the 
American  and  the  Mexican  parts  are  used  to 
their  full  extent;  the  forests  are  not  so  used. 

151.  Learning  to  use  the  desert. — There  is 
not  enough  water  for  much  irrigation,  but 
there  are  some  kinds  of  dry  farming  which 
may  make  large  harvests.  In  parts  of 
Africa  which  have  about  the  same  tempera- 
ture and  the  same  low  rainfall  as  parts  of 
these  plateaus,  the  land  has  been  made  valu- 
able (Sec.  556)  by  the  cultivation  of  the 
olive  tree  (Fig.  437),  which  has  wonderful 
ability  to  withstand  drought  and  produces 
oil  good  to  eat. 

The  Indians  of  the  plateau  region  have  long 
eaten  bread  made  of  the  ground  beans  of  the 
mesquite,  a native  tree  quite  the  equal  of 
the  olive  in  its  ability  to  withstand  drought. 
White  men  do  not  like  to  eat  mesquite  bread, 
but  cattle  eat  the  beans  from  the  trees.  In 
Hawaii  the  mesquite  is  an  important  crop. 
There  the  dairy  farmers  use  mesquite  bean 
meal  instead  of  bran  and  cottonseed  meal, 
which  are  more  costly.  There  may  some 
day  be  wide  expanses  where  long  rows  of 
olive,  mesquite,  and  other  drought-resisting 


trees  will  stretch  across  the  dry  Plateau. 

Some  of  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  have 
shown  how  dry  farming  may  fit  dry  lands. 
They  grow  a variety  of  bean  that  has  lived 
in  the  dry  country  so  long  that  it  has  learned 
to  wait  for  rain.  It  will  blossom,  bear  a few 
beans,  stand  throughout  a few  weeks  of 
drought,  grow  again  after  the  next  shower, 
ripen  more  beans,  and  wait  through  further 
drought  for  a third  period  of  production. 
This  way  of  growing  is  very  different  from 
that  of  corn  and  most  of  our  useful  plants, 
which  have  a short  season  for  fruiting,  and 
then  quickly  die  whether  they  have  produced 
much,  little,  or  nothing.  Man  has  only  begun 
to  make  use  of  the  wonderful  qualities  of 
many  plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  has  Nature  partly  repaid  her  plateau  children 
for  her  failure  to  supply  sufficient  rain?  2.  If  your 
balloon  ran  away  with  you,  and  came  down  in  the 
Southwestern  Plateaus,  how  would  you  know  you 
were  not  in  the  Cotton  Belt?  3.  Summarize  briefly 
what  you  have  learned  of  this  region,  under  the  fol- 
lowing headings: 


Sections. 

Loca- 

tion 

and 

Bound- 

aries. 

Eleva- 

tion. 

Cli- 

mate. 

Prod- 

ucts. 

People. 

Impor- 

tant 

Towns. 

u.  s 

Mexican 

4.  Make  a catalogue  from  the  pictures  in  this  chapter 
as  in  question  No.  9,  page  36. 

5.  Why  do  we  say  the  Colorado  Canyon  is  a young 
river  valley,  and  that  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
River  is  very  old?  (Fig.  147.)  How  can  you  account 


90 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Pacific  mountains. 


Fig.  156.  A United  States  weather  map,  showing  a big  cyclone  (low)  and  a 
big  cold  wave  (high)  on  their  way  across  the  United  States.  The  shaded  area 
shows  where  it  rained  the  day  before.  The  temperature  (40°  at  Charleston) 
is  shown  by  dotted  lines.  Solid  lines  show  the  air  pressure  (barometer  record) . 


for  the  difference?  6.  Tell  the  stories  of  a Navajo  and 
of  a Hopi  Indian  girl.  How  do  they  each  supply  them- 
selves with  the  six  needs  of  all  mankind?  7.  Name 
the  irrigation  projects  (Fig.  130)  shown  in  this  region. 
Is  it  possible  to  irrigate  much  more  of  this  region? 
What  plants  will  grow  here,  which  may  prove  valuable 
to  the  farmers? 

8.  Which  part  of  this  region  would  you  prefer  to 
visit?  Why?  Which  parts  would  you  prefer  not  to 
visit  for  very  long?  Why?  9.  What  effect  would  a 
good  government  have  upon  Mexico? 

THE  PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE 
NORTH  PACIEIC  COAST 

r152.  The  mountain  region  of  the  Pacific 
Coast. — There  is  not  so  much  plain  near  the 
Pacific  coast  as  there  is  along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  In  many  places  the  coast  ranges  rise 
steeply  from  the  Pacific  shore.  On  Fig.  14, 
examine  the  mountain  system  from  the 
southern  end  of  Lower  California  to  the 
Peninsula  of  Alaska,  and  that  from  Labrador 
to  the  Southern  Appalachians.  Which  moun- 
tain system  has  the  better  natural  highways 
through  it?  Compare  them  in  height.  Lo- 
cate the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, the  Coast  Ranges.  How  long  is  the 
mountainous  peninsula  of  Lower  California? 
How  far  is  it  from  Mexico  to  Canada?  from 
Washington  State  to  Alaska?  How  long  is  the 
south  coast  of  Alaska?  These  four  sections 
combine  to  make  this  long  mountain  region. 


North  of  the  Columbia 
Basin,  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains join  and  form  one 
great  mountain  mass  that 
continues  into  Alaska,  and 
finally  extends  across  the 
sea  as  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
These  islands  are  a string  of 
volcanoes  whose  tops  stick 
out  of  the  sea. 

153.  Climate  of  the 
— As  we 

have  crossed  the  continent 
in  the  course  of  our  study 
we  have  seen  that  the 
weather  is  very  different  in 
different  places.  We  saw 
that  western  Texas  has  so 
little  rain  that  the  land  is 
good  only  for  pasture,  while  eastern  Texas 
has  so  much  rain  that  it  is  a good  place  for 
corn,  cotton,  and  other  moist  land  crops, 
even  for  rice,  the  grain  that  grows  in  the 
water.  We  found  beautiful  streams  flowing 
out  of  the  forested  Rocky  Mountains,  and  we 
also  found  Death  Valley,  where  it  is  so  dry 
that  men  die  of  thirst.  How  much  rain 
falls  in  Death  Valley  in  a year?  (Fig.  158.) 
The  Pacific  mountains  also  have  many  kinds 
of  climate,  and  to  understand  how  this 
happens  we  must  study  more  about  rainfall. 

154.  The  cyclone  and  the  rain. — What  do 
cyclones  do  for  the  western  parts  of  our 
country?  When  a cyclone  crosses  the 
Pacific  Mountains  and  the  plateaus  near 
them,  the  storm  path  usually  stays  near  the 
Canadian  boundary.  What  happens  when 
a cyclone  center  travels  from  the  Pacific 
across  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana,  and 
South  Dakota?  In  the  United  States  the 
wind  blows  toward  this  storm  center  from 
the  west  and  south.  After  the  wind  leaves 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  strikes  the  west  side  of 
the  mountains  near  the  coast  and  heavy- 
rain  falls  on  the  windward  slope  of  each  range. 

155.  Water  vapor. — It  is  interesting  to 
know  why  rain  falls  when  the  wind  crosses 
a mountain.  There  is  always  water  in  the 


THE  PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  COAST  91 


air  in  the  invisible  form 
called  vapor.  Although  the 
air  may  seem  clear,  and  we 
cannot  see  the  tiny  particles 
of  water  vapor,  they  are 
there,  as  there  is  water  in  a 
damp  sponge  after  you  have 
squeezed  it.  We  have  all 
seen  wet  clothes  hung  on  a 
line  to  dry.  The  moisture 
that  they  contain  goes  into 
the  air  as  water  vapor. 

After  a rain,  you  have  no- 
ticed that  wet  sidewalks, 
stones,  and  boards  become 
dry  again.  The  water  has 
gone  into  the  air  as  vapor. 

We  say  it  has  evaporated. 

In  the  same  way  snow  and  fog  evaporate. 

You  know  how  much  more  quickly  clothes 
and  other  wet  objects  become  dry  on  warm 
days  than  on  cool  days.  It  is  a fact  that 
warm  air  holds  more  water  vapor  than  does 
cold  air.  That  is  why  warm  air  dries  clothes 
faster  than  does  cool  air.  The  air  in  a room 
on  a hot  summer  day  when  the  thermometer 
is  90°  F.  will  hold  several  times  as  much 
water  vapor  as  it  does  on  a winter  day  when 
the  temperature  is  only  30°.  We  usually 
have  more  white  clouds  floating  in  the  sky 
in  the  morning  than  at  midday.  They 
evaporate  as  the  air  becomes  warmer.  Ex- 
plain why  the  clouds  form  again  toward  night. 

156.  Dew. — With  a glass  of  ice  water  we 
can  see  how  dew  is  squeezed  out  of  the  air. 
Watch  the  little  drops  of  water  form  (con- 
dense) on  the  outside  of  a glass  of  ice  water 


| Under  10 

10  to  is 
15  to  20 
20  to  30 
30  to  15 
ggffll5  to  60 
Over  60 


Fig.  158.  Rainfall  map  of  the  United  States.  Find  your  own  home  and  tell 
its  rainfall.  What  is  the  rainfall  of  the  eastern  part  of  Texas?  Of  the 
western  part  of  Texas?  Parts  of  Washington  State  have  over  100  inches. 

in  a warm  room.  Why  do  they  appear?  It  is 
because  the  glass  of  ice  water  cools  a little  of 
the  air  that  surrounds  it,  and  when  the  air 
near  the  glass  becomes  cool,  it  cannot  hold  as 
much  water  vapor  as  it  could  when  it  was 
warm,  so  the  vapor  condenses  and  forms 
dewdrops,  or  drops  of  water,  on  the  cool  glass. 
The  condensed  vapor  or  dewdrops  cling  to  the 
outside  of  the  glass,  and  we  can  see  them  be- 
come larger  and  larger  until  at  last  they  run 
down  the  side  of  the  glass. 

In  the  same  way  dew  forms  at  night  on 
blades  of  grass.  The  grass  cools  off  quickly 
and  makes  the  air  near  by  so  cool  that  it  can- 
not hold  all  the  water  vapor  it  has.  We  say 
the  dew  falls.  It  does  not  really  fall,  but  it 
forms  right  where  we  see  it,  just  as  the 
moisture  condenses  on  the  cool  glass.  In 
fact,  the  moisture  that  we  watch  form  on  the 
glass  is  really  dew. 

GREAT  BASIN  157.  J'rost>  If  yOU 

watch  the  moisture  con- 
dense on  a plate  of  ice 

5^077  cream  in  hot  weather,  you 
if  may  see  some  of  it  freeze 
into  tiny  spikes,  or  crystals, 

Fig.  157.  The  rainfall  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  of  ice.  They  are  frost — 
The  shaded  part  is  land.  Elevations  shown  by  figures  are  at  the  surface  of  frr>von  motor  ,rannr  WW 

the  land;  the  amount  of  rainfall  per  year,  by  vertical  lines  and  figures  at  the  1 P ‘ ^ 

tops  of  the  lines.  Thus  Wadsworth,  about  25  miles  east  of  Reno,  4077  feet  does  frost,  instead  of  dew, 
high,  has  4.25  inches  of  rain  per  year,  less  than  one-fourth  the  rainfall  on  fnnri  nn 

the  Farallon  Islands,  about  25  miles  from  the  entrance  to  the  Golden  Gate.  . n m Iaa 

Account  for  the  rainfall  at  Sacramento,  Cisco,  and  Reno.  (Sec.  154.)  and  spring? 


SIERRA  NEVADA 
51  16  , 

47.01 


PACIFIC  § 
OCEAN  0*fi.7r 


SEA  LEVEL  2S  MILC6  SO 

157. 


92 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Figs.  158  and  91  and 
make  a figure  like  157  from 
a line  east  and  west  through 
Seattle  or  Portland? 

Does  the  rainfall  map 
show  why  nearly  all  the 
towns  of  Utah  are  in  a 
string  on  the  plain  at  the 
foot  of  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains? 

159.  Uneven  distribution 
of  rain  on  the  Pacific  Moun- 
tains.— Lower  California  is 
so  far  south  that  cyclonic 
storms  occur  there  only  in 
the  winter.  In  summer  it 
is  a hot,  dry  region.  There 
photo.  Brown  Bros.,  n.  y.  fs  so  little  rain  that  the 
Fig.  159.  A rotary  snowplow  used  to  dig  a way  through  mountain  snows.  mountain  streams  rarely 

158.  Rain  in  the  western  states. — Now  we  reach  the  sea.  The  rainfall  increases  as  we 
are  ready  to  see  why  the  Pacific  Mountains  go  north,  but  even  at  San  Diego  there  is 
have  much  rain  and  snow,  while  ^ less  than  twenty  inches  of  rain  a 


the  Basins  have  so  very  little. 
When  the  west  wind  blows  moist  air 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean  toward 
Nevada,  it  has  to  cross  two  mountain 
ranges,  and  one  of  them  is  very  high. 
(Fig.  157.)  As  the  air  climbs  higher 
and  higher  it  becomes  cooler  and 
cooler,  and  the  moisture,  or  water 
vapor,  condenses  as  it  does  in  the 
case  of  the  cold  glass  or  the  blades 
of  grass.  These  little  drops  of  water 
in  the  air  are  like  those  we  see  in  the 
little  cloud  which  forms  above  the 
mouth  of  a boiling  teakettle.  As 
the  air  goes  higher  and  becomes  still 
cooler,  the  little  drops  gather  to- 
gether making  drops  so  large  that 
they  fall  as  rain.  If  the  weather  is 
cold  enough,  frost  is  formed  instead, 
and  falls  as  snow.  Look  at  the  rain- 
fall map  of  the  United  States  (Fig. 
158).  How  many  belts  of  rainfall 
can  you  pick  out  in  each  of  the  Pa- 
cific States?  What  makes  them? 
(Figs.  91,  157).  How  much  rain 
falls  in  Nevada? 


year,  and  men  must  irrigate  the  land 
in  order  to  grow  most  crops.  But  in 
northern  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington,  the  west  winds  drop 
nearly  a hundred  inches  of  rain  a 
year  on  the  mountains.  The  winter 
snowfall  is  heavy.  Sometimes  it  is 
piled  up  to  the  eaves  of  mountain 
houses.  The  railroads  can  run  only 
by  having  snowsheds  built  over  the 
tracks..  At  Donner,  California,  near 
the  summit  of  the  Sierra,  the  average 
snowfall  is  sixty-eight  feet  a year. 

From  the  northern  end  of  Van- 
couver Island  around  to  the  Alaskan 
Peninsula,  the  Pacific  Coast  is  in 
many  places  a rugged  wall  of  moun- 
tain, rising  so  directly  from  the  sea 
that  rarely  is  there  room  for  a town 
or  a farm  (Fig.  165).  The  sea  winds 
hurl  moist  air,  warm  from  the  ocean, 
against  these  mountain  slopes.  This 

Fig.  160.  Fir  trees,  causes  very  heavy  rain  and  snow.  So 
Baker  County,  Ore- 
gon. Did  you  ever 
see  a tree  with  so 


U.  S.  Forest  Service 


much  snow  falls  on  the  high  moun- 
tains that  glaciers  bring  millions  of 


How  much  on  the  ghtotr^n^-i^ 15°  tons  of  ice  down  to  the  sea,  where  it 
Sierra?  Can  you  get  facts  from  make  good  lumber?  melts  in  the  warm  water  of  the  Japa- 


THE  PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  COAST  93 


Courtesy  West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Assn. 


Fig.  161.  Splitting  a Sitka  spruce  log  for  airplane  wood 
in  western  Washington.  Can  you  tell  why  split  pieces 
may  be  stronger  than  sawed  pieces?  Men  cut  the  tree 
in  a day.  It  needed  three  hundred  years  to  grow. 

nese  current  (Fig.  327).  Because  of  this  cur- 
rent the  temperature  along  the  Alaskan 
coast  is  much  warmer  than  that  of  eastern 
North  America  in  the  same  latitude. 

160.  Forests  and  snowfields. — In  Lower 
California  the  climate  is  so  hot  and  the  rain- 
fall so  slight  that  there  is  only  a little  forest 
on  the  top  of  the  high  mountains  near  the 
northern  end  of  the  peninsula.  The  moun- 
tains are  often  only  bare,  dry  rocks,  with 
a few  bushes  clinging  in  the  moister  places. 

The  forest  begins  at  5000  feet  on  the  moun- 
tains of  southern  California.  The  valleys  are 
treeless.  In  the  Great  Valley  the  western 
slopes  of  the  southern  Sierra  Nevada  are 
grass-covered  for  the  first  fifteen  hundred  feet, 
then  scattering  trees  appear.  At  three  thou- 
sand feet  the  Sierras  are  covered  with  a solid 
forest  of  splendid  trees,  which  extend  upward 
to  the  6000-foot  level.  The  farther  north  one 
goes  the  greater  is  the  rainfall  and  the  lower 
this  forest  line  on  the  mountains.  The  Coast 
Ranges,  which  are  lower  than  the  Sierra,  do 
not  have  much  forest  south  of  San  Francisco. 
What  is  the  rainfall  of  the  Coast  Ranges? 
(Fig.  158.)  In  northern  California,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  the  heavy  rain  makes  the 
coast  forest  so  thick  that  it  seems  almost 
like  a great  dark  building  beneath  the  trees. 
The  great  tree  trunks  stand  like  the  columns 
of  a temple.  Between  them  stand  masses  of 


ferns  as  high  as  a man’s  head,  and  in  winter 
they  are  dripping  wet  in  this  ocean  climate. 

Large  areas  of  these  Pacific  forests  are  cov- 
ered with  redwood,  sugar  pine,  and  Douglas 
fir.  The  Sitka  spruce  flourishes  in  the  wettest 
lands  along  the  coast  from  Oregon  to  Alaska. 
Its  wood  became  so  important  during  the 
World  War,  when  it  was  used  for  making 
parts  of  airplanes,  that  special  railroads  were 
built  in  western  Washington  to  get  out  the 
great  logs  of  this  strong,  light  wood. 

No  other  part  of  the  world  can  rival  the 
mountains  of  the  Pacific  Coast  in  richness 
of  lumber  supply.  One  may  walk  for  miles 
along  mountain  slopes  in  California,  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  British  Columbia,  winding 
his  way  in  and  out  among  the  trunks  of  trees 
that  are  four,  five,  six,  or  seven  feet  in  diame- 
ter. The  first  limb  of  these  trees  may  be 
fifty  or  even  a hundred  feet  from  the  ground. 
Nowhere  else  in  the  world  does  one  acre  of 
forest  yield  so  much  lumber.  (Fig.  160.) 

It  is  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  that 


< Courtesy  The  H.  K.  McCann  Co. 


Fig.  162.  Felling  a Pacific  Coast  tree.  Why  may  this  be 
called  “mining”  lumber?  About  how  old  is  this  tree  if 
it  has  added  one  quarter  inch  to  its  diameter  each  year? 

II. 


94 


M 


N 


O 


P 


Fig.  163. 


THE  PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  COAST  95 


we  find  the  famous  “big  tree”  or  giant 
Sequoia.  Millions  of  years  ago  these  trees 
were  very  common;  now  they  grow  only  on 
a few  hundred  square  miles  of  this  region, 
and  the  largest  trees  are  now  in  a park. 
(Sec.  163.)  The  mild  winters,  the  plentiful 
rain,  and  the  absence  of  hard  winds  permit 
these  ancient  giants 
to  prosper.  Some  of 
them  have  lived  since 
the  time  of  Moses. 

161.  From  the  for- 
est to  the  lumberyard. 

— Since  lumbering  is 
the  chief  occupation  of 
this  region  of  wonder- 
ful mountain  forests, 
most  of  the  population 
is  made  up  of  lumber- 
men. Here  in  the 
woods  they  live  for 
a time  in  camps  and 
work,  busy  with  tem- 
porary railroads,  log 
chutes,  timber  flumes, 
donkey  engines,  and 
teams.  Washington 
State  leads  all  others 
in  lumber  production; 

Oregon  is  third.  The 
lumber  is  sent  by 
thousands  of  carloads 
to  eastern  cities,  and 
by  shiploads  to  every 
continent. 

162.  Forests  of  the 
northern  mountains. 

— The  splendid  forest 
that  we  find  in  Wash- 
ington extends  on  into 
British  Columbia  and 
Alaska.  Most  of  the 
Alaskan  shore,  and  many  steep  islands,  in- 
cluding Kadiak  Island,  Alaska,  are  at  low 
elevations,  green  with  forests  of  Sitka 
spruce  and  other  evergreen  trees.  In  this 
northern  latitude  the  upper  timber  line  is 
not  high  up.  Above  it  are  thousands  of 
square  miles  of  bare  rocks  or 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Forest  Service 

Fig.  164.  A forest  fire  killed  these  big  trees  in  one  of 
our  western  national  forests,  and  left  them  standing. 
Later  a second  fire  killed  the  young  growth  and  burned 
deeply  into  the  old  dead  trees.  Compare  the  value  of 
this  stand  of  timber  with  that  shown  in  Fig.  160. 


fields,  from  which  come  the  glaciers 
(Sec.  159). 

This  Pacific  Mountain  Region  includes  Mt. 
McKinley,  Mt.  Logan,  and  Mt.  St.  Elias, 
the  highest  mountains  of  North  America. 

163.  National  forests  and  national  parks. — 
Since  nearly  all  of  this  mountain  region  is 
too  rough  for  farms, 
our  Government  has 
very  wisely  set  aside 
much  of  the  American 
part  of  the  land  as 
national  forests,  to  be 
protected  by  the 
forest  rangers,  and 
to  be  kept  for  the 
use  of  all  the  people 
for  all  time.  In  sum- 
mer, sheep  are  allowed 
to  pasture  in  some  of 
the  forests  as  they  do 
in  the  Rockies.  Lum- 
ber is  cut  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  people 
who  live  near,  but  the 
Forest  Service  tries  to 
keep  young  trees  grow- 
ing, so  that  the  forest 
may  always  yield  a 
harvest.  The  art  of 
protecting  and  caring 
for  forests  is  called 
forestry. 

Many  of  the  most 
beautiful  parts  of  the 
Pacific  forests  have 
been  set  aside  as  na- 
tional parks.  Roads 
have  been  built  which 
lead  to  them,  and  trav- 
elers may  go  to  them 
to  camp,  tramp,  and 
enjoy  the  wild  out-of-doors.  (Figs.  128, 
168.)  Many  citizens  have  spent  much  time, 
working  without  pay,  persuading  Congress 
to  pass  good  forest  and  park  laws,  and  our 
Presidents  to  enforce  them.  Public-spirited 
citizens  had  to  work  very  hard  to  get  a grove 
largest  of  the  Sequoia  trees  set  aside 


96  * 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Photo.  William  Thompson 

Fig.  165.  Pyramid  Range,  Sitka  Harbor,  Alaska.  Why  is  the  bottom  forest-clad,  the  top  snow-clad,  and  the 
mid-height  cloud-clad  as  the  west  wind  blows  ? Rivers  on  this  coast  are  salmon  streams. 


as  Sequoia  National  Park.  The  wonderful 
Valley  of  Yosemite,  on  the  Merced  River  in 
California,  is  now  the  Yosemite  National  Park. 

In  Oregon,  a road  eighty  miles  long  per- 
mits the  traveler  to  visit  Crater  Lake, 
famed  for  its  high  cliffs  and  clear  water  of 
matchless  blue.  This  lake  is  five  miles 
across  and  stands  in  the  top  of  an  old  volcano, 
where  once  the  lava  boiled  and  bubbled. 
In  western  Washington  is  Mt.  Rainier 
National  Park,  where  snow-capped  Mt. 
Rainier  can  be  admired  from  great  distances. 
The  government  of  British  Columbia  has 
set  aside  national  forests  and  national  parks 
as  our  government  has  done  in  the  United 
States  and  Alaska. 

164.  Minerals. — This  mountain  region  has 
another  source  of  wealth:  minerals.  Gold 
was  first  found  in  California  in  one  of  the 
streams  of  Sacramento  Valley,  in  1848.  The 
early  miners  washed  the  sands  of  the  rivers 
in  pans.  To  get  the  golden  grains,  they  even 
scraped  with  spoons  the  crannies  in  the 
rocky  beds.  After  the  miners  had  taken  all 
the  gold  out  of  the  stream  bed,  they  found 
that  small  quantities  of  gold  could  still  be 
washed  from  banks  of  sand  and  gravel  lying 
along  the  streams,  by  a method  called  placer 
mining.  Finally  the  miners  followed  the 
precious  trail  up  to  its  ancient  source  in  the 
mountain  rocks.  There  deep  mining  in  the 


solid  rock  began.  In  some  places  valuable 
orchards  have  been  tom  up  by  dredges  digging 
up  meadows  to  get  gold  from  ancient  river 
beds.  The  meadow  becomes  a pile  of  stones. 

There  is  gold  in  the  Alaskan  part  of  these 
mountains  also.  At  Juneau  are  the  Tread- 
well and  Alaska- Juneau  gold  mines.  The 
Treadwell,  far  below  sea  level,  had  produced 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  gold  before  the 
sea  broke  through  and  flooded  it.  This 
disaster  prevents  its  being  worked  now. 
From  the  Alaska-Juneau  mine  is  taken 
eight  thousand  tons  of  ore-bearing  rock 
every  working  day,  yielding  only  a little 
gold  per  ton,  but  enough  to  pay  men 
for  working  it. 

165.  Railroads  and  cities. — Southern  Alas- 
ka has  deposits  of  copper  and  coal,  and  the 
United  States  Government  has  built  a rail- 
road to  help  the  mining  industry.  In  sum- 
mer the  terminus  of  this  road  is  at  Sunrise, 

Fig.  166.  Six  leading  lumber-  j-j 1 

producing  states  (1919): 

A.  Washington 

4.961.200  ft.  B.  M. 

B.  Louisiana 

3,163,900  ft.  B.  M. 

C.  Oregon 

2,577,400  ft.  B.  M. 

D.  Mississippi 

2,390,100  ft.  B.  M. 

E.  Alabama 

1,798,800  ft.  B.  M. 

F.  Arkansas 

1.772.200  ft.  B.  M. 


n 


01 


97 


AmuSka 


■ 

a 


Q. 


O 


z 


Fig.  167. 


98 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


Courtesy  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce 


people  will  receive  future 
benefits.  In  the  national 
forests  the  ranger  fights  fire, 
in  order  that  people  may 
have  wood  to  use  ten  or  a 
hundred  years  hence.  The 
parks  are  planned  to  last 
forever.  Water  power 
plants  are  being  built  along- 
side of  mountain  waterfalls 
in  order  to  send  power  to 
Seattle,  San  Francisco,  and 
dozens  of  other  cities. 
These  power  plants  and 
irrigation  reservoirs  are 


Fig.  168.  Mt.  Rainier,  sometimes  called  Mt.  Tacoma,  14,408  feet  high,  called  being  built  with  the  future 
by  the  Indians  “The  Mountain  That  Was  God.”  It  is  not  far  from  Puget  • • u 

Sound,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle.  The  tents  are  those  of  campers,  who  have  the  view’  Decause  tney  muse 
privileges  of  the  mountains,  which  are  part  of  Mt.  Rainier  National  Park,  run  for  many  years  before 


near  the  head  of  Cook  Inlet,  but  when  the  in- 
let freezes  over  in  winter,  the  trains  must  cross 
the  Kenai  Peninsula  to  the  port  of  Seward. 

Skagway,  at  the  head  of  a long,  narrow 
inlet,  has  a railroad  that  crosses  the  moun- 
tains to  connect  with  the  steamers  on  the 
upper  Yukon  at  White  Horse.  These 
steamers  carry  supplies  to  mining  settle- 
ments and  trading  posts  on  the  great  Yukon. 
We  shall  study  about  them  later  (Sec.  348). 

Prince  Rupert,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Skeena, 
will  probably  be  the  largest  city  of  this  region 
north  of  Vancouver.  It  is  the  terminus  of 
the  new  Grand  Trunk  Railroad  that  has 
been  built  by  the  Canadian  Government  to 
give  the  northern  part  of  the  wheat  region 
an  outlet  on  the  Pacific. 

166.  Preparing  for  the  future. — These  moun- 
tains reach  from  the  land  of  blazing  sun  to 
driving  snow,  but  everywhere  they  are 
mountains,  producing  only  pasture,  wood, 
minerals,  water,  or  recreation.  They  are 
not  suitable  places  for  the  permanent  homes 
of  many  people.  Most  of  those  who  live 
there  stay  only  for  a time,  and  then  move 
away.  They  are  lumbermen,  miners,  for- 
est rangers,  or  campers  seeking  a summer 
vacation  in  the  cool  mountains.  (Fig.  168.) 
Though  men  live  here  only  temporarily,  it 
is  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  use  the 
resources  of  the  mountains  wisely,  so  that  | 


they  can  pay  for  themselves,  and  they  can 
keep  on  furnishing  water  and  power  to  valley 
dwellers  for  generation  after  generation. 

These  Pacific  Mountains  have  almost  as 
much  water  power  as  all  the  rest  of  the  United 
States  combined.  They  have  as  much  power 
as  is  used  by  all  the  factories  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Some  of  this  power  is  in 
the  Coast  Range,  but  more  of  it  is  in  the 
Cascades  and  the  Sierra.  All  of  it  is  within 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 


Fig.  169.  This  Indian  on  Albert  Bay,  Vancouver 
Island,  builds  his  house  white  man’s  style,  but  h>e 
tells  his  family  history  with  totem  poles  carved  from 
tree  trunks,  North  Pacific  Indian  style. 


a 


THE  PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  COAST  99 


easy  reach  of  the  cities  of  the  valleys  and 
the  coast  and  the  Basins. 

If  we  take  proper  care  of  our  continent, 
we  shall  keep  these  mountains  in  forest  to 
furnish  wood,  to  hold  the  soil,  to  store  water 
in  the  soil,  and  to  shade  the  snow  so  that  it 
will  not  melt  too  soon.  In  many  of  the 
narrow  canyons,  dams  will  some  time  be  built 
to  provide  water  for  irrigation  and  electric 
power.  Show  one  way  in  which  waterfalls 
are  better  than  coal  fields. 

167.  Alaskan  resources. — The  mines  of 
Alaska  promise  to  yield  large  quantities  of 
coal,  copper,  and  gold ; they  may  keep  many 
thousands  of  workmen  busy  for  a long  time. 
Salmon  canneries  at  river  mouths  along  the 
coast  will  continue  to  be  busy  in  the  canning 
season ; that  is,  if  we  do  not  destroy  the  sal- 
mon by  too  much  fishing,  as  we  have  done 
in  some  other  rivers.  On  the  Pribilof  Islands 
in  Bering  Sea  our  government  owns  and 
cares  for  the  largest  herd  of  fur  seals  in  the 
world.  The  men  who  live  there  to  protect  the 
seals  also  have  fox  farms,  where  they  raise 
the  blue  fox  for  its  valuable  skin. 

There  is  some  farming  land  along  the 
Alaskan  coast  waiting  for  the  time  when 
we  may  need  to  use  it.  Grass  grows  to 
great  height.  The  long  summer  days  let 
potatoes,  oats,  barley,  and  many  hardy 
vegetables  ripen. 

The  forests  of  the  Alaskan  coast  region 
contain  a vast  amount  of  timber,  and  will 
soon  be  of  use.  In  1921  the  United  States 
Forest  Service  leased  a large  tract  of  land  in 
a national  forest  near  56°  north  latitude  to 
a paper  company  which  promised  to  build  a 
large  paper-mill  at  once.  Who  will  use  that 
paper?  How  will  it  reach  the  market? 

The  interior,  with  its  maze  of  unmapped 
mountains,  offers  attractions  to  daring  per- 
sons who  like  to  join  the  Indians  and  tramp 
where  few  have  tramped  before;  who  like 
to  fish  and  to  hunt  mountain  sheep,  caribou, 
and  grizzly  bear,  far  from  the  homes  of  men. 

168.  The  conservation  of  resources. — 
These  mountains  will  be  one  of  the  tests  of 
our  government  and  of  our  civilization.  In 
some  parts  of  Spain  the  firewood  cutters 


went  out  long  ago  and  cut  down  the  trees. 
Then  the  goatherd  came  along  with  his  flock, 
and  every  little  tree  was  eaten.  Then  gullies 
started  and  now  they  are  deep  enough  to  hide 
a house.  Nothing  grows  on  those  mountain- 
sides and  no  one  makes  his  living  there. 

In  parts  of  China  the  same  thing  has 
happened.  The  forest  is  gone  from  the 
mountainside,  the  earth  is  gone  from  the 
mountainside,  and  even  worse  yet,  the  dirt 
and  stones  have  been  spread  over  the  good 
farm  lands  of  the  valley  and  have  ruined  the 
valleys  also. 

Shall  we  do  better  than  this?  In  some 
places  we  have  already  done  the  same  thing 
in  our  new  continent.  (Fig.  82.)  Most  of 
our  western  mountain  lands  belong  to  the 
government.  Shall  we  elect  to  government 
positions  people  who  work  for  the  public 
good,  and  then  keep  them  in  their  positions? 
In  a very  short  time  that  choice  of  officials 
for  such  positions  will  be  made  by  the  boys 
and  girls  now  in  our  schools.  What  organ- 
izations are  there  in  your  neighborhood  that 
work  to  make  it  a better  place  in  which  to  live? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Determine  with  your  map  scales  the  length  of 
this  great  mountain  wall.  (Sec.  152.)  What  states 
and  provinces  does  it  cross?  Locate  and  give  the  ele- 
vation of  four  great  mountain  peaks.  What  important 
mountain  ranges  form  the  system?  2.  Make  a list  of 
the  good  effects  of  mountains;  the  bad  effects.  3. 
Will  it  make  any  difference  to  the  people  of  a city  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast  if  fires  and  lumbermen  waste  timber 
on  the  Pacific  Mountains?  4.  Give  three  reasons 
why  these  mountains  should  be  kept  in  forest. 

5.  Why  is  there  more  rainfall  in  the  northern  part 
of  this  region  than  in  the  southern?  6.  Why  should  the 
governments  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  rather 
than  private  individuals,  own  great  areas  in  these 
mountains?  7.  Compare  the  west  coast  of  North 
America  and  the  east  coast  as  to  nature  of  coast 
line,  width  of  coastal  plain,  distance  of  mountains 
from  the  sea,  average  height  of  mountain  areas.  8. 
Write  to  the  National  Park  Service  at  Washington 
for  a booklet  about  the  national  parks.  9.  What 
appeals  to  you  as  the  most  beautiful  sight  one  would 
see  traveling  through  this  region?  the  most  interesting? 

10.  How  may  the  waterfalls  in  these  mountains  do 
as  much  for  the  people  who  live  there  as  anthracite 
has  done  for  Pennsylvania?  11.  Subject  for  debate: 
Resolved,  that  the  forests  of  our  country  are  a greater 
source  of  wealth  than  our  gold  mines.  12.  Find  from 
some  good  encyclopedia,  facts  of  interest  about  the 
Yosemite,  Mt.  Rainier,  Crater  Lake,  the  big  trees  of 
California. 


Fig.  170.  Looking  down  from  Smiley  Heights  upon  the 
orchard-clad  slopes  above  Redlands  in  the  southern  California 
orange  district.'  Compare  with  Figure  1.  Can  you  tell  why  a 
lot  of  snow  on  the  mountain  in  the  springtime  makes  the 
valley  people  feel  rich. 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


169.  The  four  Pacific  valley  regions. — 

On  the  Pacific  slope  there  are  four  valleys, 
each  of  which  is  separate  from  all  the  others. 
The  four  valleys  differ  greatly  in  character; 
so  much,  indeed,  that  each  of  them  must  be 
considered  as  a separate  region.  Two  of  these 
valleys  are  in  California;  one  is  in  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  British  Columbia;  and  the 
fourth,  which  this  chapter  describes,  lies 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River  north 
and  east  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  in  Mexico, 
Arizona,  and  California. 

THE  LOWER  COLORADO  REGION 

170.  A great  delta  oasis. — The  lower 
valley  of  the  Colorado  River  is  often  called 
the  American  Egypt.  This  so-called  Ameri- 
can Egypt  is  naturally  desert,  but  a great 
river  flowing  from  other  regions  makes  the 
land  productive  in  much  the  same  way  that 
the  Nile  River  saves  Egypt  from  being  a 
desert.  The  climate  of  the  two  regions  is 
similar,  and  crops  such  as  the  date,  Egyptian 
cotton,  alfalfa,  Kafir  corn,  and  early  vege- 
tables are  produced  in  both  places.  The 


people  of  Yuma,  Arizona,  sometimes  say  that 
they  have  eleven  months  of  summer  and  one 
month  of  late  spring.  How  far  north  of  the 
equator  is  Yuma?  Cairo  on  the  Nile? 

171.  A wonderful  delta. — The  Colorado 
delta  is  a piece  of  new  land.  It  is  much  the 
largest  tract  of  good  farm  land  in  this  region. 
Once  upon  a time,  long  ago,  the  Gulf  of 
California  reached  about  two  hundred  miles 
farther  to  the  northwest  than  it  now  does, 
and  the  Colorado  River  flowed  into  the  east 
side  of  it.  The  dirt  that  the  river  cut  from 
the  Grand  Canyon  was  gradually  spread  out 
into  a delta  that  reached  across  the  Gulf. 
The  river,  as  rivers  do  in  deltas,  flowed  now 
here,  now  there,  sometimes  into  the  gulf  as 
at  present,  sometimes  into  a cut-off  piece 
of  the  Gulf,  the  remainder  of  which  is  called 
Salton  Sink  or  Sea.  (Fig.  171.)  When  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  was  built  through 
that  region,  and  white  settlers  began  farming 
there,  the  Colorado  flowed  directly  into  the 
Gulf,  and  the  Salton  Sea  was  so  nearly 
dried  up  that  it  was  only  a small  body  of  salt 
water  surrounded  by  many  square  miles  of 


THE  LOWER  COLORADO  REGION 


101 


their  great 
food  tree, 
the  date 
palm,  loves 
to  grow 
with  its  feet 
in  the  water 
and  its  head 
in  the  fires 
of  Heaven. 

Then  the 
Imperial 
Valley  is  a 
natural 
home  for 
the  date. 

The  great  Courtesy  U.S.  Geological  Survey 

river  Fig.  172.  A desert  in  the  Lower 
furnishes  Colorado  Region.  The  only  water 
within  ten  miles  is  under  the  boards 
plenty  Of  beside  the  bush.  No  water  flows 
water  and  away  from  the  spring.  Many  such 
’ springs  have  been  marked  by  the 

the  rays  Of  United  States  Government  to  make  the 
the  sun  do  desert  safer  for  travelers.  Can  you  tell 
, why  travelers  might  cross  this  desert? 

seem  almost 

as  hot  as  fire.  The  thermometer  is  105°  in 
the  shade  every  day  for  weeks  at  a time,  and 
if  the  sun  shines  on  a pipe  filled  with  water, 
the  water  in  it  will  get  hot  enough  to  burn 
one’s  hands.  Orchards  of  date  trees,  brought 
from  Africa  and  Asia,  are  now  thriving  and 
bearing  good  fruit  in  what  was  recently  the 
burning  desert  of  California  and  Arizona.  It 
is  claimed  that  these  dates  are  sweeter  and 
better  than  old-world  dates. 

174.  Truck  farming.  — Cantaloups  from 
this  district  ripen  weeks  before  those  grown 
on  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  For  a month 
they  are  shipped  (three  hundred  carloads 
a day,  in  1920)  to  nearly  every  state  in  the 
United  States.  Sometimes  the  price  is  high, 
but  sometimes  there  are  too  many  canta- 
loups grown,  and  the  price  drops  so  low  that 
it  does  not  pay  the  growers  to  ship  them. 

175.  Cattle  and  cotton. — The  Imperial 
Valley  and  the  Salt  River  Valley  are  also 
good  for  cattle.  No  crop  thrives  better  under 
irrigation  than  alfalfa.  This  forage,  along 
with  Kafir  corn  (Sec.  108), is  grown  and  fed  to 
many  dairy  cattle;  so  there  is  butter  to  sell. 


desert  land  lying  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
How  much  is  below  the  sea  level?  (Fig.  171.) 

172.  A fight  with  a river. — Imperial  Valley 
is  the  correct  name  for  the  American  Egypt. 
The  Americans  built  a canal  to  carry  water 
from  the  river  toward  Salton  Sink,  to  irrigate 
the  rich  delta  land.  By  accident  they  nearly 
drowned  the  valley.  Heavy  floods  made  the 
water  flow  so  swiftly  that  it  dug  the  canal 
deeper,  and  finally  87  per  cent  of  the  Colo- 
rado River  flowed  down  into  Salton  Sea.  New 
channels  washed  good  fields  away.  The  sea 
rose  and  flooded  the  railroad  and  some  farms. 
How  much  land  would  it  have  flooded  if  it  had 
not  been  stopped?  (Fig.  171.)  It  took  three 
million  dollars  and  many  months  of  work  to 
stop  this  break  and  make  the  river  flow  again 
into  the  Gulf.  Many  miles  of  railroad  bed 
were  under  water  when  the  river  was  con- 
quered, and  many  farms  were  threatened. 
Now  a great  farming  region  has  arisen  there, 
for  the  soil  is  level,  rich,  and  deep,  and  the 
hot  sun  makes  plants  grow  with  great  speed. 

173.  Date  farming. — The  Arabs  say  that 


Fig.  171.  Map  showing  the  delta  (alluvial  fan)  of  the 
Colorado,  and  the  Imperial  Valley  which  it  made.  Where 
was  the  upper  end  of  the  gulf  before  the  delta  reached 
across  it?  California  has  many  such  alluvial  fans. 


102 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


the  Gulf  of  California. — This  is  a low 
plain  with  steep  mountains  at  its  eastern 
limit.  This  coast  plain  shimmers  under 
the  blazing  sun  and,  like  the  lower  Col- 
orado Valley,  is  nearly  rainless  and 
often  bare.  (Fig.  172.)  In  some  parts 
there  is  so  little  rain  that  no  streams 
reach  the  sea.  They  flow  instead  into  little 
salt  lakes  or  salty  sand  plains.  Even  the 
mountains  for  the  first  four  or  five  thou- 
sand feet  up  are  hot,  and  bare  of  all  growth 
except  cactus  and  scattered  desert  bushes. 
Pine  forests,  encouraged  by  the  greater 
rainfall  of  the  heights,  cling  to  the  high,  wild 
slopes.  The  white  man  knows  but  little 
of  these  tangled  masses  of  mountainsides 
and  hidden  valleys,  but  the  Indian  has 
climbed  there.  Some  of  this  wild  region  is 
still  occupied  by  the  Yaqui  Indians.  This 
brave  tribe  has  been  at  war  with  the  Spanish- 
speaking people  of  Mexico  for  three  hundred 
years. 

An  American  railroad  has  been  built  the 
whole  length  of  the  plain  and  it  extends  on 
up  into  the  plateau.  (Fig.  91.)  At  a few 
places  there  is  enough  water  for  irrigation, 
where  food  crops  for  the  natives,  and  a few 
early  vegetables  for  the  American  market  are 
grown.  About  Christmas  time  some  tomatoes 
come  into  the  United  States  from  this  frost- 


Roosevelt  dam.  (Fig.  130.) 
All  of  the  cotton  now  grown 
in  this  valley  has  come  from 
the  seed  of  one  extra  fine 
Egyptian  cotton  plant  that 
grew  there  in  1910.  Because 
this  cotton  has  such  long 
fibers,  it  is  used  for  auto- 
mobile tires,  and  sells  for  a 
big  price.  The  Salt  River 
Valley  produces  good  oran- 
ges, grapefruit,  and  olives. 

Many  of  the  farm  labor- 
ers in  this  region  are  Japa- 
nese, Mexicans,  and  Indians. 
They  seem  to  endure  the 
hot  climate  better  than  can 


white  settlers  * Courtesy  The  Southern  Pacific  Ry. 

Fig.  174.  Irrigating  young  date  palms,  Imperial  Valley,  near  a boundary  town 
176.  The  east  coast  Of  called  Calexico.  What  is  the  man  doing  with  the  shovel? 


Courtesy  W.  L.  Paul,  Coaehilla,  Calif. 

Fig.  173.  A date  garden  thirteen  years  old  at  Coaehilla, 
California,  a short  distance  from  Salton  Sink.  Each 
year  the  tree  drops  some  leaves  and  gets  taller  but  not 
wider. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture tried  experiments  with  Egyptian 
cotton,  and  now  many  thousand  acres  of  this 
cotton  are  grown  each  year  in  the  Imperial 
Valley,  and  in  the  Salt  River  Valley,  near 
Phoenix,  Arizona.  This  productive  valley, 
once  desert,  now  has  a rich  agriculture  much 
like  that  of  the  Imperial  Valley,  since  it  has 
been  irrigated  by  the  waters  from  the  famous 


THE  VALLEY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


103 


less  land.  The  chief  freight  for  the  railroad 
is  the  minerals,  which  are  sometimes  brought 
down  several  days’  journey  on  backs  of  mules 
from  mines  in  the  mountains. 

177.  Unused  resources. — Much  water  can 
be  stored  in  some  of  the  gorges  of  the  Colo- 
rado and  its  branches,  and  in  the  gorges  of 
the  rivers  in  the  Mexican  mountains.  Great 
canals  can  lead  this  water  out  to  irrigate  the 
lowlands  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 
If  this  is  done,  the  American  Egypt  will  be 
one  of  the  four  great  oases  of  the  world. 
The  other  three  are  Egypt,  Mesopotamia, 
and  the  upper  Indus  Valley.  If  fully  used, 
this  region  will  also  be  a land  of  mines  where 
minerals  can  be  found ; and  of  ranches,  where 
the  pasture,  though  scanty,  will  be  sufficient 
for  sheep  and  goats. 

A great  deal  of  water  power  can  be  de- 
veloped along  the  Colorado  River. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  chief  products  which  the  valley  pro' 
duces.  How  may  these  be  increased?  2.  How  may 
the  Colorado  River  be  said  to  have  built  the  Imperial 
Valley?  3.  Why  is  the  Lower  Colorado  Region  con- 
sidered a separate  region  from  the  southwestern 
plateaus  and  mountains?  4.  Give  reasons  for  two 
of  the  names  applied  to  this  region:  (a)  The  Ameri- 
can Egypt;  (b)  The  Imperial  Valley.  5.  What  is  the 
annual  rainfall  for  this  district?  The  average  tem- 
perature for  January?  for  July?  (Figs.  328,  329.) 
6.  Compare  its  latitude  with  that  of  Egypt?  How 
has  the  Roosevelt  dam  made  last  year’s  rain  useful 
to  the  farmers  in  Salt  River  Valley? 

7.  Catalog  the  pictures  in  this  chapter  as  follows: 


Photo.  Putnam’s  Studios 


Fig.  175.  Eucalyptus  trees  near  Pasadena.  These 
swift-growing  Australian  trees  are  only  20  or  25  years 
old.  They  are  wonderful  wood  producers. 

THE  VALLEY  OF  SOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA 

See  on  the  map,  Figs.  91  and  163,  how  this 
region  lies  in  the  southwestern  corner  of 
California,  in  a kind  of  hollow  made  by  the 
mountains  as  they  bend  westward  toward  the 
seacoast.  How  high  are  the  mountains  that 
form  the  eastern  and  northern  boundaries? 


Title. 

Description. 

What  It  Tells  Me. 

8.  Compare 
as  follows: 


the  Colorado  and  Mississippi  rivers 


Navigability. 

Scenery. 

Utilization  of  Waters  for 

Power. 

Irrigation. 

9.  Describe  the  journey  which  the 
Imperial  Valley  cantaloup  must  take 
to  reach  your  town.  Could  it  be  shipped 
through  the  Panama  Canal  to  New 
York?  10.  In  what  way  has  the  growth 
of  cotton  in  the  Colorado  Basin  lessened 
the  cotton  imports  of  the  United 
States?  11.  Why  was  this  good  farm- 
land so  long  unused? 


Fig.  176.  Southern  California, 


Would  they  be  more  valuable  to  this  rather 
dry  valley  if  they  were  twice  as  high.  (Sec. 
158,  Fig.  157.) 

178.  Bounds  and  surface. — This  region 
consists  of  a narrow  coast  plain  and  several 
valleys,  of  which  the  largest  is  the  Los 
Angeles-San  Bernardino  Valley. 

This  is  the  smallest  district  we  have  studied, 
but  it  has  more  people  than  several  districts 
of  larger  area.  The  population  of  the  city 
of  Los  Angeles  alone  has  reached 
576,673  (1920  census),  ranking 
tenth  among  the  cities  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.  Pasadena  has  45,344, 
and  San  Diego  74,683  people. 

179.  Climate  and  scen- 
ery . — W hy  are  there  so 


104 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


Courtesy  R.  G.  Dun  & Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  177.  Getting  ready  for  a photo-play  at  the  Triangle  Big  Ranch  in  the  attended. 
Santa  Monica  Mountains  near  Los  Angeles.  Where  may  these  films  be  used? 


many  people  in  this  small  region?  The 
reasons  are  two:  climate  and  scenery.  The 
people  like  to  speak  of  their  country  as  a 
land  of  delightful  climate  and  of  beautiful 
landscapes.  The  ocean  winds  are  so  warm 
that  frost  is  rare  in  the  coast  district.  In 
the  summer  these  sea  winds  seem  cool 
because  the  land  is  warmer  than  the  water; 
in  winter  they  seem  warm  because  the  water 
is  warmer  than  the  land.  (The  temperature 
of  land  near  the  seacoast  is  usually  pleasant.) 
At  night  it  is  so  cool,  even  in  summer,  that 
people  sleep  under  blankets,  or  even  enjoy 
sitting  by  a fire.  But  only 
a short  distance  inland  the 
summer  temperature  some- 
times reaches  100°.  From 
1875-90  (9496  days)  there 
were  at  San  Diego  9181 
days  with  the  temperature 
not  above  80° nor  below  40°. 

180.  Climate  and  occupa- 
tions.— Wonderful  climate 
is  the  chief  resource  of 
Southern  California,  for 
climate  makes  possible  the 
three  great  occupations  of 
the  region:  the  growing  of 
fruit  and  vegetables;  the 


search  for  health  and  pleas- 
ure ; and  the  making  of  mov- 
ing-picture films.  Many 
thousands  of  tourists  go  to 
Southern  California  each 
winter  to  escape  the  bliz- 
zards and  snows  of  the 
northern  and  eastern  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States, 
and  to  enjoy  the  beautiful 
scenery.  Many  other  thou- 
sands go  to  live  there  per- 
manently. Recently  the 
people  who  had  moved  from 
Iowa  to  Southern  California 
met  together  for  a picnic 
near  Pasadena,  and  twenty- 
seven  thousand  persons 
Many  such  pic- 
nics could  be  held  by  those 
who  have  moved  there  from  other  states. 

In  this  region  one  may  see  orange  groves, 
blooming  roses,  fields  green  with  grain  and 
alfalfa,  and  in  the  distance  mountains  with 
pine  trees  on  their  slopes  and  glistening 
snows  upon  their  summits.  The  warm 
Pacific  near  by  invites  to  bathing  and  boat- 
ing, and  to  journeys  by  boat  to  Santa 
Catalina  and  other  islands  near  the  coast. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  so  many  people  go  to 
California  to  improve  their  health  and  to 
have  a good  vacation. 

181.  The  moving  picture  industry. — Man- 


Fig.  178.  A view  of  part  of  the  harbor  of  Los  Angeles. 


THE  VALLEY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


105 


ufacturers  of  films  for  moving  pictures  have 
found  that  the  pleasant  climate  and  beauti- 
ful and  varied  scenery  of  Los  Angeles  and 
vicinity  are  ideal  for  their  enterprise.  The 
seashore,  cities,  palm  trees,  orchards,  farms, 
hills,  and  mountains  furnish  suitable  back- 
grounds for  almost  every  kind  of  scene  that 
can  be  needed.  Thousands  of  people  in  or 
near  Los  Angeles  are  engaged  in  this  indus- 
try, and  almost  every  moving  picture  theater 
in  the  United  States  shows  films  made  in  this 
locality. 

182.  The  winter  rains. — It  is  a misfortune 
of  this  region  that  the  rain  falls  chiefly, in 
the  winter  and  not  at  all  for  three  months 
in  summer.  Why  does  it  so  happen?  During 
the  winter,  the  land  is  cooler  than  the  sea, 
and  the  sea  wind,  cooled  by  coming  to  the 
land,  drops  some  of  its  moisture  as  rain. 
(Secs.  155,  158.)  This  fact  causes  the  rainy 
season,  which  begins  in  November  and  con- 
tinues until  April.  From  April  to  November 
the  land  is  warmer  than  the  sea.  The  sea 
wind  is  then  warmed  as  soon  as  it  strikes  the 
land,  and  thereby  becomes  a drying  wind 
instead  of  a rain-bearing  wind  (Sec.  155). 
For  weeks  and  months  at  a time  in  summer, 
the  sun  shines  and  there  is  rarely  a shower. 
Compare  Figs.  180  and  89.  The  dust  flies 
and  settles  everywhere,  even  on  the  leaves 
of  trees.  Fields  become  brown,  except  where 
water  can  be  had  for  irrigation.  Irrigated 
spots  make  patches  of  bright  green  in  the 
brown  land.  On  the  higher  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  enough  rain  and  snow  fall  to 
keep  some  forests  growing.  (Sec.  160.) 

183.  The  struggle  for  water. — The  climate 
is  so  good  for  oranges,  lemons,  and  other 
valuable  fruits  that  growers  make  a great 
effort  to  get  water.  If  water  can  be  had, 
an  acre  of  bare  land  worth  only  $100  can 
be  made  into  an  orchard  worth  $1500  or 
$2000.  Water!  Water!  Water!  Every- 
thing depends  upon  getting  it.  Deep  wells 
are  dug  and  long  tunnels  are  driven  back  into 
the  hillsides,  and  the  water  thus  captured 
from  streams  far  beneath  the  surface  is 
pumped  to  the  places  that  need  it.  To  keep 
the  water  from  soaking  into  the  earth  before 


Courtesy  Prof.  Chas.  F.  Shaw,  U.  of  Calif.and  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils 

Fig.  179.  Map  of  a section  of  valley  near  Pasadena, 
showing  how  streams  flowing  from  two  canyons  have 
built  up  a wide-reaching  alluvial  fan  with  gentle  slopes 
(Sec.  194)  good  for  frost  drainage  (Sec.  184)  and  irriga- 
tion. The  lines  with  figures  (contour  lines)  show  the  ele- 
vations. What  is  the  elevation  at  the  Santa  Ana  River? 
at  the  highest  lemon  orchard?  Crops  are  in  three 
bands:  beets,  grain,  and  alfalfa,  the  most  frost-resistant, 
are  at  the  bottom;  then  peaches,  apricots,  and  grapes; 
and  finally  oranges  and  lemons.  The  rough  mountain 
on  both  sides  of  the  valley  is  in  national  forests. 

it  reaches  the  trees,  it  is  often  carried  in 
pipes  or  in  cement-lined  ditches.  Great 
sums  of  money  have  been  spent  to  build 


106 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


the  dams,  ditches,  and  pipes  needed, 
but  the  large  crops  make  it  profitable. 

184.  Frost  drainage  or  thermal 
belts. — To  grow  oranges  in  this  region 
two  things  not  easy  to  get  at  the 
same  place  are  required.  One  is 
frost  drainage  of  the  uplands,  and 
the  other  is  irrigation  of  uplands. 


which  carry  water  out  on  the  South- 
ern California  slopes,  where  orange 
groves  bedeck  the  foothills  on  both 
sides  of  the  San  Bernardino  Valley 
as  in  Fig.  179.  Below  on  the  floor 
of  the  valley,  instead  of  fruit  trees 
there  are  fields  of  alfalfa,  wheat, 
barley,  and  other  crops  that  frost 


Frost  drainage  is  a curious  part  does  not  injure.  Where  the  foot- 

of  the  climate  of  hills  and  moun-  15.62  inches  per  hills  cannot  be  irrigated,  grapes 


On  cold  nights,  when  there  CahfonLan'  are  sometimes  grown,  because  the 

Mediterranean  type.  . 0 ’ 

vines  are  able  to  send  roots  far 


tarns. 

is  no  wind,  the  coldest  air,  being 
heaviest  (Sec.  66),  runs  down  into  the 
valleys,  which  thus  get  colder  than  the 
hillsides  above.  If  the  valley  does  not  have 
time  to  fill  up  with  freezing  air  before  sunrise, 
the  hilltops  and  higher  slopes  do  not  freeze. 
A place  having  frost  drainage  is  sometimes 
called  a thermal  belt.  It  does  not  reach 
very  high  up  the  mountainside.  As  the 
hillsides  and  hilltops  are  safer  from  frost 
than  the  flat  valleys  below  them  (Fig. 
179),  many  orchards  in  Southern  California 
and  elsewhere  in  the  world  (Sec.  283)  are 
planted  on  the  slopes  and  tops  of  hills 
(Fig.  244). 

Orchards  on  the  slopes  in  dry  countries 
must  be  supplied  with  water  by  irrigation. 
With  much  labor,  ditches  have  been  dug 


into  the  earth,  and  thus  they  get  the  small 
amount  of  necessary  water. 

185.  Very  intensive  agriculture. — Agricul- 
ture is  more  intensive  in  this  district  than  in 
any  other  region  of  the  United  States.  Many 
families  support  themselves  by  selling  the 
oranges,  peaches,  grapes,  tomatoes,  celery, 
cabbage,  or  vegetables  which  they  grow  on 
five  or  ten  acres  of  irrigated  land.  In  some 
localities  the  sugar  beet  is  grown.  This  crop 
requires  much  work,  but  it  gives  a large  har- 
vest. The  farms  are  so  small  that  the  farm- 
houses are  close  together.  As  one  rides 
along  the  road,  one  seems  to  be  passing 
through  a village  which  extends  for  miles, 
but  really  the  buildings  are  just  a suc- 
cession of  farmhouses. 


THE  VALLEY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


107 


Photo.  Jas.  N.  Btedsoe 


Fig  182.  Los  Angeles  water-supply  aqueduct  crossing  a deep  valley.  What 
does  the  picture  tell  you  about  the  rainfall  of  this  region?  What  does  the 
small  picture  tell  you  about  the  size  of  the  steel  pipe? 


186.  The  fog  and  the 
beans. — Near  the  seacoast 
there  is  a heavy  fog  every 
summer  morning  for  weeks 
at  a time.  Foggy  weather 
seems  to  suit  lima  beans, 
and  nearly  all  the  beans 
that  are  dried  and  sold  in 
the  United  States  are  grown 
in  this  district.  The  rain- 
fall is  only  ten  or  fifteen 
inches  a year,  but  the  beans 
grow  without  irrigation 
because  the  fog  dampens 
the  ground  each  night. 

187.  Hillside  pastures. — 

Flocks  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
goats  pasture  on  the  slopes 
above  the  irrigation  line,  and 
above  the  pastures  the  moun  - 
tainsides  are  clad  with  for- 
ests of  oaks  and  evergreens. 

188.  The  need  of  forests. 

— The  people  of  these  valleys  insist  that  the 
Government  shall  keep  all  mountain  summits 
well  cared  for  and  forest-clad  (Sec.  168),  so 
that  there  may  be  water  for  irrigation. 

189.  The  Los  Angeles  aqueduct. — Years 
ago  the  people  of  Los  Angeles  found  that 
the  city  must  have  a new  and  larger  water 
supply.  This  supply  was  secured  at  great 
labor  by  building  an  aqueduct  through  moun- 
tains and  over  hills,  valleys,  and  plains,  in 
order  to  bring  water  from  Owens  River  near 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Whitney,  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  two  hundred  and  forty 
miles  away  (Fig.  182).  This  new  water  sup- 
ply is  one  of  the  things  which  has  helped  the 
city  to  grow  so  rapidly.  Hydroelectric  power 
plants  have  been  built  at  points  where  the 
aqueduct  comes  down  the  mountainsides. 
The  power  is  sold  in  cities  to  help  repay  the 
twenty-five  millions  of  dollars  spent  in  build- 
ing the  aqueduct.  (Fig.  194.) 

190.  Fuel  and  cities. — There  is  so  little 
coal  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  that  ships  coming 
to  California  for  grain  formerly  brought  coal 
from  our  Atlantic  Coast,  from  Australia, 
and  even  from  England.  Then  petroleum 


fields  were  found  in  Southern  California  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  state.  (Fig.  44.)  This 
oil  is  a much  cheaper  fuel  than  the  coal  that 
was  imported.  It  is  used  instead  of  coal  on 
Pacific  railroads  and  many  steamships  and 
United  States  Government  war  vessels.  The 
manufacturers  in  Los  Angeles  can  now  run 
engines  as  cheaply  as  they  can  be  run  near 
the  coal  fields  of  the  eastern  states.  This  is 
one  of  the  reasons  why  Los  Angeles  grew 
more  rapidly  between  1910  and  1920  than 
any  other  large  American  city  except  De- 
troit. Los  Angeles  is  the  trade  center  of  this 
region.  It  has  a good  harbor,  steamship 
lines  on  the  Pacific,  and  is  growing  as  a manu- 
facturing center. 

191.  Future. — Much  more  land  may  be 
irrigated  by  preventing  all  waste  of  water. 
What  was  said  in  the  study  of  the  South- 
western Plateaus  (Sec.  151)  about  crops  that 
grow  on  unirrigated  land? 

Will  the  delightful  climate  of  this  section 
continue  to  attract  people  from  other  regions? 
What  does  the  success  of  the  film  industry 
indicate  as  to  the  future  of  other  manufac- 
turing industries? 


108 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 

Fig.  183.  The  low  fan-shaped  hill,  spreading  out  from  the  foot  of  the  gulch, 
is  an  alluvial  fan  covering  a few  acres.  It  was  built  up  of  soft,  rich  earth 
washed  out  by  the  water  flowing  from  the  gulch  or  canyon.  Alluvial  fans 
miles  across  are  shown  in  Figures  171  and  179.  Can  you  find  them?  The 
sides  of  the  Great  Valley  in  California  are  a long  series  of  wide  fans  reaching 
outward  from  the  mountains.  Millions  of  people  live  on  alluvial  fans. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Would  you  prefer  to  winter  in  Southern  Califor- 
nia or  in  Florida?  Give  your  reasons.  2.  Imagine 
that  you  are  an  actor  or  an  actress  in  a moving-picture 
company  in  Los  Angeles.  Write  a letter  to  a friend 
in  the  east,  telling  of  your  work,  and  of  the  advantages 
which  - this  region  offers  for  the  taking  of  moving 
pictures.  Is  it  better  for  this  purpose  than  Florida? 

3.  Make  use  of  the  following  chart  to  explain  the 
importance  of  Southern  California: 

How  Nature’s  Helpers  Aid  the  People 
of  Southern  California. 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  CEN- 
TRAL CALIFORNIA 
192.  A large  valley  and 
four  smaller  valleys. — Look 

at  the  maps  (Figs.  91,  163) 
and  see  how  the  wide  val- 
ley, called  the  Great  Val- 
ley, lies  between  the  high 
Sierra  Nevada  on  the  east, 
and  the  Coast  Ranges  on  the 
west.  It  is  about  four  hun- 
dred miles  long  and  from 
fifty  to  sixty  miles  wide. 
Near  San  Francisco  are 
four  smaller  valleys,  all 
nestled  in  among  the  Coast 
Ranges.  Find  Santa  Clara 
south  of  San  Francisco,  and 
Santa  Rosa  and  Napa  to 
the  north  of  it,  each  in  a 
valley  of  the  same  name. 
The  Salinas  Valley,  opening  directly  to  the 
Pacific  near  Monterey,  is  the  largest  of  the 
four  smaller  valleys.  All  the  smaller  valleys 
combined  are  not  nearly  so  large  as  the 
Great  Valley.  Like  Southern  California, 
this  part  of  the  state  was  first  settled  by 
the  Spaniards,  and  many  places  still  have 
Spanish  names.  In  recent  years  many  peo- 
ple from  Europe  and  many  eastern  states 
have  come  to  make  their  homes  in  this  land 


Names  of  Helpers. 

How  Each  Helps. 

The  Ocean 

The  Mountains 

The  Mountain  Streams.  . 
The  Mountain  Snows..  . . 
The  Mountain  Forests. . . 

The  Weather 

The  Soil 

4.  What  effect  has  the  Panama  Canal  upon  the 
commerce  of  Southern  California? 

5.  Account  for  the  difference  between  the  climate  of 
'Southern  California  and  that  of  the  Imperial  Valley. 

6.  Compare  the  reasons  for  planting  trees  on  the  hill- 
sides in  California  with  the  reasons  for  planting  trees 
on  the  hillsides  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  7.  If  the  mountain 
wall  to  the  east  were  no  higher  than  the  Appalachians, 
what  would  be  the  conditions  to-day  in  Southern 
California?  8.  How  many  ways  can  you  think  of  by 
which  neighboring  regions  might  help  people  to  make 
a living  in  California?  9.  How  does  California  pay 
these  neighboring  regions?  10.  Which  region  is 
benefited  most? 


of  fertile  soil  and  pleasant  climate. 

193.  Climate.— All  these  California  valleys 
have  a very  mild  winter  climate  because  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  are  high  enough  to 
shut  off  the  cold  winds  of  winter  from  the 
interior,  and  the  Coast  Ranges  are  low 
enough  to  let  in  the  warmer  winds  that  blow 
from  the  Pacific.  (Sec.  158.)  Thus  the  city  of 
San  Francisco  passes  winter  after  winter  with- 
out a single  freezing  day,  yet  in  summer  the 
daily  sea  wind  is  so 
cool  and  so  constant 
that  strangers  from 
warm  countries  wear 
an  overcoat  even  in 
August.  While 

people  are  wearing  ^ Ihe  Valleys  of  Cen_ 
their  overcoats  in  tral  California. 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIA 


109 


San  Francisco,  the  temperature  of  the  Great 
Valley,  only  fifty  miles  away,  is  sometimes 
100°  in  the  shade.  This  is  because  the  sea 
winds  do  not  reach  far  into  the  Great  Valley. 

The  rainfall,  like  that  of  Southern  Califor- 
nia, occurs  in  winter  and  not  in  summer. 
For  this  reason  few  crops,  except  wheat  and 
barley,  can  be  grown  without  irrigation. 
But  the  dryness  of  the  summer  helps  the 
fruit  industry,  which  is  remarkably  developed 
in  the  four  valleys.  Because  the  summer  days 
are  rainless,  California  fruit  will  dry  in  trays 
on  the  ground,  and  for  this  reason  California 
produces  more  dried  fruit  than  all  the  rest  of 
the  United  States.  Many  millions  of  dollars’ 
worth  is  sent  annually  to  eastern  states, 
to  Europe,  and  to  other  continents. 

The  dryness  of  the  air  makes  the  flesh 
of  the  fruit  more  firm  than  the  flesh  of  fruit 
which  grows  in  moist  climates.  For  this 
reason  California  cherries  will  keep  so  well 
that  they  can  reach  New  York  City  in  better 
condition  than  can  cherries  grown  in  New 
York  State.  For  the  same  reason  the  Cali- 
fornia peach  is  so  firm-fleshed  that  it  can  be 
quickly  skinned  for  canning  by  dipping  it 
into  hot  lye  water,  a process  which  turns  an 
Eastern  peach  to  mush.  Hence  canning 
peaches,  in  which  she  excels  the  eastern  states, 
is  one  of  the  great  industries  of  California. 

194.  The  Great  Valley  of  California  is  one 
of  the  important  agricultural  regions  of  the 
world;  the  amount  of  its  production  is 
steadily  growing.  This  whole  valley  was 
once  a large  gulf,  like  the  Gulf  of  California. 
But  streams  cut  valleys  into  the  mountains 
along  the  sides  of  the  gulf,  and  carried  down 
the  sand  and  mud  until  the  whole  gulf  was 
filled,  except  at  the  bay  near  San  Francisco. 
This  water-borne  soil  made  the  valley  nearly 
level,  fertile,  and  free  from  stones.  Thus 
the  land  is  easy  to  cultivate.  Also  it  is  very 
easy  to  irrigate,  because  the  streams,  in 
filling  up  the  valley,  have  spread  the  earth 
out  as  streams  do  when  they  build  deltas 
— in  wide,  fanlike  slopes,  called  alluvial  fans. 
(Figs.  171,  179,  183.)  Most  of  these  fans 
make  very  gentle  slopes,  which  reach  from 

the  foot  of  the  mountain  down  to  the  river 
11-6 


in  the  valley.  The  irrigation  canals  can  be 
built  along  the  upper  sides  of  the  fields  on  the 
slopes,  and,  when  the  side  gates  are  opened, 
the  water  will  flow  gently  across  the  fields 
that  lie  below  the  canals. 

The  Kings  River,  flowing  out  of  the  Sierra, 
built  its  fan  higher  than  did  the  other  rivers, 
and  dammed  the  upper  part  of  the  San 
Joaquin  River.  The  water  above  this  dam 
is  Lake  Tulare,  a lake  without  an  outlet. 
In  dry  seasons  its  water  is  very  low,  and  in 
wet  seasons  it  rises  and  floods  hundreds  of 
square  miles  of  land  around  its  shores. 
Sometimes  the  farmers  try  to  raise  wheat  on 
these  muddy  lands.  If  the  water  rises,  the 
fields  become  a lake.  If  it  does  not  rise, 
a rich  crop  may  be  harvested. 

195.  How  the  industries  have  changed. — 
The  industries  of  the  California  valleys  have 
changed  from  time  to  time  since  gold  was 
discovered  in  1848.  Then,  in  a single  year, 
thousands  of  men  rushed  to  San  Francisco 
from  the  eastern  states  and  from  many 
foreign  countries.  For  a time  gold  was  almost 
the  only  product  of  the  state.  Later  it  was 
found  that  wheat,  winter  wheat  (Sec.  89), 
grew  well  during  the  season  of  rain.  After 
the  reaper  was  invented,  vast  fields  of  wheat 
were  planted  in  the  level  lands  of  the  val- 
leys, and  vessels  loaded  with  wheat  sailed  to 
England  by  way  of  Cape  Horn. 

196.  Fruit  is  king. — Fruit  is  now  the  king 
of  California  crops.  This  new  industry  began 
to  develop  when  the  first  railroad  from  San 
Francisco  to  Omaha  was  completed,  in 


Courtesy  Oakland  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fig.  185.  The  storeroom  of  a fruit-canning  factory 
in  the  Great  Valley.  Where  might  this  fruit  be  eaten? 


110 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


Photo.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  186.  San  Francisco — looking  across  the  bay  toward  the  Berkeley  Hills.  To  what  cities  may  the 
ferryboats  be  going?  (Fig.  196.)  San  Francisco  Bay  is  a safe  harbor.  How  far  is  it  up  or  down  the  coast 

to  another  such  inlet  to  the  interior?  (Fig.  163.) 


1869.  Within  a few  years  the  people  of 
California  were  sending  packages  of  excellent 
fruit  from  their  gardens  to  eastern  markets. 
The  fruit  sold  well  and  the  people  of  the 
California  Valleys  planted  more  orchards, 
until,  finally,  the  fruit  trade  was  established. 
The  chief  wealth  of  the  state  is  now  neither 
in  flocks  and  herds,  nor  in  the  gold  and 
wheat  of  former  days,  but  in  oranges,  lem- 
ons, raisins,  plums,  prunes,  pears,  apricots, 
peaches,  cherries  and  other  fruits,  and  nuts. 

California  sends  out  enough  oranges  to 
make  twelve  big  trainloads  a day,  for  four 
months  of  the  year,  each  train  having  thirty 
cars.  In  addition,  many  thousands  of  tons 
of  canned  fruit,  vegetables,  and  dried  fruit 
are  shipped  annually  from  California. 

Not  long  ago  the  people  of  our  eastern 
cities  were  buying  prunes,  raisins,  oranges, 
and  lemons  from  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece. 
Now  we  get  what  is  needed  from  California, 
and  sometimes  there  is  some  left  to  be  export- 
ed to  Europe.  The  trees  and  vines  to  start 
these  crops  were  brought  from  southern 
Europe,  where  the  climate  is  mild  and  the 
summers  are  dry  like  those  of  California. 

197.  New  crops  are  constantly  being  estab- 
lished. A few  old  trees  of  olives,  almonds, 


figs,  and  English  walnuts  did  so  well  that 
many  more  such  trees  are’  being  planted. 
The  English  walnut  industry  of  California 
has  grown  very  rapidly,  and  the  almond 
industry  is  steadily  increasing. 

198.  Blossom  time. — Nothing  can  be  more 
beautiful  than  these  valleys  in  the  spring 
of  the  year.  (Fig.  1.)  The  valley  is  then 
green  with  fields  of  alfalfa,  wheat,  and  barley. 
On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  the 
orchards  are  covered  with  pink  and  white 
blossoms.  Their  perfume  fills  the  air,  and 
bees  and  insects  buzz  and  hum  as  they  fly 
from  flower  to  flower.  On  the  higher  slopes, 
flocks  of  sheep  and  cattle  graze  on  green, 
flower-decked  pastures.  Still  higher  on  the 
mountains  is  the  darker  color  of  the  ever- 
green forest,  reaching  upward  toward  the 
snow  that  glistens  on  the  mountaintop. 
Many  travelers  visit  the  Valleys  of  Central 
California  to  enjoy  their  beauties,  and  to  es- 
cape the  harsher  winters  of  their  home  states. 

199.  Cooperative  methods. — It  is  a help 
to  the  fruit  grower  if  his  neighbors  grow  the 
same  kind  of  fruit  that  he  grows.  One 
advantage  is  that  everyone  in  the  neighbor- 
hood will  then  know  how  to  do  that  kind  of 
work.  The  stores  will  keep  the  needed  tools 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIA 


111 


and  supplies.  Full  carloads  of  fruit  can  be 
shipped  out  because  neighbors  can  send  their 
fruit  together.  Another  great  advantage  is 
gained  when  many  growers  join  in  building 
packing  and  storage  houses  for  the  use  of  all. 

To  secure  the  advantages  derived  from 
cooperation,  California  fruit-growing  is  cen- 
tered in  spots,  to  an  unusual  degree.  For 
instance,  nearly  all  of  the  plums  and  prunes, 
and  many  of  the  cherries  and  pears  are  grown 
in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley.  There  is  a long 
belt  of  orange  orchards  on  the  sloping  alluvial 
fans  that  spread  out  from  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra,  southeast  of  Lake  Tulare.  North  of 
Lake  Tulare,  around  Fresno,  nearly  every- 
one raises  grapes  to  be  shipped  fresh  to 
eastern  markets,  or  to  be  dried  as  raisins. 
In  1920,  Fresno  County  alone  grew  over  two 
pounds  of  raisins  for  each  person  in  the 
United  States.  A little  farther  north,  one 
peach  orchard  joins  another  for  miles  and 
miles.  Along  the  cool  shores  of  Monterey 
Bay  are  more  than  a million  apple  trees. 
In  two  small  valleys  north  of  San  Francisco 
Bay,  the  Santa  Rosa  and  the  Napa  valleys, 
there  are  many  orchards  of  apples  and  pears, 
and  also  many  vineyards.  Cooperation  has 
helped  to  make  the  fruit  industry  succeed 
and  grow  so  large. 

200.  Working  together  at  harvest  time. — 

Fresh  fruit  that  is  sent  to  market  is  first 
taken  to  one  of  the  cooperative  packing 
houses.  Through  these  community  enter- 
prises or  associations,  thousands  of  farmers 


Courtesy  Sacramento  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fig.  188.  A California  power  plant  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  See  the  pipe  that  brings  water  down  the 
mountainside  from  a stream  or  canal.  Where  will  the 
power  be  used? 

work  together  as  one  company  or  organiza- 
tion. The  association  buys  its  supplies 
wholesale,  packs  its  fruit  in  uniform  packages, 
sends  it  in  carload  lots  to  distant  markets, 
sells  it,  and  returns  the  money  to  the  grower. 
The  associations  even  advertise  California 
fruit  in  other  states,  so  that  people  will  know 
about  it  and  buy  it. 

Harvest  is  a very  busy  time  for  fruit- 
growers. Fruits,  such  as  peaches,  apricots, 
plums,  and  grapes,  are  spread  on  trays  and 
put  in  the  sun  to  dry.  When  dried,  the  fruit 
is  sorted  and  packed  into  boxes.  Many  of 
the  fresh  fruits  are  taken  to  the  canneries  to 
be  canned  by  thousands  of  women  and  girls. 

201.  Vegetables  and  the  tule  lands. — 
Near  their  mouths,  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  rivers  flow  through  many  miles  of 
swamp.  This  swamp  is  often  overflowed  in 
May  and  June,  because  the 
streams  rise  with  floods  of 
snow  water  that  rush  down 
from  the  high  mountains. 
It  has  latelybeen  discovered 
that  when  dikes  are  built 
to  keep  out  the  floods,  these 
marshes  may  be  made  into 
the  best  of  farmland.  These 
lands,  called  “tules,”  are 
low,  moist,  rich,  flat  as  a 
floor,  and  especially  suited 
to  growing  vegetables. 
Each  spring,  carloads  of 
California  lettuce,  tomatoes, 


112 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


onions,  celery, 
and  asparagus 
go  from  the 
tule  lands  east 
of  San  Fran- 
cisco to  many 
eastern  cities. 
In  some  places 
one  may  find 

FINCH  A BAKER  U.S.  DEPT.AGR.  ^ Single  fl6lcl 

Fig.  189.  Where  California  and  f • • 

Oregon  almonds  and  walnuts  are  containing  a 
grown.  thousand 

acres,  in  which  there  is  only  one  kind  of  crop. 
Much  of  the  asparagus  which  is  canned  for 
the  world’s  market  is  grown  here. 

202.  Rice. — In  1909  a venturesome  farmer 
north  of  Sacramento  tried  an  experiment. 
He  opened  the  dike  that  surrounded  his 
low  land  and  let  the  water  flow  into  a field 
of  newly-sown  rice.  He  reaped  a splendid 
harvest.  The  neighbors  then  experimented 
with  their  fields,  and  by  1916  there  were 

67.000  acres  in  rice.  In  1920  there  were 

162.000  acres  in  rice,  and  California  sur- 
passed all  other  states  in  yield  per  acre. 

203.  Other  agriculture. — In  order  to  plant 
more  land  in  fruit,  the  people  have  divided 
the  old  Spanish  ranches  having  ten,  twenty, 
or  thirty  thousands  of  acres  into  many  little 
tracts  of  five,  ten,  or  fifteen  acres  each. 
Thus  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of 
people  now  live  on  the  land  that  in  1870  or 
1880  was  just  one  big  sheep  or  wheat  ranch. 

Wheat-growing  has  declined  until  Cali- 
fornia now  imports  some  wheat  from  other 
states.  Barley,  in  a dry  climate,  thrives  a 
little  better  than  wheat,  so  barley  is  the 
chief  grain  which  is  grown  in  this  region. 

Most  of  it  is 
fed  to  the  ani- 
mals, for  Cali- 
fornia has  little 
corn.  Corn  is 
not  grown 
much  because 
the  summer  is 
too  dry,  and 


Fig.  190.  Where  California  lemons 

and  Florida  limes  are  grown.  Where  the  land. 


can  be  irri- 
gated, other 
crops  often 
pay  better 
than  corn  un- 
less it  is  grown 
for  table  use. 

California 
once  imported 

butter  from- FINCH  & BAKER  U.S.  DEPT.AGR. 

, f . ^ Fig.  191.  Where  California  and 
east  Ol  Florida  pomelos  (grapefruit)  are 

Rocky  Moun-  grown. 

tains,  but  now  she  sends  butter  back  to  the 
East.  She  has  butter  to  export,  because  the 
irrigated  alfalfa  fields  of  the  valleys,  and 
the  unirrigated  barley  fields  on  the  slopes 
produce  enough  feed  for  many  dairy  cows. 

Since  corn  is  scarce,  hogs  also  are  scarce. 
In  spring  many  sheep  pasture  on  the  slopes 
above  the  orchard  and  farmland,  but  in 
summer  they  are  taken  up  into  the  moun- 
tains, often  above  the  timber  line,  where  their 
owners  rent  pasture  in  the  national  forests. 

204.  Cities,  trade,  and  manufacture. — 
San  Francisco  is  the  natural  metropolis,  or 
leading  city,  of  this  region.  It  is  located  on 
a fine  harbor,  in  the  gateway  to  the  Great 
Valley.  How  many  people  live  in  the  cities 
on  San  Francisco  Bay?  Many  railroads 
center  there,  and  steamship  lines  reach  out 
to  Asia,  Alaska,  Australia,  and  South  Amer- 
ica. Lines  of  steamers  go  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, through  the  Panama  Canal,  to  the 
eastern  states  and  to  Europe.  San  Francisco, 
Los  Angeles,  and  Seattle  are  rivals,  because 
each  city  wishes  to  be  the  metropolis  of  the 
Pacific  coast. 

The  Panama  Canal  has  greatly  aided  the 
people  of  the 


Pacific  coast  to 

market  their 

produce  in 

eastern  cities. 

But  Pacific 

steamship  s , 

which  used  to 

unload  Asiatic 

goods  at  Paci-  ~ ~ 

® Fig.  192.  Where  California  and 

HC  ports,  to  be  Arizona  olives  are  grown. 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIA 


113 


sent  across  the  continent  by  rail,  now  some- 
times carry  their  freight  on  to  the  Atlantic 
ports.  It  seems  that  San  Francisco  and  the 
neighboring  cities  of  Oakland,  Alameda,  and 
Berkeley,  will  grow  as  their  manufacturing 
increases,  and  as  the  valleys  that  are  back 
of  them  increase  their  crops. 

The  other  cities  of  these  valleys,  Santa 
Rosa,  Sacramento,  Stockton,  San  Jose,  and 
Fresno,  are  busy  with  canneries,  fruit-pack- 
ing houses,  and  stores  which  supply  the 
things  that  fruit-growers  need. 

The  cities  of  Central  California,  like  those 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  state  (Sec.  190), 
have  lacked  coal,  and  therefore  no  iron  has 
been  produced.  Materials  for  the  steel 
shipyards,  foundries,  and  machine  shops  at 
San  Francisco  have  been  imported  from  the 
East  or  from  Europe.  This  lack  of  coal  and 
iron  held  back  the  growth  of  manufacturing 
for  a time,  but  cheap  oil  has  of  late  been 
a great  advantage.  San  Francisco  has  made 
machinery  for  local  use,  but  her  manufactured 
goods  for  export  have  been  chiefly  the  things 
for  which  the  native  materials  of  California 
may  be  used,  such  as  lumber,  articles  of 
wood,  meat,  and  canned,  dried,  and  preserved 
fruits  and  vegetables.  Her  manufactures  are 
steadily  increasing  in  variety. 

205.  Unused  resources. — Plans  are  made 
to  build  a great  irrigation  canal  at  a high 
level  along  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
It  will  extend  from  north  to  south  for 
several  hundreds  of  miles,  bend  around  the 
southern  end  of  the  valley,  and  go  up  the 
western  side.  By  this  plan,  water  that  now 
floods  the  marshes  can  be  put  to  work;  and 
idle  land  now  producing  only  jack  rabbits, 
homed  toads,  and  a few  sheep,  can  multiply 
the  California  fruit  crop  five-,  or  even  ten- 
_ fold,  if  the  fruit  is  needed. 
' It  is  fortunate  that  water  to 
be  used  for  irrigation  can 
first  be  used  for  power.  Thus 
storage  of  water  for  the  field 
also  increases  the  supply  of 


Fig.  193.  Value  (1919  and  1920  average): 

A.  California  Fruit  Crop $235,932,000 

B.  California  Grain  Crop 87,910,500 


Courtesy  Journal  of  Electricity  and  Western  Industries 

Fig.  194.  Can  you  locate  in  this  area  from  Fig.  163  an 
important  city  that  is  not  on  an  electric  power  line  fed  by 
a mountain  stream?  See  the  many  lines  from  the  Sierra 
mountains  to  the  San  Francisco  district,  and  the  long 
straight  line  to  the  Los  Angeles-Pasadena  district.  What 
power  sources  does  the  Columbia  Basin  have? 

water  for  the  power  plant,  and  therefore 
the  two  great  industries  of  agriculture  and 
manufacture  help  each  other. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

(a)  The  five  valleys  of  Central  California  are 


(6)  The  soil  of  these 

valleys  was  

from  the 

by  the 

(c)  The  temperature 
of  the  valley  lands 

is  in 

winter,  and in 

summer. 

(d)  The  rainfall  (Sec. 

193)  is ,and  comes 

for  the  most  part  in 

- Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

(e)  Frost  occurs Fig.  195.  The  California  rice 

area,  the  newest  rice  district. 


114 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


FARALLONE  ISLAND; 


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Fig.  196.  Perspective  view  of  the  northern  end  of  San  Francisco  Bay  looking  toward  the  Golden  Gate.  Note 
the  location  of  the  cities  around  the  bay.  San  Francisco  is  the  largest,  but  appears  small  because  it  lies  in  the 
distance.  What  is  the  population  of  the  four  largest  cities?  (See  Appendix.) 


(/)  The  mountain  streams  furnish  water  for.. 
and 

( g )  The  products  of  the  valley  orchards  are..... 


(h)  The  products  of  the  valley  farms  are.. 


( i )  The  products  of  the  tule  lands  are 


O')  The  important  cities  are 


2.  Model  in  damp  sand  the  State  of  California. 
Show  the  surface  features  and  cities. 

3.  Complete  the  following  chart: 

How  My  Maps  and  Graphs  Help  Me  to  Under- 
stand the  Central  Valley  Lands. 


Figure 

Number. 

Title. 

What  It  Tells  Me  About  Central 
California. 

4.  In  what  way  has  man’s  ingenuity  added  to 
nature’s  gifts  to  California,  to  make  it  a productive 
country?  5.  Define  hydroelectric  power. 

What  will  its  further  development  mean 
to  these  valleys?  6.  Name  two  ways 
in  which  the  dry  California  summer  is 
helpful  to  fruit  growers?  7.  How  have 
the  California  valleys  helped  to  make 
our  country  independent  of  southern 
Europe.  8.  Why  has  San  Francisco 
become  the  metropolis  of  central  Cali- 
fornia? 


9.  What  lessons  might  the  people  of  your  locality 
learn  from  the  California  Fruit  Growers’  Associations? 

10.  The  California  Valley  farmers  are  glad  to  see 
heavy  snow  on  the  mountains  in  spring.  Why? 

11.  Make  a catalogue  of  the  pictures  on  this  region, 
as  follows: 


Title. 

Short  Description. 

What  It  Tells  Me  About 
Central  California. 

Fig.  197.  The  Willamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley. 


12.  Write  a story  describing  all  the  good  things  the 
Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers  have  done 
for  the  people  in  their  valleys. 

THE  WILLAMETTE-PUGET  SOUND 
VALLEY 

206.  Another  great  valley. — The  Pacific 
mountains  again  divide  in  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton, and  British  Columbia,  thereby  making 
room  for  the  Willamette-Puget 
Sound  Valley.  This  valley  is  to 
these  states  what  the  Great 
Valley  of  California  is  to  that 
state. 

Between  these  two  great  Pa- 
cific valleys  there  is  a wild  region 


THE  WILLAMETTE-PUGET  SOUND  VALLEY 


115 


of  forested  mountain,  through  which  passes 
the  one  railroad,  connecting  the  north  and 
the  south  Pacific  coasts. 

207.  Climate.  — The  Willamette- Puget 
Sound  Valley  has  more  rain  than  the  Cali- 
fornia valleys,  more  frost  in  winter,  and  a 
cooler  summer.  The  climate  here  has  brac- 
ing winters  and  delightful  summers,  a combi- 
nation such  as  cannot  be  found  in  any  other 

large  part  of  the  United 
States  or  Canada.  We 
must  go  to  France  and 
southern  England  to  find 
its  match. 

It  is  hard  for  people 
living  in  a certain  latitude 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  to 
Fig.  198.  Rainfall  understand  how  different 
per  year.  Wiiia-  the  climate  exactly  west  on 
mette-Puget  Sound  the  Pacific  Coast  can  be. 

paree5tmsPwithCF^"  Roses  bloom  at  Christmas- 

180.  Can  you  ex-  time  at  Portland,  Seattle, 
plain  why  these  ^ , , ,,  , 

types  are  different?  Tacoma,  and  at  other  places 

in  this  region.  In  much 
of  this  valley  snow  at  sea  level  is  a curi- 
osity, rain  in  July  or  August  is  rare, 
and  thunderstorms  are  so  nearly  unknown 
that  many  people  are  greatly  frightened  when 
one  occurs.  In  the  summertime  a person  in 
the  sunshine  rarely  feels  hot,  and  he  always 
feels  cool  in  the  shade.  The  people  are  right 
in  claiming  that  their  climate  is  wonderful. 
Indeed,  a geographer,  Dr.  Huntington,  of 
Yale,  says  that  this  climate  is  the  best  in  the 
world  to  keep  people  healthy  and  to  make 
them  active  in  mind  and  body,  because  it  has 
frequent  small  temperature  changes  with  the 
passing  of  cyclones.  It  is  warm  enough  in 
winter  to  tempt  people  to  go  out  of  doors.  It 
is  cool  enough  in  summer  to  make  people  want 
to  do  things,  rather  than  to  sit  in  the  shade. 

208.  Forests  and  lumber. — This  valley, 
once  forest-covered,  is  now  an  island  of  farm- 
land in  a sea  of  forests.  The  mountains  on 
both  sides  of  the  valley  are  buried  deep  be- 
neath the  dark  shade  of  the  most  wonderful 
forests  in  the  world.  For  miles  and  miles  the 
tramper  must  make  his  way  between  trunks 
of  pine  and  fir  that  are  four,  five,  and  six  feet 


in  diameter,  and  reach  up  seventy-five  or 
one  hundred  feet  to  the  first  limb.  Splendid 
forests  still  cover  part  of  the  valley  floor. 

Trainloads  of  logs  wind  down  from  the 
mountains.  Log  rafts  float  upon  the  bays 
and  rivers.  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Portland,  and 
many  smaller  towns  have  big  sawmills. 
This  is  the  greatest  lumber-manufacturing 
region  in  the  world,  and  it  is  also  close  to 
the  reserves  of  the  choicest  standing  timber 
to  be  found  in  any  place  that  is  easily 
accessible.  (Sec.  162.) 

209.  Agriculture. — The  summer  is  too  cool 
for  corn,  but  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes 
thrive  amazingly.  In  the  Willamette-Puget 
Sound  Valley  there  are  many  cattle  and 
much  poultry,  for  which  fields  of  barley,  oats 
and  clover  furnish  good  food.  Pastures  are 
green  all  the  year.  To  supply  the  large  de- 
mands of  Portland,  Seattle,  Vancouver, 
Olympia,  and  Tacoma,  many  dairy  farms 
and  market  gardens  are  needed. 

Fruits  grow  bountifully.  Strawberries  are 
equaled  only  by  those  of  France.  Cherries 
grow  to  great  size.  Plums  are  abundant, 


Photo.  Brown  Bios.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  199.  Sawmill  at  lone,  on  Muddy  Creek,  Washing- 
ton. Why  are  the  logs  stored  in  the  water?  Where  is 
the  endless  chain  that  takes  the  logs  into  the  mill? 

and  many  prunes  are  dried.  Many  of  the 
fruits  of  California  are  grown  here,  but  the 
chief  commercial  fruits  are  of  the  more 
northern  kinds — plums,  pears,  cherries,  and 


116 


THE  VALLEYS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


Courtesy  Portland  Chamber  of  Commerce 


Fig.  200.  A bird’s-eye  view  of  Portland,  Oregon,  and  Mt.  Hood.  Of  what 
use  is  the  snow  on  Mt.  Hood?  Why  is  Portland  a large  city? 


apples.  These  fruits  are  also  grown  in  the 
British  Columbia  part  of  this  lowland — 
Vancouver  Island — and  on  the  opposite 
shores  of  the  mainland.  Many  shipments 
of  beautiful  fruit  are  sent  each  year  to 
eastern  markets.  Loganberries,  raspberries, 
and  blackberries  also  thrive  abundantly  in 
these  valleys.  From  the  canning  factories, 
the  fruits  are  sent  in  jam  cans  to  grocery 
stores,  and,  in  the  form  of  syrups  to  soda 
fountains  in  all  parts  of  our  country. 

If  all  the  suitable  land  of  this  valley  were 
cleared  and  used  for  intensive  farming  we 
should  have  an  agriculture  like  that  of  France 
and  England,  whose  climate  is  moist  and 
cool.  In  those  countries,  barley,  potatoes, 
forage  beets,  dairy  products,  hogs,  poultry, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  are  largely  produced, 
and  the  production  of  such  things  may  be 
greatly  increased  in  the  Willamette-Puget 
Sound  Valley. 

210.  Fisheries. — There  are  oysters  in 
Puget  Sound,  which,  though  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Atlantic  waters,  have  a delicious 
flavor.  All  the  rivers  of  this  region  are  visited 
each  year  by  the  salmon,  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  food  fishes.  The  salmon  lives  in 
the  sea,  and  each  year  the  full-grown  fish 
come  up  the  rivers  to  lay  eggs.  At  this  time 
they  are  easily  caught.  Salmon  canning  on  the 
shores  and  rivers  is  an  important  industry. 


211.  Manufacturing  and 
resources  for  manufactur- 
ing.—The  cities  of  this  val- 
ley have  grown  rapidly, 
and  are  thriving  centers 
of  manufacture,  with  saw- 
mills, shipyards,  machine 
shops,  and  many  factories, 
some  of  which  can  fruits 
and  fish,  and  others  make 
products  of  wood.  What 
is  the  population  of  each  of 
the  four  largest  cities  on 
Puget  Sound? 

The  resources  for  manu- 
facturing a great  variety  of 
articles  in  the  Willamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley  are 
remarkable.  These  are: 

(1)  Climate.  (Sec.  207.) 

(2)  Lumber.  (Sec.  208.) 

(3)  Power.  The  high  and  rainy  mountains 
near  by  have  more  water  power  within  easy 
reach  than  can  be  found  in  the  whole  of  any 
three  countries  of  Europe.  (Fig.  194.) 

There  is  also  a coal  field,  with  coal  of  fair 
quality. 

(4)  Abundant  food.  The  farms  within  the 
valley  can  produce  milk,  potatoes,  vegetables, 
and  fruits  for  a much  larger  population,  and 
still  have  a surplus  for  the  canning  and  syrup 
factories.  East  of  the  Cascades  are  the 
apple  orchards  of  the  Hood,  Yakima,  and 
Wenatchee  valleys.  In  the  Columbia  Basin 
is  the  great  source  of  bread  and  meat  supply. 

(5)  Nearly  all  manufacturing  districts  im- 
port some  raw  material.  The  Willamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley  has  the  all-reaching  sea 
and  splendid,  safe  harbors  as  natural  trans- 
portation facilities,  as  well  as  good  trans- 
continental railways. 

212.  Foreign  trade. — The  valley  has  a 
large  ocean  trade.  Among  the  many  advan- 
tages for  it  are  Puget  Sound,  a deep  and 
beautiful  body  of  water,  which  has  enough 
harbors  to  hold  ten  times  the  ships  of  all  the 
world.  At  Bremerton,  the  United  States 
Government  has  a naval  base  and  yard  where 
large  war  vessels  are  sometimes  repaired. 


THE  WILLAMETTE-PUGET  SOUND  VALLEY 


11? 


Ocean  steamers  come  with  ease  to  the  excel- 
lent Puget  Sound  harbors  of  Seattle,  Ta- 
coma, Everett,  and  Bellingham,  and  up  the 
Columbia  and  Willamette  rivers  to  Port- 
land. These  seaports  provide  splendid 
facilities  for  a large  and  rapidly  increas- 
ing foreign  trade. 

There  is  a rich  hinterland  (land  that  lies 
back  or  beyond),  and  many  trade  routes 
reach  into  this  rich  interior.  The  Willamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley  opens  not  only  toward 
the  west,  but  also  toward  the  east.  No  other 
Pacific  valley  has  this  double  advantage  for 
trading  with  the  interior.  Look  at  the  loca- 
tion of  Portland,  Oregon,  on  the  map  of 
navigable  rivers  (Fig.  80).  Explain  how 
ocean  steamers  and  river  boats  make  Port- 
land the  natural  place  for  a city. 

Transcontinental  railroads  bring  freight 
over  the  Cascades  from  Spokane  and  the 
Columbia  Basin,  and  from  Chicago  and 
eastern  points.  The  trains  that  carry 
lumber  and  fruit  to  the  East  sometimes  bring 
back  Texas  cotton  and  eastern  manufactures 
for  export  across  the  Pacific. 

Vancouver  is  the  terminus  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad,  which  is  the  great  transcon- 
tinental line  that  serves  the  Canadian  area 
between  Lake  Superior,  Winnipeg,  and  Puget 
Sound.  Unfortunately,  the  country  back  of 
Vancouver  is  so  rough  that  there  is  not  much 
room  for  farms,  but  the  region  has  great 
lumbering  and  mining  resources. 

The  steamships  from  Puget  Sound  carry 
food  and  manufactures  to  Alaska.  Lum- 
ber, machinery,  cotton,  and  flour  are 
shipped  to  Japan,  China,  and  the  Philippines 
from  Washington  and  Oregon  ports.  Central 
and  South  America,  South  Africa,  and 
Australasia  draw  some  of  their  supplies  from 
this  region;  and  there  is  a heavy  export 
through  the  Panama  Canal  to  the  Eastern 
States  and  to  Europe.  What  do  the  return- 
ing steamers  bring? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  there  so  many  steamship  lines  froirfthe 
Puget  Sound  region?  2.  What  conditions  exist  in 
this  valley,  favorable  to  the  development  of  manu- 
facture? of  dairying?  Why  have  these  industries 


not  yet  been  fully  developed  there?  3.  How  does 
climate  give  the  cities  of  this  region  a lumber  industry? 
4.  Make  a comparison  of  the  Pacific  Coast  valleys. 


Topic. 


Impe- 

rial 

Valley. 


Valley 

of 

South- 

ern 

Calif. 


Valley 

of 

Cen- 

tral 

Calif. 


Willam- 

ETTE- 

PuGET 

Sound 

Valley. 


Location  and  bounds 


Temperature 

Rainfall 

Important  rivers 
Products  of  orchards 
Products  of  farms . . . 
Products  of  forests. . . 


Products  of  pastures . 
Products  of  mines . . . 

Important  cities 

Advantages  for  trade 
with  the  interior. . . 
For  foreign  trade . 


5.  As  a member  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Forestry,  write  a letter  to  the  Puget  Sound  lumber- 
men suggesting  better  methods  for  protecting  and 
cutting  their  forest  areas.  6.  In  what  Pacific  Coast 
city  would  you  settle  for  trade  with  the  Far  East? 
Why? 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  201.  View  of  Mt.  Rainier,  or  Mt.  Tacoma,  from 
the  heart  of  Seattle.  What  do  the  people  in  the  street 
tell  you  of  the  size  of  the  buildings? 


Courtesy  Boston  & Maine  R.  R- 

Fig.  202.  Portland  Head,  Maine,  one  of  the  hundreds  of  rocky 
points  that  line  the  coast  from  Boston  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Such 
a rocky  coast  is  not  found  anywhere  on  the  sandy  shores  stretch- 
ing from  Long  Island  to  Vera  Cruz.  The  white  mist  at  the  right  is 
the  splashing  water  thrown  up  by  a wave  as  it  throws  itself  upon 
the  rocks.  The  changing  wind  and  sun,  the  passing  clouds,  the  ris- 
ing and  falling  of  the  tide  give  this  rocky  coast  an  unending  charm. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  PLAIN 


213.  How  this  land  was  made. — Once 
upon  a time,  a very  long  while  ago  as  men 
count  time,  but  a very  short  while  ago  when 
time  is  reckoned  by  the  age  of  the  world, 
what  is  now  the  eastern  coast  of  North 
America  was  down  under  the  sea.  Then  very, 
very  slowly  it  was  lifted  up,  so  that  what  had 
been  sea  bottom  became  dry  land,  flat  and 
level,  made  of  clay,  sand,  and  mud  that  had 
been  washed  down  by  the  eastern  rivers  of 
North  America.  One  can  dig  a deep  well  in 
the  plain  and  not  reach  solid  rock.  The 
plain  thus  made  extends  from  Cape  Cod  all 
the  way  around  to  Mexico.  There  are  many 
such  coastal  plains  in  the  world.  That  part 
of  our  coastal  plain  north  of  the  Cotton 
Belt  we  call  the  North  Atlantic 
Coast  Plain. 

214.  The  beach  and  the  fall 
line. — At  the  eastern  edge  of 
this  region  is  the  sea,  with  its 
waves  ever  beating  upon  the 
sandy  beach.  At  the  western 
edge  of  the  coast  plain  lies  the 


hilly  Piedmont  region.  What  is  now  the 
surface  of  the  Piedmont  was  once  deep  down 
under  the  earth  where  the  great  pressure 
of  the  overlying  rock  helped  to  turn  sand 
and  clay  into  hard  stone.  But  it  has  been 
above  the  sea  level  for  ages  and  ages,  and 
the  streams  and  weather  action  have  worn 
it  down  till  it  is  not  much  higher  than  the 
surface  of  the  Coastal  Plain. 

Look  on  the  map  (Figs.  21,  241)  and 
see  how  the  streams  and  rivers,  as  they  flow 
down  toward  the  sea,  cross  first  the  hard, 
rocky  Piedmont  earth,  then  the  soft,  sandy 
earth  of  the  Coast  Plain.  In  the  rocky  region 
the  stream  wears  away  its  bed  very  slowly, 
but  in  the  earth  of  the  plain  it  quickly  digs  a 
much  deeper  channel.  Because 
the  streams  wore  away  the  sandy 
soil  so  much  more  easily  than 
they  did  the  hard  rock,  a wide 
ledge  of  rock  is  left  in  every 
stream  along  the  eastern  edge 
of  the  Piedmont.  Each  stream 
that  enters  the  Coast  Plain  from 


Fig.  203.  The  North  Atlantic 
Coast  Plain. 

(118) 


M 


N 


O 


P 


Q 119 


Fig.  204. 


120 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Courtesy  H.  J.  Heinz  Co. 

Fig.  203.  Harvest-time  in  a Delaware  truck  field.  If  this  picture  was  taken 
at  twelve  o’clock,  what  do  shadows  tell  about  direction  of  rows? 


the  Piedmont  region  tumbles  over  the  last 
rocky  ledge  in  falls  or  swirling  rapids.  This 
chain  of  rapids  is  called  the  “Fall  Line.” 
It  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  a point  at 
least  as  far  as  Augusta,  Georgia. 

Boats  going  up  the  rivers  have  to  stop 
when  they  come  to  the  ledge  of  rock  where 
the  rapids  are.  This  fall  line  is  a natural 
place  for  men  to  make  towns.  Why? 
Throughout  its  length  it  is  now  marked  by  a 
row  of  cities,  sometimes  called  fall-line 
cities:  Trenton,  on  the  Delaware;  Philadel- 
phia, on  the  Schuylkill;  Baltimore,  on  a 
creek  called  Jones’  Falls;  Washington,  on  the 
Potomac;  Richmond,  on  the  James;  and 
Raleigh,  on  the  Neuse  River.  These  cities, 
except  Baltimore,  we  shall  study  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Northern  Piedmont  Region. 
(Sec.  264.) 

The  Coast  Plain  includes  Long  Island  and 
Cape  Cod,  both  of  which  are  as  sandy  as 
any  other  part  of  the  plain. 

215.  A climate  boundary. — The  southern 
boundary  of  the  North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain 
is  a climate  boundary,  and  it  is  found  at  the 
place  where  the  growing  season  is  long  enough 
to  let  cotton  ripen  and  become  an  important 
crop. 

216.  Waterways  and  harbors. — After  the 

North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain  had  been  raised 
n 


out  of  the  sea,  and  the  rivers 
had  cut  valleys  in  it,  a part 
sank  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  and, 
of  course,  the  sea  flowed 
back  into  the  river  valleys. 
Look  at  the  map,  and  you 
can  see  that  the  ocean 
water  filled  up  the  Susque- 
hanna River  valley  and 
made  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
you  can  see  that  it  filled 
the  lower  parts  of  many 
branch  valleys  that  now 
make  the  arms  of  the  big 
bay.  On  another  part  of 
the  coast  the  water  joined 
two  little  valleys  which  have 
become  Long  Island  Sound. 
Look  at  the  map  (Fig.  26) 
and  tell  how  two  valleys  filled  with  water 
made  the  State  of  Delaware  a part  of  a 
peninsula.  How  can  boats  pass  from  the 
Chesapeake  to  the  Delaware? 

Many  steamboat  lines  go  from  Baltimore 
to  Norfolk,  Fredericksburg,  and  to  York- 
town,  and  to  many,  many  other  places  on 
both  sides  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  These  boat 
lines  have  greatly  helped  to  make  Baltimore 
the  large,  prosperous  city  that  it  is.  Many 
counties  in  the  CoastPlainsection  of  Virginia 
have,  even  now,  no  railroads,  but  depend 
upon  sailboats,  launches,  and  steamboats. 

217.  Unused  land. — Part  of  the  Coast 
Plain  was  settled  very  early,  but  strange  to 
say,  much  of  it  is  still  unsettled.  If  you  walk 
inland  from  Tuckerton,  north  of  Atlantic 
City,  you  will  not  pass  a house  or  a field  in 
seventeen  miles.  You  will  see  only  woods, 
where  the  big  trees  have  been  cut  for  lum- 
ber, and  the  little  ones  have  been  badly 
injured  by  forest  fires.  Much  of  eastern 
New  Jersey  and  other  parts  of  the  Plain  are 
still  a great  forest.  Why  is  this  land  empty 
of  people  when  it  is  so  near  the  sea,  and  when 
parts  of  it  were  first  settled  so  long  ago? 
The  answer  is  given  in  two  words:  poor  soil. 

Sandy  soil  is  generally  poor  soil  for  grass 
and  grain  crops.  Farmers  who  cut  down  the 
forests  and  tried  to  raise  wheat,  corn,  and 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  PLAIN 


121 


grass  on  the  Coastal  Plain, 
found  that  the  crops  were 
too  poor  to  pay  them  for 
the  work.  For  better  land 
they  went  to  the  westward, 
leaving  many  of  the  Coastal 
Plain  farms  to  be  overgrown 
again  with  pine  trees. 

218.  Truck  farming  on 
sandy  soil. — Four  new 
things  have  recently 
changed  farming  conditions 
in  the  Coastal  Plain:  (a) 

Big  cities  which  need  more 
vegetables;  ( b ) express 
trains  to  take  produce  to 
these  cities;  (c)  canneries 
for  preserving  food;  (d)  com- 
mercial fertilizers  to  make 
sandy  land  productive. 

Soil  so  sandy  that  it  will  not  produce  good 
grass  may  be  made  good  for  peas,  cabbages, 
strawberries,  watermelons,  and  other  garden 
crops.  We  learned  in  Sections  25  and  39  how 
people  in  the  Cotton  Belt  and  Florida  have 
learned  to  grow  good  truck  crops  on  sandy  soil 
by  using  commercial  fertilizer  and  by  planting 
legumes.  The  people  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Coast  Plain  follow  the  same  method.  Sandy 
fields  which  in  1875  were  not  worth  keeping 
for  wheatfields  were  allowed  to  grow  up  into 
forests  of  pine  and  chestnut.  They  have 
since  been  cleared  again,  and  are  producing 
splendid  crops  of  melons,  vegetables,  and 
small  fruit  and  sometimes  com. 

219.  Marshes  and  cranberries. — Parts  of 
the  coast  plain  are  called  saltwater  marsh, 
because  they  are  under  water  at  high  tide 
but  are  left  dry  at  low  tide.  This  marsh  is 
covered  with  coarse  grass.  Other  parts  of 
the  plain  are  so  level  as  to  be  swampy 
near  the  streams,  and  there  the  cranberry 
— a little,  low  vine — grows  wild.  Many 
farmers  grow  cranberries  on  Cape  Cod  and 
in  New  Jersey.  In  order  to  keep  down  the 
weeds,  they  build  dams  so  that  they  can 
flood  the  cranberry  bogs  for  a part  of  the 
season;  then  they  let  the  water  off  at  picking 
time.  The  fields  are  again  flooded  in  cold 


weather  to  keep  the  plants  from  freezing. 

220.  The  journey  of  the  harvest-time. — 
We  saw  in  Section  25  that  harvest- time 
travels  northward  through  Florida  and  the 
Cotton  Belt.  It  travels  in  the  same  way 
from  North  Carolina  to  Maine.  At  Norfolk, 
in  the  month  of  May,  the  boats  and  trains 
daily  carry  away  thousands  of  barrels  of  new 
potatoes  and  thousands  of  crates  of  straw- 
berries. About  the  end  of  May,  the  harvest 
crosses  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake.  Then 
the  southern  counties  of  Virginia  are  busy 
sending  their  potatoes  north,  south,  east,  and 
west,  as  far  as  Maine,  Louisiana,  and 
Michigan.  At  that  time  no  other  place  in 
the  East  is  harvesting  many  new  potatoes. 
Harvest-time  then  moves  northward  into 
Maryland,  and  successively  on  into  Dela- 
ware, New  Jersey,  and  Long  Island.  The 
strawberry  harvest  crosses  the  Chesapeake 
one  month  ahead  of  the  potato  harvest. 

During  the  summer,  hundreds  of  city 
families  move  to  the  country,  where  they 
camp  in  little  houses  built  for  the  purpose, 
and  work  on  the  truck  farms.  Men  and 
women,  boys  and  girls,  spend  several  weeks 
picking  strawberries,  peas,  beans,  raspberries, 
blackberries,  and  other  crops,  as  one  after 
the  other  the  crops  ripen  for  the  market. 


122 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Photo.  N.  F.  Davis 

Fig.  207.  An  oyster  boat.  See  the  steel  dredge  which  the  man  at  the  wind- 
lass is  pulling  over  the  side  of  the  boat.  It  is  filled  with  oysters  which  it 
scooped  up  as  it  was  dragged  along  the  oyster  bed  at  the  sea  bottom.  Some- 
times the  oysters  are  taken  from  the  bottom  with  long-handled  tongs. 


221.  Getting  the  produce  to  market. — On 
a road  that  leads  to  Philadelphia  or  New 
York,  one  may  see  in  a single  day  hundreds 
of  auto-trucks  loaded  with  produce  rumbling 
toward  town.  At  scores  of  railroad  stations, 
freight  cars  are  being  loaded  for  distant 
places.  Steamboats  loaded  to  the  limit  go 
up  and  down  the  rivers  and  bays  carrying 
garden  truck  to  the  cities.  Sometimes  there 
are  not  enough  carriers  to  haul  the  produce. 
Sometimes  so  much  produce  is  raised  that  it 
cannot  all  be  sold  in  the  cities.  Then  heaps 
of  good  things  may  spoil  upon  the  wharves. 

222.  Canning  factories. — At  nearly  every 
little  town  in  the  trucking  section  there  are 
canning  factories,  where  food  is  saved  for 
distant  peoples  to  eat  at  future  times.  In 
these  frame  buildings  hundreds  of  women  and 
girls  work  early  and  late  to  can  the  food,  so 
that  it  will  keep  for  months  and  may  be 
easily  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  country  and 
to  foreign  lands.  So  many  boat  lines  carry 
fruits  and  vegetables  to  Baltimore  that  this 
city  is  the  greatest  canning  center  in  the  world. 

223.  Fish  and  oysters. — In  the  wintertime, 
the  canning  factories  of  Baltimore  are  busy 
canning  oysters,  for  which  Baltimore  is  the 
greatest  market  in  the  world.  The  oyster 
lives  at  the  bottom  of  shallow  waters,  from 


224.  Oyster -farming. — 
Recently  men  have  begun 
what  is  called  oyster-farm- 
ing. The  baby  oyster  swims 
around  in  the  water  until  it  finds  a pebble 
or  an  old  oyster  shell,  or  even  a stick  of 
wood,  on  which  it  can  settle  safely  and  be 


Courtesy  Maryland  State  College  of  Agr. 

Fig.  208.  Scores  of  cans  of  vegetables  being  lowered 
by  a crane  into  a cooker.  The  big  lid  will  shut  down, 
and  the  steam  under  pressure  will  make  a heat 
greater  than  that  of  boiling  water. 


the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
chief  oystering  centers  (Fig. 
207)  are  the  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  bays  and  Long 
Island  Sound.  Every  au- 
tumn and  winter,  hundreds 
of  boats,  ifiostly  two- 
masted  schooners  (Fig.223), 
go  out  on  these  waters  to 
bring  back  oysters.  Fresh 
oysters  are  sent  in  their 
shells  or  in  buckets  to  many 
parts  of  the  United  States. 
Like  vegetables,  they  are 
also  canned. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  PLAIN 


123 


out  of  the  mud.  Here  it  sticks  fast  and 
rapidly  makes  a shell,  eating  whatever  the 
currents  bring  within  reach.  If  the  baby 
oyster  happens  to  settle  in  the  mud,  it  is 
smothered.  If  it  fastens  to  something  firm 
and  hard,  and  all  goes  well,  it  will  grow  big 
and  may  lay  a great  many  eggs,  which  hatch 
into  other  little  oysters. 

The  oyster-farmer  leases  from  the  state 
a piece  of  sandy-bottomed  bay,  though  no 
oysters  may  be  growing  there.  Then  he 
drops  overboard  the  branches  of  trees,  or  old 
oyster  shells.  The  little  floating  oysters 
will  settle  on  such  things,  and  in  a few  years 
the  oysters  will  have  grown  big  enough  to 
be  taken  up  with  dredges  and  sent  to 
market.  (Fig.  207.) 

225.  Seashore  vacations. — 

Another  important  city  in  this 
region  is  Atlantic  City.  It  has 
just  one  industry — that  of  tak- 
ing care  of  people  who  want  a 
vacation  beside  the  sea.  It  is 
the  largest  city  in  the  world 
where  the  only  industry  is  that 
of  taking  care  of  visitors.  Peo- 
ple love  the  ocean.  They  love 
to  walk  along  the  beach,  to  smell  the  salt 
air,  to  feel  the  fresh  cool  breeze,  to  pick 
up  shells  in  the  sand,  and  to  watch  the  tide 
creep  up  and  down,  as  it  does  twice  a day 
on  all  the  seashores  of  the  world.  They  love 
to  bathe  in  the  cool  ocean  and  to  be  tossed 
about  by  its  never-ceasing,  roaring  waves. 
The  shores  of  New  Jersey,  Long  Island, 
and  Cape  Cod  are  fast  becoming  rows  of 
towns  where  people  from  the  hot  interior 
seek  refuge  from  summer  heat. 

226.  Sea  breezes. — The  sea  beach  is  a 
place  where  one  can  nearly  always  be  com- 
fortably cool.  When  a stranger  who  is 
staying  at  the  seashore  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Coast  Plain  takes  a walk  about  9:30  o’clock 
on  a summer  morning,  he  is  almost  sure  to 
think,  “ It  is  getting  hot.  I fear  this  will  be 
a very  hot  day.”  Suddenly  he  feels  a breeze 
blowing  in  from  the  sea.  It  is  a cool  breeze, 
and  it  blows  all  day.  What  has  happened? 
As  the  hot  morning  sun  beats  upon  the  sea 


and  upon  the  sand,  the  sand  becomes  much 
hotter  than  does  the  water.  The  sun’s  rays 
sink  deep  into  the  sea,  so  they  cannot 
warm  its  surface  very  much;  but  they 
heat  the  surface  of  the  sand,  partly  because 
they  cannot  sink  into  sand  as  they  can  into 
water.  Besides,  it  takes  more  heat  to  heat 
water  than  it  does  to  heat  earth  to  the  same 
temperature.  Thus  an  hour  or  two  of 
sunshine  makes  the  sand  very  hot,  while  it 
heats  the  water  only  a very  little.  Because 
the  sand  of  the  beach  is  heated,  the  air  over 
it  becomes  hot,  too,  and  begins  to  expand 
(Sec.  66).  After  a few  hours  the  heat  has 
expanded  the  air  on  the  beach  so  much  that 
it  is  lighter  than  the  cooler  air  over  the  sea 
near  by.  Then  the  heavy  air 
over  the  sea  pushes  the  lighter 
air  upward  and  flows  toward 
the  land  to  take  its  place.  The 
lighter  air  over  the  beach  rises 
just  as  a cork  in  a dish  rises 
when  water  is  poured  in. 

When  the  cool  sea  air  flows 
in  to  take  the  place  of  the  hot 
beach  air,  we  have  a sea 
breeze.  The  sea  breeze  blows 
on  the  seashore  of  nearly  all  warm  places,  and 
so  the  seashore  is  much  cooler  in  summer  than 
places  inland.  When  people  are  sweltering 
from  heat  at  Philadelphia,  Washington,  or 
Pittsburgh,  on  a summer  day,  a cool, 
pleasant  breeze  may  be  blowing  along  the 
seashore.  A cool  sea  breeze  may  be  enjoyed 
from  Cape  Cod  to  North  Carolina,  from 
North  Carolina  to  Florida,  and  on  thousands 
and  thousands  of  miles  of  seashore  in  all 
warm  continents,  on  many,  many  islands, 
and  on  the  shores  of  many  lakes. 

227.  Landbreezes. — As  sandcoolsoff  much 
faster  than  water,  the  seashore  sometimes 
gets  cooler  at  nights  than  the  sea.  Can  you 
explain  how  it  is  that  there  is  a breeze  from 
land  to  sea  at  that  time?  Sometimes  the 
west  wind  blows  so  strongly  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Coast  Plain  that  instead  of  a sea 
breeze  there  is  a land  breeze  by  day.  It  is  a 
hot  breeze,  and  it  blows  millions  of  mosqui- 
toes out  of  the  swamps.  It  is  not  pleasant 

XI 


Photo.  N.  F.  Davis 


Fig.  209.  A Maryland  oyster  shell 
covered  with  dozens  of  tiny 
oysters. 


124 


M 


N 


O 


P 


90° 


REGIONS 

■■-—■—  Boundary  of  Region 

— — — Subdivision  of  Region 

B Cotton  Belt 

T1  Ozark  Plateaus 

C Central  Farming  Region 

U Northern  Highlands 

Cl  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt 

V Basin  ot  the  St.Lawrence  and  the 

C2  Ohio  Valley 

Great  Lakes 

D Northern  Wheat  Region 

V2  Upper  Lake  District 

0 Nortfi  Atlantic  Coast  Plain 

VI  Lower  Lake  District  and  St.Lawrence 

P New  England-Canadian  Maritime  District 

Valley 

0 Coasts  ol  Labrador  and  Newfoundland 

W Erie  Canal  Belt 

R Northern  Piedmont 

X Great  Northern  Forests 

S Appalachian  Region 

Si  Appalachian  Ridges  and  Valleys 

S2  Appalachian  Plateaus 

T I 5 ^=“'3 

-15 


,-TC^  A 

P°rt  Ar/hur'o; 

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o Vi^g ~ 

S V P £ # ^ 


M , ?j[  7/.^i  o 
Ma,,ine£te  ^ * ^s 

JKTb^t— — 

IN/*f-J^h; 

Greeri  BavU  , 

Appietonn^0  / ^ 

^hKcshb^/7 

S@Pp-ap 


rncht 

Dans 


Longitude 


West: 


Fig.  210 


R 


S 


T 


U 


125 


Fig.  210 


Comparative  Latitude  Lisbon o o Madrid  o Marseilles  &o  Paris  o g0  LondonO 


126 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  211.  A shipwreck  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast.  The  life-saving  crew- 
fired  a shot  carrying  a small  line  over  the  ship.  Then  a larger  line  was 
drawn  on  board,  and  people  went  ashore  in  a breeches  buoy  running  on  a 
pulley  on  the  big  rope.  See  the  foaming  white  waves  and  the  rocks.  Is  the 
wind  blowing  from  the  sea  or  from  the  land?  Which  do  sea  captains  like? 


then  to  be  at  some  of  the  beach  towns. 
Fortunately  the  land  breeze  does  not  often 
blow. 

228.  Resort  cities. — People  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Ohio  Valley,  Chicago,  and  many 
other  places  in  the  interior  of  North  America 
find  that  the  seashore  resort  they  can  reach 
most  easily  is  somewhere  along  the  shore  of 
the  North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain.  Although 
Atlantic  City  is  the  greatest  of  them  all,  there 
are  many  other  resorts.  In  fact  there  is  a 
chain  of  them  along  the  New  Jersey  shore, 
from  Cape  May  at  the  south  to  Sandy  Hook 
at  the  north,  and  there  are  seashore  towns 
on  Long  Island  too.  On  Cape  Cod  are 
thousands  of  cottages  where 
families  go  to  spend  a 
pleasant  summer. 

229.  A good  rainfall. — 

The  sea  breeze  does  not 
blow  far  inland.  It  does  not 
disturb  the  big  cyclones 
(Secs.  59-70).  Since  the 
cyclones  come  in  summer 
and  in  winter,  the  Coastal 
Plain  has  rainfall  through- 
out the  year,  and  its  climate 
is  very  well  suited  to  agri- 
culture. 

n 


230.  Cities  for  manu- 
facture and  trade. — There 
are  but  few  cities  on  the 
North  Atlantic  Coastal 
Plain.  Other  than  shore  re- 
sorts, the  largest  cities  are 
near  Hampton  Roads,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  James  River. 
There,  Norfolk,  Portsmouth, 
and  Newport  News  cluster 
around  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world  and 
have  a growing  foreign 
trade.  During  the  World 
War  this  harbor  was  one  of 
the  great  naval  bases  for 
sending  supplies  to  the 
armies  in  Europe.  Newport 
News  has  one  of  the  largest 
shipyards  in  the  world. 
Norfolk  is  a great  trucking  center  and  also  a 
great  peanut  market,  because  there  are  many 
peanut  farms  on  the  neighboring  coastal  plain. 

There  is  plenty  of  raw  material  for  the  glass 
industry  in  some  parts  of  the  Coastal  Plain, 
for  glass  is  made  of  little  else  but  melted 
sand.  At  Glassboro  and  other  towns  in 
southern  New  Jersey,  skilful  glassblowers 
make  wonderful  glass  retorts  and  queer- 
shaped bottles  that  are  used  in  chemical 
laboratories.  Glass  is  blown  or  molded 
into  shape  while  it  is  still  soft  like  molasses 
candy. 

Baltimore,  at  the  edge  of  the  Coastal 
Plain,  is  much  larger  than  any  c-ity  on  the 


© Atlantic  Foto  Service 

Fig.  212.  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey.  The  beach  and  surf  with  bathers,  the 
famous  “Boardwalk,”  or  promenade,  beach-front  hotels,  and  a pier  built  out 
into  the  sea.  On  the  pier  are  amusement  buildings. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  PLAIN 


127 


plain.  It  is  a distributing 
center  for  supplies  which 
are  carried  out  by  many 
small  steamboats  and  sail- 
boats. It  also  has  ship- 
yards, iron  furnaces,  steel 
mills,  and  many  factories. 

Its  furnaces  are  supplied 
with  coal  from  Penn- 
sylvania. Some  of  the  iron 
ore  comes  from  Cuba. 

231.  The  future  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain. 

— The  possible  future  of 
this  sandy  land  is  indicated 
by  a garden  made  on  sandy 
Cape  Cod  by  a college  pro- 
fessor of  botany.  When  he 
first  started  to  make  it,  the 
neighbors  told  him  that  the 
soil  was  so  sandy  that  he 
could  not  make  a garden 
there.  But  the  professor  kept  on  planting. 
Then  the  people  shook  their  heads  and  told 
one  another  what  a stupid  man  he  was,  because 
no  one  could  make  a garden  in  such  sand. 
But  for  two  years  his  garden  had  big,  strong, 
green  potato  plants,  and  fine  corn.  Then 
you  may  be  sure  the  neighbors  came  around 
and  asked  him  how  he  did  it.  This  is  how  it 
happened.  The  professor  had  found  out 
from  old  books  how  the  Indians  raised  com 
there.  He  learned  that  they  dug  trenches 
in  the  light  sand,  and  in  the  bottom  of  each 
they  put  a layer  of  seaweed  from  the  beach 
and  a fish  for  each  hill  of  corn.  Then  they 
put  back  the  sand,  and  planted  corn.  The 
professor  used  seaweed  and  dried  sheep 
manure.  The  rotting  seaweed  not  only  holds 
moisture,  but  it  helps  to  furnish  phosphorus, 
potash,  and  nitrogen,  the  things  that  plants 
get  from  a complete  fertilizer.  By  some- 
what similar  treatment,  that  of  plowing 
under  green  crops,  millions  of  sandy  acres 
may  be  made  to  produce  crops  where  now 
there  is  only  a poor,  burnt  forest  or  a swamp. 

232.  A land  for  meat  and  milk. — The 
truck  crop  yields  so  much  per  acre  that  a 
small  part  of  the  Coastal  Plain  can  grow  all 


the  vegetables  which  the  neighboring  city 
markets  will  take  in  a season.  From  our 
study  of  Florida  (Sec.  31)  and  the  Cotton 
Belt  (Sec.  43),  how  do  you  think  this  region 
might  become  a land  of  meat  and  milk? 
The  climate  of  this  plain  is  so  good  that  it  is 
a pity  for  men  to  let  any  of  the  land  remain 
covered  with  only  poor  pine  trees.  The 
swamps  that  now  raise  so  many  mosquitoes 
should  be  drained  and  turned  into  fields. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  A merchant  agrees  to  supply  a hotel  with  fresh 
raspberries  throughout  the  season.  Where  would  he 
obtain  his  berries  at  different  times?  2.  What  deter- 
mines the  boundaries  of  the  North  Atlantic  Coastal 
Plain?  3.  What  is  its  average  elevation?  character 
of  surface?  nature  of  soil?  4.  Make  a list  of  the 
important  products.  Why  is  so  much  of  the  plain 
unused?  5.  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities.  Give 
a fact  of  importance  about  each.  Why  are  there  so 
few  cities  on  this  plain?  6.  A little  boy  lost  his 
balloon  at  Atlantic  City.  Which  way  would  it  blow 
in  daytime?  at  night?  Do  these  air  movements 
explain  why  the  seacoast  is  cooler  in  summer  and 
warmer  in  winter  than  Philadelphia? 

7.  What  service  is  rendered  the  coastal  area  by  its 
many  navigable  rivers  and  deep  bays?  8.  How  is 
the  truck  farmer  aided  by  (a)  nearness  to  the  great 
eastern  cities?  ( b ) fast  express  service?  (c)  the  canning 
industry?  9.  Why  has  the  New  Jersey  coast  become 
a great  vacation  land?  Plan  a day’s  pleasure  at  the 
seashore. 


128  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Fig.  214. 
Canadian 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND-CANADIAN  MARI- 
TIME DISTRICT 

233.  A rugged  coast. — North  of  Cape  Cod 
the  seacoast  does  not  have  the  long,  straight, 
sandy  beaches  that  we  find  between  Cape 
Cod  and  the  Rio  Grande.  Instead,  from 
Massachusetts  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
(Figs.  210,  216)  most  of  the  coast  is  rocky 
and  crooked,  with  deep  bays  and  many  rocky 
islands  along  the  shore.  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy 
the  water  is  so  deep  at  high  tide  that  big 

ships  can  then  sail 
over  places  where 
there  is  bare  sand 
or  mud  at  low  tide. 
In  most  places  the 
tide  rises  only  a few 
Tne  New  England-  lset,  but  the  shape 
Maritime  District.  0f  the  Bay  of  Fundy 

makes  the  tide  there  rise  forty  or  fifty  feet, 
which  is  the  highest  tide  in  the  world.  (See 
Appendix.) 

234.  Fishing. — There  are  many  shallow 
places  called  fishing  banks  off  the  shores  of 
New  England,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfound- 
land. The  water  is  so  shallow  that  cod  and 
other  fish  can  be  caught  from  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  and  cold  seas  are  richer  in  fish  than 
warm  seas.  From  the  earliest  settlement  of 
this  region  many  of  the  people  have  made 
their  living  by  catching  cod  and  other  fish. 
Gloucester  and  Boston  in  Massachusetts,  and 
Halifax  and  Yarmouth  in  Nova  Scotia  are 
the  chief  fishing  ports.  The  rugged  coast  is 
full  of  harbors. 

235.  A rugged  land. — Instead  of  a stone- 
less and  level  plain  like  that  of  New  Jersey  or 
Carolina,  the  New  England-Canadian  Mari- 
time District  is  a land  of  stony  soil,  rolling  hills, 
and  tumbling  streams.  What  are  its  bounds? 
The  glaciers  that  once  covered  it  sometimes 
dammed  up  the  streams,  often  turned  their 
valleys  into  lakes,  and  forced  them  to  flow  in 
new  channels,  often  down  rocky  hills.  In 
watercourses  such  as  these  there  are  many 
waterfalls.  Since  much  of  the  land  is  rocky 
as  well  as  hilly,  it  could  not  be  plowed  easily, 
so  trees  still  cover  most  of  its  surface. 

236.  Changing  industries. — The  first  set- 


tlers who  came  to  this  hilly  country  made 
their  living  by  farming  on  small  stony  farms. 
At  first  they  made  nearly  everything  they 
used.  But  when  the  factories  were  started  in 
the  towns,  many  of  the  farmers  went  to  work 
in  them,  and  abandoned  their  rocky,  hilly 
farms.  Other  farmers  left  this  region  to  go  to 
the  corn  and  wheat  belts  of  the  MiddleWest, 
when  they  were  opened  to  settlers.  There 
was  still  another  period  when  farms  were 
abandoned.  This  was  during  the  World  War. 
Then  factories  were  rushed  and  wages  were 
high  because  war  supplies  had  to  be  produced. 

It  is  not  hard  to  see  why  this  section  has 
changed  from  a farming  to  an  industrial 
region.  The  harbors  have  made  it  a good 
place  for  fishing  and  trading,  and  the  water- 
falls have  furnished  power  to  factory  wheels; 
hence  this  beautiful  country  has  become  a 
land  of  towns,  rather  than  of  farms. 

237.  Changing  people. — People  from  many 
parts  of  the  world  are  living  here.  The  early 
settlers  of  the  New  England-Canadian  Mari- 
time District  were  chiefly  English  and 
Scotch.  The  name  Nova  Scotia  means  New 


Fig.  215.  The  average  annual  snowfall  of  the  Eastern 
United  States.  How  do  you  explain  the  great  difference 
in  snowfall  in  different  parts  of  Maryland?  of  New 
England? 


Comparative  Latitude 


M 


N 


O 


P 


129 


Fig.  216. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Courtesy  New  Bedford  Board  of  Commerce 

Fig.  217.  A spinning  room  in  a New  Bedford  cotton  factory.  Each  of  these 
long  machines  has  hundreds  of  whirling  spindles,  each  of  which  spins  a thread 
which  is  wound  on  a bobbin  (white  spools  in  the  picture).  The  bobbin  is  then 
placed  in  a loom  to  supply  one  of  the  threads  for  a piece  of  cloth. 


Scotland.  After  the  Revolutionary  War, 
many  of  the  New  England  people  who  pre- 
ferred to  stay  under  English  rule  went  from 
New  England  to  New  Brunswick,  where  the 
people  are  still  very  much  like  the  English. 
When  the  New  England  factories  needed 
more  workers,  many  people  came  from  Ire- 
land, and  later  others  came  from  Italy, 
and  from  the  French-speaking  province  of 
Quebec  in  Canada.  More  recently  still, 
many  workers  and  their  families  have  come 
to  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con- 
necticut, from  Portugal,  Poland,  and  Syria. 

238.  Factories  and  cities. — Early  in  the 
morning  the  mill  whistle  in  hundreds  of 
towns  and  small  cities  blows  a long,  loud 
blast  that  can  be  heard  for  miles.  This  is  a 
call  to  the  workers  to  get  up.  A little  later 
the  whistle  blows  again,  and  thousands  of 
workers  start  for  the  factory.  At  another 
toot  from  the  whistle  all  start  to  work  at  their 
machines. 

In  no  other  part  of  North  America  do  so 
many  of  the  people  live  in  cities.  In  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Island  over  nine-tenths  of 
the  people  are  city  dwellers.  There  are  many 
small  cities  instead  of  a few  big  ones.  This 
is  because  most  of  the  manufacturing  cities 
have  grown  up  around  waterfalls,  and  there 

are  so  many  waterfalls  and  so  many  harbors 
ii 


that  there  are  a great  many 
cities. 

239.  Hardware  and  the 
peddler. — Factories  which 
make  the  same  product 
tend  to  be  located  in  the 
same  towns  or  cities.  The 
manufacturers  who  make 
a large  part  of  all  the  hard- 
ware sold  in  the  United 
States  have  their  plants  in 
Connecticut.  In  the  town 
of  New  Britain,  little  but 
hardware  is  made.  In  the 
Naugatuck  Valley,  scores 
of  factories  are  working  in 
nothing  but  brass.  How 
did  these  centers  grow  up? 
The  peddlers  started  it 
more  than  a hundred  years  ago.  Farmers, 
having  little  work  to  do  in  the  winter  sea- 
son, would  buy  a quantity  of  pots,  pans, 
axes,  cowbells,  door  latches,  and  other 
articles  that  the  blacksmiths  had  made  in 
their  shops.  Each  would  load  some  of  these 
articles  into  the  farm  wagon,  or  into  the  sleigh, 
or  on  a pack  horse,  and  start  off  on  a long 
journey  to  sell  the  things.  The  next  winter 


Courtesy  Vermont  Marble  Co. 

Fig.  218.  A storage  yard  of  a Vermont  marble  quarry. 
The  crane  can  pick  up  a stone  at  one  end  of  the  yard 
and  carry  it  to  the  other  end.  How  does  it  do  it? 
Note  the  tracks.  Quarrying  of  marble,  granite,  and 
slate  is  an  important  industry  in  New  England. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND-CANADIAN  MARITIME  DISTRICT 


131 


Pboto  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 
Fig.  220.  Printing  the  designs  with  indelible  ink  on 
cotton  print-cloth,  Fall  River,  Mass.  What  is  the  other 
way  of  getting  design  in  fabric? 

are  each  one  watching  ten  or  a dozen  clack- 
ing looms  that  work  away  by  themselves. 
But  if  one  of  the  hundreds  of  threads  on  a 
machine  breaks,  the  whole  machine  stops. 
Then  the  weaver  quickly  ties  the  broken 
thread,  and  starts  the  machine  making  cloth 
again.  A single  company  at  Manchester, 
New  Hampshire,  turns  out  300  miles  of 
cotton  cloth  in  a day.  At  that  rate  enough 
cloth  could  be  woven  to  reach  from  the 
factory  to  Europe  in  the  same  length  of  time 
in  which  a steamer  would  make  the  trip. 

Seacoast  towns,  led  by  New  Bedford  and 
Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  were  once  busy 
with  the  whale-oil  industry,  because  whale 
fishermen  outfitted  their  ships  there,  and 
brought  their  cargoes  to  these  ports.  But 
whaling  has  become  a small  business  since 
the  coal-oil  lamp,  gas  light,  and  electric  light 
have  come.  Now  the  people  of  these  towns 
are  busy  in  cotton  mills,  the  machinery  of 
which  is  driven  by  coal  brought  by  sea  from 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  Baltimore,  and 
Norfolk. 

Another  great  cotton-manufacturing  town 
is  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island.  It  has  water 
power  from  the  Blackstone  River,  and  on 
the  same  stream  boats  can  go  down  to 


each  would  start  out  with  another  load  which 
the  blacksmith  had  made  during  the  sum- 
mer. When  the  railroads  came  and  made 
it  easy  to  trade  with  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  the  village  blacksmiths  could  not 
make  things  fast  enough  to  supply  the 
demand.  Hardware  factories  were  built. 
Now  many  thousands  of  people  are  engaged 
in  this  industry,  and  there  are  whole  districts 
where  but  little  else  is  produced. 

240.  Cotton  and  woolen  goods. — The 
people  living  in  the  valley  of  the  Merrimac 
River  are  equally  busy  making  cloth.  At 
Lawrence  and  Lowell  in  Massachusetts,  and 
Nashua  and  Manchester  in  New  Hampshire, 
there  are  such  high  waterfalls  that  enormous 
power  is  furnished,  and  the  factories  are  so 
huge  that  we  are  amazed  at  their  size. 
The  people  here  know  little  about  work  in 
metals,  but  they  know  how  to  make  cotton 
and  woolen  yarn,  cotton  and  woolen  cloth, 
and  carpets.  They  know  their  trade  as 
thoroughly  as  children  know  how  to  play 
tag.  In  the  towns  of  the  valley  of  the 
Merrimac,  thousands  of  spinners  stand  be- 
fore long  spinning  machines;  each  machine 
is  spinning  hundreds  of  threads  and  winding 
each  thread  on  a bobbin  ready  for  weaving. 
Other  thousands  of  workers,  called  weavers, 


Courtesy  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fig.  219.  Looking  down  State  Street,  Boston,  at  the 
old  State  House,  now  surrounded  by  modern  business 
buildings. 


132 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


THOMPSON,' 


’GOVERNORS  I 


SPECTACLE  1^  FTSMILPV- 


PEOOOCAS  I. 


GAU.U*'? 


NAHANT 


CALF 


EGG  ROCK 


BREWSTER 
•BOStCW.  'ISLANDS 


AILERTOM 


THE  GRAVES 


JjyPEPARK 


Fig.  221.  An  airman’s  view  of  Boston  and  vicinity  with  its  many  cities.  How  many  lakes  do  you  see?  Ships 
are  well-sheltered  in  Boston  harbor.  What  signs  indicate  that  the  bay  is  on  a sunken  coast? 


Providence  or  Fall  River.  The  chief  cotton- 
manufacturing towns  of  New  England  are 
New  Bedford,  Fall  River,  Pawtucket, 
Lawrence,  and  Lowell. 

Some  cities  specialize  in  woolen  rather 
than  in  cotton  cloth.  Lawrence  and  Provi- 
dence are  two  leading  cities  that  have 
developed  this  specialty;  while  Danbury, 
Connecticut,  makes  Australian  rabbit  furs 
into  felt  hats. 

241.  Making  machinery. — Much  machin- 
ery is  made  in  New  England.  It  is  an  advan- 
tage to  have  big,  heavy  machines  made  near 
the  place  where  they  are  to  be  used.  Why? 
It  is  natural  that  textile  machinery,  shoe 
machinery,  and  many  other  kinds  of  machin- 
ery should  be  made  in  quantities  in  New 
England.  Worcester,  Springfield,  Provi- 
dence, and  Boston  are  important  centers  for 
this  industry. 

242.  Shoes. — Long  ago,  when  the  Con- 
necticut farmers  were  peddling  the  black- 
smiths’ goods  around  the  country,  a few 
cobblers  made  shoes  in  a village  in  eastern 
Massachusetts.  A peddler  took  some  of  the 
shoes  away  to  sell.  This  started  the  shoe 


industry,  and  later  factories  were  built  and 
machines  were  made  to  do  the  work.  New 
England  now  makes  more  than  half  the 
shoes  used  in  the  United  States.  Most  of 
the  work  is  centered  in  eastern  Massachu- 
setts, where  the  cities  of  Brockton  and  Lynn 
are  respectively  the  first  and  the  second  shoe- 
manufacturing cities  in  the  country.  Shoes 
are  also  made  in  the  neighboring  cities  of 
Haverhill  and  Boston.  Within  a few  city 
blocks  in  Boston  you  can  find  the  offices 
of  three  hundred  different  shoe  factories, 
the  plants  of  which  are  scattered  through 
the  neighboring  region. 

There  are  many  other  special  centers  for 
manufacturing,  such  as  Providence  for  jewel- 
ry; Danbury,  Connecticut,  for  hats;  Holyoke, 
Massachusetts,  for  fine  writing  paper;  and 
Augusta  and  Bangor,  in  Maine,  for  wood 
products. 

243.  Centers  of  manufacture. — Why  do 
the  factories  which  make  the  same  article 
gather  in  groups  in  the  different  towns  and 
neighborhoods?  If  you  want  to  start  a new 
shoe  factory,  can  you  do  it  more  easily  in 
some  little  western  town,  or  in  Brockton? 


133 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND-CANADIAN  MARITIME  DISTRICT 


Brockton  stores  keep  the  supplies  which  a 
shoe  manufacturer  needs;  the  western  town 
does  not  have  them.  If  the  machinery 
breaks,  there  are  men  in  Brockton  who 
know  how  to  repair  it;  not  so  in  the  western 
town.  If  you  want  to  start  a shoe  factory, 
you  will  need  to  find  men  who  know  how  to 
use  shoe-making  machinery.  Thousands  of 
such  men  live  in  Brockton;  the  western  town 
has  none  of  them.  Retail  merchants  who 
want  to  buy  shoes  to  sell  go  to  Brockton, 
not  to  the  western  town.  If  you  were  a shoe 
worker  looking  for  a job,  Brockton  would  be 
a good  place  for  you,  because  it  has  fifty 
factories  where  you  might  find  work;  the 
western  town  has  none.  You  see,  there  are 
many  advantages  for  the  employer  and  for 
the  worker  in  an  established  center  of  manu- 
facture. We  shall  find  many  such  centers 
as  we  study  the  different  manufactures  of 
the  world. 

Boston  is  a center  of  both  trade  and  man- 
ufacture. Boston  Basin  is  a low  plain  fairly 
dotted  with  manufacturing  cities  (Fig.  221) 
whose  sea  trade  goes  through  Boston  harbor. 
Boston  has  a famous  public  library,  and 
many  other  interesting  buildings.  It  is  also 
a great  educational  center  with  many  col- 
leges near  it. 

244.  Manufacturing  in  Maine,  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  Nova  Scotia. — There  is  not  so 
much  manufacturing  in  Maine  as  there  is  in 
southern  New  England,  and  there  is  less  in 
the  Canadian  part  of  this  district  than  in 
Maine.  Yet  the  Canadian  district  has  one 
great  advantage  over  the  American  part — 
there  is  coal  near  Sydney  in  Nova  Scotia. 
There  is  also  iron  ore  a short  distance  away 
in  Newfoundland,  and  now  iron  manufac- 
ture is  rapidly  increasing  in  Nova  Scotia. 
Wood  pulp  for  paper  is  the  most  impor- 
tant manufacture  of  the  Canadian  part  of 
this  region.  There  are  also  many  small 
woolen  and  cotton  mills  there. 

Nova  Scotia  has  sometimes  been  called 
“the  land  that  was  passed  by.”  Like  New 
England  and  New  Brunswick,  it  has  some 
water  power,  but  it  is  separated  from  the 
rest  of  Canada  by  so  long  a journey  that 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  222.  Trimming  and  polishing  heels  in  a Massachu- 
setts shoe  factory.  It  is  surprising  how  many  kinds  of 
shoe  business  signs  one  sees  on  the  streets  of  Lynn. 

the  products  of  its  factories  have  not  had  as 
good  a chance  to  reach  their  home  market 
as  have  those  of  the  factories  of  New  Eng- 
land. Then,  too,  the  Canadian  market,  with 
less  than  ten  million  people,  is  much  smaller 
than  the  American  market  with  over  a 
hundred  million  people. 

There  are  some  cotton  and  woolen  mills 
in  southwestern  Maine,  but  the  chief  indus- 
tries of  this  state  are  lumbering  and  the 
manufacture  of  wood  pulp.  The  raw  mate- 
rials come  from  the  forest  which  covers  most 
of  the  state. 

245.  Milk  for  the  cities. — In  the  New  Eng- 
land-Canadian  Maritime  District,  agriculture 
is  much  less  important  than  manufacturing, 
partly  because  there  is  so  much  manufac- 
turing, and  partly  because  so  much  of  the 
land  is  not  suitable  for  plowing.  Milk  for 
the  factory  towns  is  the  chief  thing  sold  by 
the  New  England  farmer.  Hay  to  feed  the 
cows  covers  more  ground  than  all  other 
crops.  Another  reason  why  hay  is  grown  is 
that  much  of  the  land  is  too  stony  to  be 
easily  plowed,  yet  if  the  surface  stones  are 
picked  up,  the  mowing  machine  can  cut  hay, 
and  the  crop  costs  but  little. 

246.  Vegetable  growing. — Market  gardens 
are  important  because  every  city  needs 
fresh  vegetables.  Many  of  the  new  immi- 
grants who  were  farmers  in  their  old  homes 


II— 7 


134 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


Photo.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  223.  Fishing  schooners,  barrels  of  fish,  and  fish 
warehouses,  Great  Fish  Dock,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 

At  the  right  is  a two-masted  fishing  schooner. 

in  Europe  are  tending  market  gardens  near 
New  England  cities. 

247.  Agricultural  centers.  — Agricultural 
centers  are  scattered  throughout  this  region, 
but,  as  in  manufacturing,  each  center  has 
its  own  specialty. 

(1)  Sugar  corn. — In  southern  Maine  are 
many  neighborhoods  where  every  farmer  has 
a field  of  sugar  corn.  The  summers  are  too 
short  and  too  cool  for  corn  to  ripen  fully,  but 
while  it  is  still  green  its  sweet  ears  are  made 
into  the  famous  Maine  canned  corn  that  is 
sold  in  grocery  stores  in  many  states.  The 
cornstalks  and  husks  are  chopped  up  and  put 
into  the  silo,  to  feed  the  dairy  cows  in  winter. 

(2)  Tobacco. — Much  tobacco  is  grown  on 
some  of  the  level  parts  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley.  To  make  growing  conditions  just 
right,  a tent  of  cotton  netting  or  very  thin 
cloth  stretched  on  posts  and  boards  is  put 
over  the  whole  tobacco  field.  This  is  ex- 
pensive, but  it  pays,  because  tobacco  thus 
grown  is  of  unusually  fine  quality. 

(3)  Apples. — In  western  Nova  Scotia  is  a 
long,  narrow  valley  called  Annapolis  Valley. 
It  is  famous  in  England  and  Scotland  for 
the  excellent  apples  that  it  produces.  In  this 
valley,  that  extends  for  miles  and  miles,  nearly 
every  farmer  has  a big  apple  orchard,  and 
in  some  years  as  many  as  a million  barrels 
of  apples  are  sold. 


(4)  Potatoes. — On  Prince  Edward  Island 
the  people  grow  more  potatoes  to  a family 
than  at  any  other  place  in  America.  The 
crop  is  just  suited  to  the  sandy  soil,  and  to  the 
cool  climate  made  by  the  cold  waters  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

(5)  Fox  farms. — In  Prince  Edward  Island 
is  one  of  the  new  industries  of  the  world — 
fox  farming.  (Sec.  318.) 

(6)  The  Cape  Cod  cranberries  are  in  the 
Coastal  Plain.  (Sec.  219.) 

248.  The  vacationist. — The  healthful  cli- 
mate and  the  pleasure  to  be  found  beside  the 
sea  and  in  the  woods  and  hills,  tempt  thou- 
sands of  city  people  to  this  region  to  spend 
their  vacations  in  farmhouses,  cottages, 
camps,  and  hotels.  Taking  care  of  these 
strangers  may  almost  be  considered  as  one 
of  the  industries  of  the  region. 

249.  Trade  and  transport. — (1)  Traders. 
The  people  of  New  England  and  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada  have  been 
great  traders  since  the  first  settlement  of  the 
country,  three  hundred  years  ago.  The 
strong  boats  in  which  they  went  to  the 
fishing  banks  were  seaworthy  enough  to 
make  the  trip  to  Europe,  and  to  the  West 
Indies.  In  1840,  the  merchant  ships  of 
Boston  and  Salem  were  bringing  tea  from 
China.  From  the  shores  along  the  Pacific 
Ocean  they  brought  goatskins,  to  be  used 
by  the  shoemakers  of  eastern  Massachusetts. 
Whalers  of  Nantucket  and  New  Bedford  were 
cruising  in  every  ocean.  Then,  as  now, 
coasting  vessels  went  up  and  down  the  whole 
length  of  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  taking 
lumber,  granite,  and  manufactures;  bringing 
cotton,  sugar,  molasses,  lumber,  and  tobacco 
to  New  England. 

(2)  Railways. — To  enable  Boston  to  have 
a shorter  railroad  connection  with  Buffalo 
and  the  West,  the  long  Hoosac  tunnel  was 
dug  through  the  mountains  of  western  Massa- 
chusetts. Since  the  Canadians  did  not  want 
to  be  left  behind  in  the  opportunity  for 
trade,  their  government  helped  to  build  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  from  Vancouver  to 
St.  John,  New  Brunswick;  and  to  Yarmouth 
and  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  To  make  a 


LABRADOR  AND  THE  COASTS  OF  NEWFOUNDLAND 


135 


shorter  cut  from  the  Atlantic  to  Winnipeg, 
a great  bridge  has  been  built  across  the  St. 
Lawrence  at  Quebec.  (Fig.  210.) 

(3)  Ocean  liners. — Each  year  hundreds  of 
ocean  liners  call  at  Halifax  and  St.  John, 
Portland,  and  Boston,  and  connect  with  the 
railroads  that  reach  to  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent and  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Hundreds 
of  factory  towns  in  this  New  England- 
Canadian  Maritime  District  now  have  an 
extensive  trade  by  land  and  sea.  A town 
making  cloth  or  paper  or  shoes  can  send  its 
product  to  many  cities,  and  with  the  money 
received  from  the  sale  of  its  one  product, 
the  town  can  pay  for  the  thousands  of  other 
things  that  it  buys  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

250.  Future. — What  is  the  future  of  this 
region? 

(1)  Food. — Only  a small  part  of  this 
region  is  in  farms.  How  would  the  tree- 
crop  agriculture  thrive  here?  (Sec.  87.) 
The  stone-covered  glacial  fields  often  have 
rich,  deep  soil  underneath  their  rough  surface. 
Would  more  trees  make  the  country  more  or 
less  beautiful  than  it  now  is? 

If  we  ever  need  to  use  our  land  as  closely 
as  the  Swiss  use  theirs,  this  region  can  be 
made  to  yield  large  quantities  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts, potatoes,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  nuts. 

(2)  Manufacturing. — Much  more  water 
power  can  be  developed.  Some  of  it  can 
come  from  waterfalls,  some  from  tides  along 
the  coast;  but  best  of  all,  even  the  coast 
towns  can  use  the  millions  of  horse  power  that 
can,  if  needed,  be  brought  by  wire  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  from  Quebec,  and  from 
plants  beside  Pennsylvania  coal  mines. 

The  New  England-Canadian  Maritime 
Region  can  keep  on  buying  food,  fuel,  and 
raw  materials,  and  paying  for  them  with 
the  fine  goods  which  her  skillful  and  indus- 
trious people  know  how  to  make. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  use  of  the  following  chart  to  explain  how 
Nature  helped  to  make  this  region  a land  of  fishermen, 
traders,  and  manufacturers. 


Climate. 

Rugged 

Coast. 

The  Roll- 
ing Hills. 

'03“ 

2 0 
r % 

. 

Water- 

falls. 

2.  Make  a list  of  the  chief  productions  under  the 
following  heads:  (a)  Products  of  the  farms;  (6)  Prod- 
ucts of  the  waters;  (c)  Products  of  the  mills;  (d)  Prod- 
ucts of  the  forests.  3.  What  are  the  advantages  of 
the  Maine  coast  for  a vacation?  4.  Can  you  suggest 
from  Fig.  221,  why  Boston  has  become  the  metropolis 
of  this  region?  Name  the  events  connected  with  the 
early  history  of  our  country  which  took  place  in  and 
about  Boston.  5.  What  products  are  made  in  New 
England  from  the  following  list  of  raw  materials:  a 
light  ball  of  rabbit  fur;  a bale  of  cotton;  a few  pieces 
of  steel;  a handful  of  gold  or  silver?  What  cities 
manufacture  each  product?  Why  should  such  prod- 
ucts be  made  rather  than  farm  machinery? 

6.  Why  have  so  many  more  foreigners  come  to  this 
region  than  to  the  Cotton  Belt?  7.  Write  a letter 
that  might  be  sent  from  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  urging  the  New  England  farmers  against 
abandoning  their  farms,  and  suggesting  the  possibilities 
of  tree-crop  agriculture.  8.  If  you  had  $10,000  with 
which  to  start  manufacturing  in  New  England,  what 
product  would  you  make?  9.  Where  would  you  locate? 

10.  What  methods  of  manufacture  would  you  use? 

11.  Where  would  you  obtain  raw  material?  labor? 
power?  12.  Where  would  you  sell  your  product? 
13.  How  has  the  great  glacier  decided  what  men  shall 
do  in  the  Corn  Belt?  in  New  England? 

14.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  factory  method 
of  manufacture  over  that  in  which  one  person  per- 
fox'ms  the  entire  operation?  15.  With  coal  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  iron  near  by,  what  new  industries  may 
come  to  help  the  “land  that  was  passed  by”?  16. 
Why  were  the  first  attempts  to  cross  the  Atlantic  by 
airplane  made  from  Nova  Scotia?  17.  Compare  a 
factory  in  Lawrence,  Mass.,  with  one  in  Greenville, 
S.  C.,  from  the  following  standpoints:  material 

manufactured;  source  of  raw  material;  factory 
workers;  their  nationality;  their  skill;  grade  of 
product.  18.  What  are  New  England’s  necessary 
imports?  Name  the  region  upon  which  she  must 
depend  for  each. 

LABRADOR  AND  THE  COASTS  OF 
NEWFOUNDLAND 

251.  A cold,  damp  land. — It  is  not  far 
from  the  potato  fields  and  dairy  farms  of 
Prince  Edward  Island  to  Newfoundland, 
across  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  But  this 
short  distance  takes  us  into  what  may  almost 
be  called  another  world.  (Fig.  14.)  It  is 
another  world  in  industry,  because  an  Arctic 
current  brings  cold  water  and  icebergs  to 
these  shores,  and  makes  the  climate  so 
cold  that  farming  cannot  be  an  important 
occupation.  It  is  another  world  in  govern- 
ment, because  Newfoundland  and  its  depen- 
dency, the  coast  strip  of  Labrador,  are 
independent  of  Canada.  Newfoundland  is 
a colony  of  the  British  Empire;  its  governor 


136 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


is  sent  out  from  London.  Like  Canada, 
Newfoundland  has  a Parliament  elected  by 
the  people. 

This  cold  land  has  a rough,  rocky,  and 
treeless  coast.  The  icy  water  makes  the 
shore  so  cold  that  trees  will  not  grow  there. 
In  winter  ice  freezes  in  the  sea.  The  waves 
break  it  up;  it  is  then  called  pack  ice.  Then 
it  freezes  together  again  in  chunks  as  big  as 
a table  or  even  as  big  as  a house. 

When  the  wind  blows  from  the  land,  the 
pack  ice  is  swept  out  to  sea.  When  the 
wind  blows  toward  the  shore,  the  ice  comes 
back  and  fills  the  bays  and  piles  up  on  the 
shore.  The  ice-cold  Labrador  current  flows 
from  Davis  Strait  down  the  coast  to  the 
southeastern  tip  of  Newfoundland.  In  sum- 
mer the  current  is  dotted  with  icebergs  that 
float  past  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  and 
melt  where  the  cold  Arctic  current  meets  the 
warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  off  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America.  Some  of 
this  current  creeps  in  through  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle,  so  that  the  island  of  Anticosti  in 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  less  than  two  hun- 
dred miles  north  of  Prince  Edward  Island, 
is  too  cold  for  farms,  although  it  has  a fertile 
soil.  Newfoundland  is  not  much  better  for 
farming,  and  has  for  this  reason  only  one 
farmer  to  twenty  fishermen. 

252.  People. — Of  the  few  people  who  live 
in  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  most  are 


British,  but  there  are  still  a few  of  the  south- 
ern Eskimos  on  the  northern  Labrador  coast, 
and  a few  bands  of  Indians  rove  around  the 
interior  of  that  large,  almost  unexplored 
region  that  lies  between  Hudson  Bay  and  the 
ocean.  There  is  an  Indian  tribe  in  this 
region  which  no  white  man  or  English- 
speaking  Indian  has  ever  seen.  The  stranger, 
before  he  can  get  to  their  tents,  is  always 
discovered  in  time  for  the  Indians  to  run 
away  and  hide.  The  visitors  who  have 
examined  their  skin  tents  say  that  they  cook 
fish  by  boiling  them  in  buckets  made  of 
bark,  in  which  water  is  heated  by  hot  stones 
dropped  into  the  buckets.  They  do  not 
have  any  of  the  white  men’s  utensils  or  goods. 

253.  Fisheries.- — Fishing  is  the  chief  work 
and  produces  the  chief  wealth  of  all  these 
people.  Summer  on  the  coast  of  Labrador 
is  a busy  time.  Thousands  of  fishermen 
from  Newfoundland  go  north  to  camp  for 
the  summer,  while  catching  and  drying  cod. 

Only  four  thousand  people  live  on  this 
coast  in  the  winter  time,  and  the  Newfound- 
landers call  them  “ Liveyeres.”  When  the 
pack  ice  fills  their  little  harbors,  and  the 
biting  blizzards  blow,  the  little  settlements 
on  the  bleak  and  rocky  coast  of  Labrador 
must  be  desolate  indeed.  Only  by  dog-team 
and  on  foot  can  people  travel  in  winter. 
These  people  were  so  few  and  so  far  apart 
that  traders  coming  there  for  fish  often 
imposed  upon  them  by  pay- 
ing less  than  the  fish  were 
worth,  so  that  sometimes 
the  people  had  scarcely 
enough  to  eat.  A brave 
physician  named  Wilfred 
Grenfell  has  spent  many 
years  on  the  Labrador 
coast,  helping  the  fishermen 
to  have  schools  and  hospi- 
tals and  better  ways  to 
market  their  fish. 

In  the  winter  the  men 
of  Labrador  and  Newfound- 
land catch  seals  that  lie  on 
the  pack  ice  along  the 
shores.  But  seals  are  not 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  224.  Fishermen’s  homes  on  the  island  of  Saint-Pierre. 


LABRADOR  AND  THE  COASTS  OF  NEWFOUNDLAND 


137 


Fig.  225.  Fishing  off  the  treeless  coast  of  Newfoundland. 


nearly  so  important  as  cod- 
fish, which  are  the  chief 
source  of  the  wealth  on  this 
cold  coast. 

254.  A French  colony  and 
European  fishermen. — The 
codfishing  in  this  region  is 
so  good  that  many  fisher- 
men sail  across  from  Europe 
each  year.  French  fisher- 
men from  Brest  and  the 
other  ports  of  Brittany 
catch  fish  and  dry  them 
along  the  coast  of  Labrador. 

France  still  owns  the  two 
little  rocky  islands,  Miquelon  and  St.-Pierre, 
just  south  of  Newfoundland.  Before  the 
Revolutionary  War,  France  gave  up  all  her 
Canadian  colonies  to  England,  but  she  was 
allowed  to  keep  these  two  little  islands. 
They  are  not  fortified,  and  are  only  used 
by  fishermen  as  a place  for  fitting  out 
their  vessels,  and  for  salting  and  drying 
fish.  At  St.-Pierre  this  industry  is  so  impor- 
tant that  at  the  beginning  of  the  season 
the  fishermen  gather  in  a great  procession 
and  carry  a dory  or  fishing  boat  into  the 
church,  that  it  may  be  blessed  at  the  opening 
of  the  codfishing  season.  Fish!  Fish!  The 
whole  town  smells  of  fish.  It  seems  like  a 
town  in  France,  with  French  goods  in  the 
shops,  French  wooden  shoes  on  the  feet  of 
the  people,  and  the  French  language  on  their 
tongues. 

255.  Agriculture. — Gardens  are  a rarity 
in  Labrador,  and  people  who  try  to  raise 
vegetables  often  have  to  cover  them  at  night 
with  canvas  to  keep  off  the  frost.  The 
scanty  crops  grown  by  the  few  Newfoundland 
farmers  are  crops  of  the  north:  potatoes, 
turnips,  oats,  cabbages,  and  hay.  The  chief 
farm  animals  are  sheep,  which  can  live  on 
grass,  turnips,  hay,  and  oats. 

256.  Unused  resources. — (1)  Iron  ore  is 
mined  near  St.  Johns,  and  sent  across  to  Cape 
Breton  and  Nova  Scotia  to  be  smelted. 
Some  of  it  comes  to  the  United  States. 

The  iron  ore  deposits  of  eastern  New- 
foundland are  large  enough  to  last  British 


America  for  several  hundred  years.  What 
may  we  expect  from  this  fact? 

(2)  Since  the  interior  of  Labrador  is  a 
plateau,  its  streams  can  be  made  to  yield 
much  water  power  as  they  fall  down  to  the 
sea.  Would  you  expect  factory  towns  to 
grow  on  such  a shore,  or  smelters  for  iron 
or  other  ores,  or  electric  nitrate  plants? 

(3)  Those  who  like  to  fish  in  cold  water 
and  feel  bracing  cold  breezes  in  July  may 
go  there  for  vacations  far  from  the  mainland 
heat. 

QUESTIONS 


1.  Compare  the  North  Atlantic  Coast  Regions: 


Topic. 

North 

Atlantic 

Coastal 

Plain. 

New  England- 
Canadian 
Maritime 
District. 

Newfound- 
land and 
Labrador. 

Location  and  bounds 
Character  of  coast. . 

Nature  of  soil 

Nature  of  surface. . . 

Climate 

Products  of  farms . . 
Products  of  waters . 
Products  of  mines 
Products  of  forests 
Chief  cities 

2.  Can  you  explain  how  the  rising  price  of  meat  in 
your  own  locality  will  make  Labrador  and  Newfound- 
land more  important  to  us? 

3.  What  is  a fishing  bank?  Why  are  great  quan- 
tities of  fish  caught  off  Newfoundland  and  few  off 
New  York?  4.  How  many  reasons  can  you  name 
why  the  people  of  Labrador  and  the  coasts  of  New- 
foundland fish  rather  than  manufacture?  5.  Would 
you  care  to  live  at  St.-Pierre?  (Fig.  224.)  Explain. 

6.  Can  you  find  out  something  about  the  work  of 
Dr.  Wilfred  Grenfell?  7.  Describe  the  hardships  and 
dangers  of  a Newfoundland  fisherman. 


Courtesy  Surpass  Leather  Co.,  Philadelphia 

Fig.  226.  Trimming  goatskins  in  a Philadelphia  tannery 
for  kid  gloves  and  shoes.  As  goats  live  in  dry  countries, 
many  of  the  skins  come  from  North  Africa,  India,  and  China. 
Where  may  the  shoes  be  made?  Where  worn? 


THE  EASTERN  AND 

257.  Boundaries. — With  the  map  before 
you,  look  at  the  group  of  regions  just  west  of 
the  New  England  Maritime  District  and  the 
North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain.  (Fig.210.)  Name 
the  regions.  The  coloring  shows  that  most  of 
these  are  high  lands.  On  Fig.  14,  compare 
them  in  height  with  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Which  highland  area  is  higher?  Which  is 
larger?  Now  look  again  at  Fig.  210  and  find 
a low  place  where  we  might  get  through  the 
eastern  uplands.  Of  this  group  of  eastern  up- 
land regions,  we  shall  study  the  smallest  first; 
the  one  marked  R on  the  map — the  North- 
ern Piedmont. 

THE  NORTHERN  PIEDMONT 

Trace  its  boundaries  on  the 
map.  In  Section  214,  we  learned 
that  the  eastern  boundary  is 
marked  by  the  fall  line.  Why 
is  this  boundary  the  head  of  navi- 


CENTRAL  UPLANDS 

• 

gation  on  all  the  streams  which  flow  across  it? 
The  word  piedmont  means  “ at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.”  See  on  the  map,  Fig.  15,  and  on 
Fig.  241  how  this  region  is  bounded  at  the  west 
by  the  steep  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  which 
extend  almost  like  a wall  nearly  all  the  way 
from  New  Jersey  to  South  Carolina.  At  the 
northern  end,  near  the  Hudson  River,  the 
Piedmont  is  narrow.  Toward  the  south  it 
widens  out.  Its  southern  boundary  is  the 
Cotton  Belt.  The  clay  hills  of  the  Northern 
Piedmont  continue  into  the  Cotton  Belt,  but 
since  cotton  is  so  important  to  the  people 
living  there,  we  call  that  sec- 
tion of  the  Piedmont  a part 
of  the  Cotton  Belt. 

258.  Fall-line  ports  and  man- 
ufactures.— The  fall  line  was  the 
natural  place  for  the  early  set- 
tlers to  locate  their  towns.  Their 
boats  could  ascend  the  rivers 


Fig.  227.  The  Northern  Pied- 
mont Region. 

(138) 


THE  NORTHERN  PIEDMONT 


139 


Fig.  228.  Rolling  hills  of  the  Northern  Piedmont,  thirty  miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia. 


only  to  the  head  of  navigation,  and  there 
they  often  met  the  Indians  with  whom 
they  traded  goods  for  furs.  Many  of 
the  towns  on  the  fall  line  were  built  on  the 
sites  of  these  Indian  villages.  The  falling 
water  at  such  places  can  furnish  power  for 
mills,  and  that  is  the  other  reason  why 
there  is  a fall  line  industrial  town  on  almost 
every  large  stream  that  passes  from  the  Pied- 
mont into  the  Coast  Plain.  Trenton  stands  at 
the  fall  line  on  the  Delaware;  Philadelphia 
marks  the  point  where  the  last  rapids  appear 
in  the  Schuylkill  River;  Wilmington  is 
situated  by  the  rapids  of  the  Brandywine,  a 
branch  of  the  Delaware;  Baltimore  lies 
where  a creek  called  Jones’  Falls  tumbles 
into  Chesapeake  Bay;  Washington  is  by 
the  rapids  of  the  Potomac;  Fredericksburg 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Rappa- 
hannock; Richmond  and  Raleigh,  capitals 
of  two  states,  are  also  fall-line  cities.  In 
every  case  the  falls  fixed  the  point  for  the 
head  of  navigation,  and  cities  which  were 
started  at  these  points  could  thrive  and  grow. 

259.  A land  of  rolling  hills. — If  one  should 
ride  west  in  an  automobile  across  the  Coastal 
Plain,  the  car  would  run  along  roads  that 
are  very  level.  For  miles  and  miles  one 
would  not  see  a hill  as  high  as  the  top  of  the 
car.  There  is  no  hard  rock  by  the  road- 
side, but  only  sand  and  gravel.  But  where 
the  road  leaves  the  Coastal  Plain  and  enters 
the  Piedmont,  hills  appear,  some  of  them 
higher  than  houses.  Now  the  road  runs  up 
over  the  top  of  a hill  and  down  on  the  other 


side  into  a little  valley,  then  up  the  next  hill 
and  down  again,  up  and  down,  up  and  down, 
never  away  from  the  sight  of  hills. 

The  clay  soil  of  the  Piedmont  is  heavier 
and  harder  than  the  sand  and  gravel  soil  of 
the  Coastal  Plain.  In  the  sides  of  the  high 
banks  beside  the  hilly  roads  solid  rock  is 
often  seen.  Sometimes  the  fields  are  stony 
and  sometimes  the  fences  around  them  are 
made  of  stones  that  have  been  cleared  from 
the  fields. 

When  the  automobile  has  followed  the  hilly 
Piedmont  road  for  several  hours,  there 
appears  in  the  distance  a long,  blue  mountain 
range.  The  color  of  the  mountains  changes 
to  green  as  one  approaches,  and  the  traveler 
sees  the  forest-covered  wall  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  rising  to  a height  of  a thousand  feet 
or  more.  There  are  cultivated  fields  on 
some  of  the  lower  slopes. 

This  Blue  Ridge  mountain  range,  which 
bounds  the  Piedmont  on  the  west,  has  several 
narrow  gaps  where  rivers  have  worn  sharp 
notches  in  the  mountain  range.  Through 
these  gaps  the  rivers  drain  the  Great  Valley 
west  of  the  ridge.  Name  some  of  the  rivers 
(Fig.  15).  From  the  Maryland  boundary  to 
Reading,  Pennsylvania,  the  mountain  is  not 
so  high  as  it  is  farther  south,  but  beyond 
Reading  it  rises  again  into  a sharp  ridge 
that  extends  to  northern  New  Jersey. 

260.  Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Pied- 
mont is  much  like  that  of  the  Coastal  Plain, 
except  that  its  elevation  of  300  to  1500  feet 
makes  its  winters  somewhat  colder.  The 


140 


THE  EASTERN  AND 


Courtesy  The  Lehigh  Coal  & Navigation  Co. 


Fig.  229.  Old-fashioned  mule-drawn  canal  boats  on 
the  Delaware  Division  Canal  along  the  Delaware  River 
at  Upper  Black  Eddy,  Bucks  County,  Penna.  This 
picture  shows  the  way  the  Erie  and  other  canals 
appeared,  when  built  between  1815  and  1850. 

winter  east  wind  is  colder  when  it  reaches 
the  Piedmont  than  when  it  leaves  the 
ocean.  The  summer  brings  no  sea  breeze 
to  the  Piedmont.  (Sec.  226.) 

261.  A home  of  great  men. — Being  near  the 
shipping  ports  at  the  fall  line,  the  Piedmont 
was  settled  early.  It  was  a very  important 
part  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution.  Philadelphia,  then  the  national 
capital,  was  the  home  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
one  of  the  great  founders  of  our  country. 
In  those  early  days  the  homes  of  other  great 
men  were  established  in  the  Piedmont  section. 
President  Jefferson’s  old  home  (Fig.  230)  may 
still  be  seen  near  Charlottesville  in  the  central 
part  of  the  Virginia  Piedmont;  President 
Monroe’s  old  home,  near  Leesburg,  is  in  the 
northern  Virginia  Piedmont.  Mount  Ver- 
non, which  was  the  home  of  George  Wash- 
ington, is  but  a few  miles  distant  from  the 
Piedmont. 

262.  Agriculture. — It  is  interesting  to  see 
the  differences  between  the  Coastal  Plain 
and  the  Piedmont.  In  the  sandy  soil  of  the 
plain  most  of  the  forests  are  of  pine  trees. 
In  the  rich,  clay  soil  of  the  Piedmont  there 
are  oaks,  hickories,  poplars,  walnuts,  and 
other  broad-leaved  trees.  In  the  fields  of  the 
Coastal  Plain  small  fruits  and  truck  are 
raised,  such  as  strawberries,  blackberries, 
melons,  cabbage,  and  peas.  In  the  Pied- 
mont fields  are  corn,  wheat,  clover,  and  grass 
for  pasture.  Many  horses  and  cows  are  to 


CENTRAL  UPLANDS 

be  seen  eating  the  grass  or  standing  under 
the  leafy  shade  trees.  Since  the  products 
of  the  Coastal  Plain  are  sold  immediately, 
the  farmer  there  needs  only  a small  barn 
in  which  to  keep  his  team  and  tools.  As 
the  products  of  the  Piedmont  are  mainly 
stock  and  grain,  the  farmers  need  big  barns 
to  provide  shelter  for  the  animals  and  to 
keep  feed  for  winter. 

263.  Diversified  farming. — (1)  The  farm- 
ers in  this  region  nearly  all  follow  diversi- 
fied farming.  They  grow  wheat,  corn,  and 
hay.  They  have  pasture  fields,  orchards,  gar- 
dens, chickens,  horses,  pigs,  and  some  kind 
of  cattle.  But  these  farmers  often  have  one 
special  crop  that  is  their  main  dependence. 

(2)  Since  the  large  city  markets  north  of 
the  Potomac  River  require  much  milk, 
many  Piedmont  farmers  keep  herds  of  dairy 
cows,  which  in  summertime  pasture  on  some 
of  the  fields,  and  drink  at  clear  little  streams 
running  from  the  hillside  springs.  In  winter, 
the  cows  eat  the  hay  and  corn  that  was 
grown  on  the  farms  and  stored  in  the  barns. 

(3)  In  northern  Virginia,  the  Piedmont 
farmers  raise  fine  horses  especially  suited 
for  cavalry  use.  It  takes  two  or  three 
years  for  a horse  to  grow  up,  and  the 
large,  rolling,  well-grassed  fields  of  the  Pied- 
mont make  a very  good  place  for  them  to 


Courtesy  Jefferson  M.  Levy 


Fig.  230.  Monticello,  the  home  of  Thomas  Jefferson, 
standing  on  a high  hill  overlooking  Charlottesville  and 
the  University  of  Virginia.  What  did  Jefferson  do? 


THE  NORTHERN  PIEDMONT 


pasture.  The  Uni- 
ted States  Army  has 
officers  there  nearly 
all  the  time  buying 
horses. 

(4)  In  the  central 
part  of  the  Virginia 
Piedmont  many 
apples  are  grown, 
especially  on  the 
hillsides  and  in  the 
coves  at  the  foot  of 
the  Blue  Ridge. 
About  the  year 
1840,  a citizen  of 
Virginia  who  repre- 
sented our  govern- 
ment as  Minister 
to  England  gave 
Queen  Victoria 
some  Albemarle 
Pippin  apples.  The 
Queen  liked  the  ap- 


Fig.  231.  Map  of  Philadelphia,  Trenton  and  vicinity.  Philadelphia  is  at  the  junction 
of  two  important  valleys.  Find  the  rivers  for  which  they  are  named. 


pies  so  much  that  thereafter  she  always  used 
that  kind.  Since  then  some  of  these  apples 
have  regularly  been  exported  to  England. 

(5)  In  the  Piedmont  of  northern  North 
Carolina  and  of  southern  Virginia,  the  far- 
mers, not  having  city  markets  near,  to  which 
they  can  send  milk  and  butter,  raise  tobacco 
instead.  It  is  a crop  which  keeps  well,  and 
can  therefore  be  sent  to  distant  markets. 
Tobacco  takes  so  much  plant  food  from  the 
soil  that  the  crops  have  to  be  planted  in  new 
places,  or  heavily  fertilized.  This  tobacco 
district  has  many  abandoned  fields  and  gul- 
lied hillsides.  This  part  of  the  Piedmont  does 
not  have  the  herds  of  cattle  or  the  big  red 
barns  that  are  seen  in  the  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  New  Jersey  part  of  the  region. 

264.  Cities. — The  Piedmont  has  two 
classes  of  cities:  port  cities  and  inland  cities. 
Because  boats  can  sail  on  the  larger  Coastal 
Plain  streams,  people  in  the  port  cities 
can  receive  raw  materials  and  ship  freight 
more  cheaply  than  can  be  done  in  the  inland 
cities.  For  this  reason  the  port  cities  are 
much  larger  than  the  interior  cities,  which, 
being  distant  from  the  sea,  must  depend 


upon  railroads  and  highways  for  transport. 

The  fall  line  cities  have  more  people  than 
live  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Piedmont,  most  of 
whom  make  their  living  by  working  in  fac- 
tories whose  smokestacks  may  be  seen  thickly 
dotting  the  cities  of  this  region. 

Trenton,  Philadelphia,  Chester,  and  Wil- 
mington have  much  the  same  advantages  for 
manufacturing.  (1)  They  have  coal  and  iron, 
because  they  are  near  the  coal  fields  and 
the  iron  furnaces  of  Pennsylvania  (Secs.  277, 
287).  (2)  They  are  all  situated  beside  the 

navigable  Delaware.  (3)  They  are  all  on 
the  main  lines  of  the  railroads  running  to 
the  south  and  west.  (4)  They  all  have  an 
abundant  food  supply  furnished  by  the  dairy 
farms  of  the  hilly,  clayey  Piedmont,  and  by 
the  truck  farms  of  the  sandy,  level  Coastal 
Plain.  Fruits,  vegetables,  and  other  foods 
are  brought  in  boats,  wagons,  and  trains  to 
the  city  markets.  All  of  these  cities  manu- 
facture much  machinery,  and  all  of  them 
except  Trenton  have  important  shipyards. 

265.  Trenton,  the  capital  of  New  Jersey,  is 
famous  for  its  manufacture  of  dishes  and 
other  articles  of  pottery.  This  industry  first 


142 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


developed  in  Trenton  because  there  were 
deposits  of  clay  near  by,  and  because  coal 
with  which  to  burn  the  clay  could  be  brought 
in  canal  boats  down  the  Delaware  and  Lehigh 
rivers  from  the  Pennsylvania  coal  mines. 
Formerly  the  Delaware  River  and  the  canal 
from  Trenton  to  New  York  were  important 
waterways,  and  it  was  by  these  routes  that 
the  products  of  Trenton  found  their  way  to 
market.  But  now  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Reading  railroads  have  main  lines  running 
from  New  York  past  Trenton  to  the  south 
and  to  the  west,  thus  permitting  products 
to  be  shipped  at  almost  any  hour  of  the  day 
to  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  Trenton  factories  no  longer  depend 
on  the  near-by  clay  pits.  Indeed  most  of 
Trenton’s  clay  now  comes  from  Europe  in 
the  vessels  that  have  gone  there  to  take  grain 
and  lumber.  Trenton  (Sec.  243)  holds  her  im- 
portant place  in  this  industry  because  the  city 
has  become  an  established  pottery  center. 

266.  Philadelphia  is  much  larger  than  all 
the  other  cities  on  the  Delaware  combined. 
In  size  it  is  the  third  city  of  the  United  States. 
What  is  its  population?  It  was  founded  by 
William  Penn,  a renowned  English  Quaker. 


Courtesy  Link-Belt  Co. 

Fig.  232.  Machinery  from  this  Philadelphia  machine 
shop  is  sent  to  many  states  and  foreign  countries. 


The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed 
and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  drafted  in  famous  old  Independence 
Hall,  the  home  of  the  Liberty  Bell,  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  work  of  most  of  the  people  of 
Philadelphia  is  in  some  way  connected  with 
its  varied  manufactures.  Many  railroad 
and  boat  lines  give  Philadelphia,  a wide  mar- 
ket for  the  sugar  and  oil  from  its  refineries. 
It  is  the  leading  city  in  the  United  States 
for  the  manufacture  of  drugs,  chemicals,  and 
textiles.  Great  quantities  of  woolen  cloth, 
cotton  goods,  and  carpets  are  produced  there. 
Philadelphia  started  its  career  as  a leather 
center  because  tanbark  was  easily  procured 
from  the  Pennsylvania  forests.  The  industry 
continued  to  develop,  partly  because  a new 
process  of  tanning  leather  with  a chemical 
(chrome)  was  invented  by  a Philadelphian. 

The  city  is  famous  as  a great  center  of 
publishing,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
machine  tools,  which  are  used  in  other  fac- 
tories to  make  other  machines.  The  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Company,  with  works  in  Phila- 
delphia and  its  suburbs,  is  the  greatest 
manufacturer  of  locomotives  in  the  world. 
Many  cars  for  railroads  and  trolleys  are  also 
made  in  Philadelphia. 

The  Delaware  is  the  leading  shipbuilding 
river  of  the  United  States,  and  Philadelphia 
is  the  leading  shipbuilding  center  of  our 
country.  There  are  shipyards  not  only  within 
the  city  limits,  but  also  in  the  sister  city  of 
Camden,  across  the  river. 

Music  from  Camden  is  heard  in  every 
land,  for  Camden  exports  great  numbers  of 
phonographs.  Camden  also  cans  vegetables 
and  fruit  grown  on  the  Coastal  Plain. 

Chester  and  Wilmington  make  ships  and 
machinery  and  have  many  other  industries. 

In  Thomas  Jefferson’s  time,  two  French 
brothers  named  du  Pont  went  to  Wilming- 
ton and  there  began  to  manufacture  gun- 
powder. Now  the  du  Pont  Company  makes 
not  only  gunpowder  but  also  paint,  chemi- 
cals, dynamite,  artificial  leather,  and  many 
other  things,  and  employs  scores  of  chemists 
who  study  how  to  make  new  things. 

You  read  about  Baltimore  in  Section  230. 


THE  NORTHERN  PIEDMONT 


148 


Fig.  233.  One  of  the  largest  cranes  in  the  world  putting  locomotives  on  board 
a ship  at  the  Philadelphia  Navy  Yard.  They  appear  tiny  beside  the  great  crane. 
Philadelphia  locomotives,  machinery,  and  ships  go  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


267.  Washington. — When 
our-Go vernment  was 
formed,  New  York  was 
made  the  first  capital  of  the 
United  States,  and  Philadel- 
phia was  the  second.  Con- 
gress soon  decided  to  move 
to  a more  central  place,  and 
a spot  was  chosen  that  was 
almost  the  exact  center  of 
the  original  thirteen  states. 

It  was  in  the  woods,  beside 
the  little  city  of  George- 
town, at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation on  the  Potomac 
River.  To  this  tract,  com- 
prising about  sixty  square 
miles,  the  name  of  the  Dis- 
rict  of  Columbia  was  given.  The  land  was 
a gift  from  the  State  of  Maryland. 

A French  army  officer,  Major  L’Enfant, 
and  General  Washington  made  the  plans 
upon  which  the  city  was  laid  out.  Washing- 
ton became  a very  beautiful  city,  having 
many  parks  and  wide,  shady  streets.  In  the 
magnificent  white  Capitol  building  the  laws 
of  the  United  States  are  made.  Many 
thousands  of  people  are  employed  in  the 
great  offices  of  the  ten  secretaries  who  con- 
stitute the  President’s  Cabinet,  and  the 
various  courts  and  commissions  that  carry 
on  the  government  work.  Almost  all  the 
business  of  Washington  is  connected  with 
government  work  and  with  taking  care  of 


the  people  who  do  this  work.  Because  Wash- 
ington is  the  center  of  the  government,  many 
wealthy  people  have  winter  homes  there,  and 
many  go  there  on  government  business. 
Travelers  visit  the  national  capital  to  see 
Congress  in  session,  and  to  enjoy  the  beau- 
tiful buildings  of  the  city.  Every  American 
schoolboy  and  schoolgirl  should  see  the  White 
House,  the  National  Capitol,  and  the  Con- 
gressional Library,  the  greatest  library  in 
America  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  build- 
ings in  the  world. 

268.  Richmond. — The  city  of  Richmond, 
Virginia,  is  located  at  the  falls  of  the  James 
River,  and  is  on  the  main  line  of  railroads 
running  north  and  south.  Among  its  im- 
portant industries  are  loco- 
motive works,  machine 
shops,  and  many  tobacco 
factories  which  manufac- 
ture the  tobacco  grown  in 
the  region  to  the  south- 
west. The  steamboats  run- 
ning up  and  down  the  James 
River  carry  a great  deal  of 
freight. 

269.  Smaller  Piedmont 
cities. — The  inland  Pied- 
mont cities,  having  no  im- 
portant minerals  near  them, 
and  no  access  to  ships,  are 


WATE8  POWEB  STATIONS  • 6-TEAM  STATIONS  ■ 

Courtesy  Southern  Power  Co . 

Fig.  234.  Map  showing  electric  transmission  lines  from  water  power  and 
steam  power  stations  through  North  and  South  Carolina.  If  one  plant  stops, 
others  on  the  same  wire  can  keep  up  the  supply  of  electric  current. 


144 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Air  Service 


Fig.  235.  Airman’s  view  of  Capitol  Hill,  Washington.  Can  you  find  the  Union 
Station,  the  Capitol,  the  white  office  buildings  for  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and,  at  the  right,  the  Congressional  Library  Building? 


all  smaller  than  Richmond,  Wilmington,  or 
Trenton.  The  largest  is  Lancaster,  Penn- 
sylvania, situated  in  the  center  of  a rich 
limestone  district  which  is  the  best  culti- 
vated agricultural  section  in  the  whole 
Piedmont.  Lancaster  has  many  factories, 
and  books  and  magazines  are  printed  in  her 
printing  shops  for  the  publishing  houses  in 
New  York  and  other  cities. 

York,  Pennsylvania;  Frederick,  Maryland; 
and  Charlottesville,  Virginia,  are  in  the 
midst  of  good  farming  country.  Each  has 
many  stores,  some  factories,  and  two  or 
three  railroads.  Charlottesville  is  an  impor- 
tant shipping  center  for  apples.  It  was 
there  that  Thomas  Jefferson  founded  the 
University  of  Virginia. 

This  southern  part  of  the  Northern  Pied- 
mont region  is  one  of  the  greatest  tobacco 
growing  regions  in  the  world.  Lynchburg 
and  Danville,  Virginia;  Durham  and  Win- 
ston-Salem, North  Carolina,  are  busy  with 
tobacco  that  is  growm  near  by.  Did  you  ever 
see  an  advertisement  for  Virginia  tobacco? 
for  North  Carolina  tobacco?  The  product 
of  these  tobacco  factories  goes  to  almost  as 
many  states  and  countries  as  does  the  cotton 


of  the  Cotton  Belt.  Cotton 
mills  and  furniture  factories 
have  grown  up  very  rapidly 
in  Greensboro,  High  Point, 
and  other  Piedmont  towns. 
Recently  a North  Carolina 
man  traveling  around  the 
world  rode  in  High  Point 
trolley  cars  in  Rome  and 
Peking.  The  oak  and  other 
hard  wood  lumber  of  the 
Southern  Appalachians  is 
excellent  furniture  and  car 
material. 

270.  Future  — manufac- 
turing and  water  power. — 

Since  coal  is  getting  so 
costly,  and  engineers  have 
learned  to  harness  the  big 
rivers  and  carry  power  on 
wires,  the  Piedmont  has  a 
new  source  of  power.  Every 
river  that  crosses  the  Piedmont  may  be  made 
to  send  power  to  cities  many  miles  away. 
Name  some  of  these  rivers.  Baltimore  now 
gets  power  from  the  Susquehanna  River,  and 
the  Southern  Power  Co.  (Fig.  234)  is  already 
the  second  largest  hydroelectric  power  maker 
in  the  world. 

271.  The  future — agriculture. — The  roll- 
ing hills  of  the  Piedmont  are  beautiful  and 
the  climate  is  healthful.  If  the  fertile  hillside 
soils  could  be  held  in  place  by  grass  and  the 
roots  of  fruit  and  nut  trees,  and  if  the  level 
uplands  and  valley  lands  were  intensively  cul- 
tivated, this  district  could  comfortably  sup- 
port many  more  people  than  now  live  there 
(Sec.  87).  In  some  places  the  soil-saving  tree- 
crop  agriculture  has  been  started  by  the  grow- 
ing of  apples  in  grass-covered  unplowed  land. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  pleasures  you  could  have  on  a farm 
in  the  Northern  Piedmont  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year: 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Fall. 

W INTER. 

2.  What  does  a boy  in  Florida  do  in  wintertime? 
Why  are  not  the  books  and  the  toys  of  a Penn- 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


145 


Bylvania  boy  and  a Florida  boy  as  different  as  their 
sports?  3.  Define  piedmont;  fall  line.  4.  Name  and 
locate  the  fall-line  cities.  How  do  falls  in  a river  help 
make  a city?  5.  What  use  is  being  made  to-day  of 
the  waterfalls  in  the  Piedmont  district?  (Fig.  234.) 
6.  Compare  the  North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain  with  the 
Northern  Piedmont  as  follows: 


Topic. 

North 

Atlantic 

Coast 

Plain. 

Piedmont. 

Average  elevation 

Surface 

Soil 

Climate 

Products 

Chief'  cities 

Your  choice  for  a home. . 

7.  Is  the  Piedmont  a good  place  for  the  new  tree- 
crop  agriculture?  8.  Why  do  the  larger  cities  of  the 
Piedmont  lie  at  the  edge  rather  than  in  the  center 
of  the  region? 

9.  Give  three  good  reasons  suggested  to  you  by 
Fig.  231  why  Philadelphia  has  become  the  metropolis 
of  the  Piedmont.  10.  What  difference  do  you  find 
between  a Piedmont  farm  and  one  in  the  Northern 
Wheat  Region?  11.  Collect  pictures  and  postcards  of 
Washington  and  Philadelphia,  and  give  a talk  on  these 
cities  from  them. 

THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 

272.  Mountains,  valleys,  and  beautiful 
landscapes. — If  you  climb  to  the  tops  of  the 
forested  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  (Fig.  241),  you 
can  look  down  on  the  fertile  Piedmont  lying  to 
the  eastward ; to  the  westward  you  can  look 
down  many  hundred  feet  upon  a land  that  is 
still  more  fertile.  If  it  is  spring  or  early 
summer,  you  can  see  dark  green  patches  of 


narrow  valleys,  some  of  which  are  canoe-shaped. 


made.  Note  especially  the  American  part  of  the  St. 

Lawrence  Valley. 

r\ 

orchard  and  woodland,  and  fields  showing 
the  rich  brown  color  of  freshly-plowed  earth 
or  the  varying  colors  of  wheat,  corn,  clover, 
and  pasture.  You  can  discover  bits  of  road, 
big  farms,  farmhouses,  and  sometimes  a 
bit  of  river  shining  in  the  sunlight.  Twenty 
or  thirty  miles  west  from  the  Blue  Ridge 
you  can  see  another  ridge.  The  lowland 
which  lies  between  these  two  ridges  is  the 
Great  Appalachian  Valley  (Fig.  241), 
and  the  distant  ridge  is  its  northwestern 
edge.  Beyond  that 
is  a narrow  valley, 
then  another  ridge, 
then  another  nar- 
row valley,  another 
ridge,  another  val- 
ley, in  a series  called  Fig".  238.  The  Appalachian 
the  Appalachian  Region. 

Ridges  and  Valleys.  (Fig.  15.)  After  thirty 
or  forty  miles  of  these  narrow  ridges  with  val- 
leys between  them,  lies  what  seems  to  be  the 
last  ridge.  From  its  top  the  highland  of  the 
Appalachian  Plateau  stretches  away  towards 
the  west  so  this  last  ridge  has  no  western 
slope.  It  is  the  Allegheny  Front.  (Fig.  241.) 

Thus  the  northern  Appalachians  have  the 
Great  Valley  on  the  east,  then  the  narrow 
valleys  and  ridges,  and  then  west  of  them, 
the  plateau  (Fig.  241),  which  stretches  from 
New  York  to  Alabama. 


Part  I.— The  Great  Valley 
273.  A great  valley  highway. — The  Great 
Appalachian  Valley  is  a very  long  one,  fur- 
nishing a continuous  open  road  north  and 


146 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Coast  Ranges  Sierra 


Croat  Basin 


Colorado  Plateau 
Green  R. 


Southern  Rockies 


Great  Plains 
High  Plains 


Pacific 


Fig.  239.  A section  from  Pacific  to  Atlantic,  to  show  the  elevation  of  the  country.  The  line  passes  near  St.  Louis, 
and  see  how  many  of  the  regions  you  can  pick  out.  Green  River  Canyon  is  a branch  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the 


south  through  the  eastern  highlands.  It  is 
a king  of  natural  highways.  One  may 
travel  over  its  entire  length,  from  the  Hud- 
son Valley  to  the  Cotton  Belt,  and  not  cross  a 
single  mountain  ridge.  All  the  way  one  may 
see  to  the  east  and  to  the  west,  mountains 
which  run  parallel  to  the  Great  Valley  but 
never  cross  it.  Look  at  Figs.  15  and  21,  and 
see  the  towns  that  mark  its  course — Bir- 
mingham, Chattanooga,  Knoxville,  Bristol, 
Roanoke,  Staunton,  Hagerstown,  Harris- 
burg, Reading,  Bethlehem.  What  river 
drains  the  land  where  each  of  these  cities 
stands?  At  Birmingham,  Alabama,  the  open 
valley  extends  for  some  distance  into  the 
Cotton  Belt. 

The  Great  Valley  has  long  been  a route  of 
travel.  Even  in  the  days  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  its  open  surface  tempted  the 
English  Quakers  and  the  German  colonists 
of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  who  traveled  and 
settled  in  this  valley  all  the  way  down  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  James. 

Later  this  route  helped  other  settlers  on 
their  way  to  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  Some 
left  the  Great  Valley  near  Shippensburg  in 


southern  Pennsylvania,  and  went  over  the 
mountains  to  Pittsburgh.  From  this  point 
flatboats  drifting  down  the  Ohio  River  took 
settlers  to  points  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Ken- 
tucky. Other  settlers  from  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, and  North  Carolina,  bound  for  Ken- 
tucky, drove  on  down  the  Great  Valley  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Tennessee.  In  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  which  in  this  region 
form  the  western  wall  of  the  valley,  there  is 
a gap  called  Cumberland  Gap.  It  is  close 
to  the  place  where  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and 
Kentucky  join.  The  gap  provided  an  easy 
passage  in  the  mountain  wall,  through  which 
the  wagons  of  the  early  emigrants  made  their 
way  into  the  forested  country  of  Kentucky. 
For  many  years  after  the  Revolutionary  War 
one  family  an  hour,  on  the  average,  drove 
through  this  gap  seeking  a new  home  to  the 
westward. 

274.  Limestone  and  roads. — The  Great 
Appalachian  Valley  became  the  great  high- 
way for  several  reasons.  First,  it  is  nearly 
level,  and  therefore  easier  to  travel  upon 
than  is  the  Piedmont  where  there  are  hills, 
or  the  Coast  Plain  where  there  are  many 
deep  rivers  to  cross.  Sec- 
ond, limestone  is  plentiful 
here,  and  out  of  no  other 
stone  can  good  roads  be 
made  so  easily.  The  Great 
Valley,  therefore,  has  many 
miles  of  good  stone  roads. 

If  you  have  read  about 
the  battles  of  Antietam  and 
Gettysburg  in  our  own  Civil 
War,  you  can  see  how  this 
valley  was  the  roadway  by 
which  the  Southern  armies 
went  north  and  the  North- 
ern armies  went  south. 

275.  Limestone  and  val- 
ley making. — Indeed,  it  was 


Fig.  240.  A concrete  bridge  across  a Pennsylvania  valley  to  improve  the 
grade  of  an  anthracite-carrying  railroad  so  that  one  locomotive  can  haul  more 
cars.  The  gap  in  the  distant  Appalachian  ridge  was  cut  by  a river. 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


147 


Central  Lowland 


Burlington  . Mississippi  R 

Escarpment  St.FranciS  tots  . 


Appalachian  Folded 
Plateaus  Appalachians 

^ Blue  Crass  Alleqheny  Blue 

■■.Region  Fronts  Ridge 


Piedmont 

Coastal 

Plain 


Slightly  modified  from  Lobeck 

Mo.  The  elevations  are  greatly  exaggerated.  The  black  parts  show  the  oldest  rocks.  Compare  with  Fig.  14,  and 
Colorado.  The  western  edge  of  the  Colorado  Plateau  is  a high  cliff,  called  Hurricane  Ledge.  (Fig.  241.) 


limestone  that  made  the  Great  Valley.  Once 
upon  a time,  a very  long  while  ago,  the  whole 
region  was  a plateau.  Limestone  wears  away 
or  dissolves  in  water  (Sec.  22)  more  easily  than 
does  any  other  stone.  For  this  reason  the  lime- 
stone district  has  been  worn  down  more  quickly 
than  the  hard  sandstone,  and  therefore  has 
a lower  surface.  In  this  way  the  limestone 
strips  became  valleys,  and  the  strips  of  harder 
stone  remained  as  ridges.  (Figs.  236,  241.) 

276.  Limestone  and  agriculture. — The 
limestone  rock  of  which  the  valley  floor  is 
made  breaks  up  into  a very  fertile  clay  soil, 
which  is  good  for  wheat,  corn,  and  hay. 
Many  of  the  people  of  this  region  make  their 
living  by  farming,  and  the  rich  valley  fields 
are  covered  with  grain  or  dotted  with  grazing 
animals.  Each  year  fat  cattle  and  great 
quantities  of  corn,  wheat,  and  dairy  produce 
are  shipped  to  the  cities  of  the  north  and  east. 

277.  Limestone  and  iron. — Limestone  is 
a raw  material  that  goes  into  the  iron  fur- 
nace along  with  iron  ore  and  fuel.  Much 
West  Virginia  limestone  is  sent  from  the 
Great  Valley  to  the  Pittsburgh  iron  furnaces. 

The  early  settlers  found  iron  ore  in  many 
places  because  limestone  sometimes  helps  to 
cause  deposits  of  iron  ore.  In  the  early  days 
many  mines  were  worked  and  a great  iron- 
making industry  developed,  but  after  a 
better  grade  of  ore  was  found  in  northern 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  (Sec.  334)  most  of 
the  Great  Valley  mines  were  closed.  Iron  fur- 
naces still  thrive  at  Bethlehem,  at  Lebanon, 
and  near  Harrisburg  in  Pennsylvania;  at 


Roanoke  in  Virginia;  at  Birmingham  in 
Alabama,  and  at  other  places. 

278.  Limestone  and  cement. — Limestone 
is  a raw  material  used  in  cement-making. 
There  are  cement  plants  at  several  points 
along  the  valley.  The  greatest  cement 
center  is  in  the  Lehigh  Valley,  near  Allentown 
and  Bethlehem.  (Fig.  204.)  In  that  local- 
ity the  industry  is  especially  flourishing, 
because  the  great  port  cities  of  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  are  only  about  a hundred  miles 
away.  These  port  cities  use  much  cement, 
and  they  ship  quantities  of  it  overseas. 

279.  Rivers. — Certain  parts  of  the  Great 
Valley  have  local  names  often  taken  from  a 
riverdrainingthatsection.  Near  the  Delaware 
River  it  is  the  Lehigh  Valley;  in  northern 
Virginia,  the  Shenandoah  Valley;  the  part 
between  the  Susquehanna  and  the  Potomac 
is  called  the  Cumberland  Valley.  Name  a 
town  in  each  of  these  sections.  Before  there 
were  railroads,  the  rivers  that  flow  out  of  the 
Great  Valley  were  most  useful  to  farmers. 
They  were  the  highways  along  which  wheat, 
by  much  hard  labor  and  risk  of  wetting, 
was  taken  down  in  flatboats  to  the  fall  line. 
The  flatboat  has  been  displaced  by  the  rail- 
roads. Which  river  of  the  Great  Valley  is 
now  navigable  for  boats?  (Fig.  80.) 

280.  Towns  and  town  location. — The  Great 
Valley  gives  us  a good  chance  to  study  how 
towns  grow.  A town  often  begins  at  a place 
where  there  is  some  local  advantage,  such 
as  a deposit  of  some  mineral,  rich  farming 
land,  or  some  other  natural  resource.  The 


Allegheny  Allegheny 
Plateau  Front 


Appalachian 


Great  Blue 


Ridges  va//ey  Ridge  Piedmont  Fall  Line 


AtlanticOcean 


Slightly  modified  from  Lobeck 


Fig.  241.  A cross  section  of  the  country  from  western  Maryland  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Elevations  greatly 
exaggerated.  The  oldest  and  hardest  rocks  are  shown  in  black.  Can  you  see  how  the  Piedmont  streams  made 
falls  at  the  Fall  Line?  (Sec.  214.)  How  many  of  the  regions  shown  in  Fig.  210  can  you  pick  out  here? 


148 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


What  would  you  say  caused 
Hagerstown,  Roanoke,  and 
Knoxville  to  grow  larger  than 
the  small  towns  near  them?  (Fig. 
21.)  Why  does  Chattanooga 
have  such  an  excellent  location? 

The  largest  of  all  the  Great 
Valley  cities  is  Birmingham, 
Alabama,  which,  although  it  i". 
in  the  Cotton  Belt,  is  also  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Great 
Valley.  (Fig.  21,  dotted  lines.) 
Here  we  find  a rare  thing  hap- 
pening: this  one  place  has  the 
three  things  needed  to  make 

iron.  They  are  coal,  iron  ore, 
Fig.  242.  The  Lehigh  Valley  cutting  its  way  through  the  Appalachians  at  „ j limpcfrmp  Npnrlv  pvphj 

Mauch  Chunk,  Pa.  How  many  kinds  of  transportation  can  you  see  in  elllu  iNeany  eveiy- 

(this  picture?  Anthracite  coal  passes  this  way  to  New  York.  where  else  in  the  world  one  at 


town  becomes  a city  when  the  locality  is 
favored  with  a large  degree  of  one  or  more 
of  these  advantages  and  has,  in  addition, 
easy  communication  with  the  outside  world. 

The  Great  Valley  has  no  large  cities  like 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  or  Baltimore,  but 
it  has  many  smaller  ones.  A town  or  a small 
city  is  to  be  found  at  almost  every  place 
where  railroads  cross  the  Great  Valley  and 
enter  the  plateaus  to  the  westward,  or  the 
Piedmont  to  the  eastward,  because  cross- 
roads are  good  places  for  people  to  meet  and 
to  buy  and  sell  goods.  At  such  places  stores, 
shops,  and  garages  are  built,  and  villages  grow. 

The  cities  of  Allentown  and  Bethlehem 
are  situated  where  the  advantage  of  natural 
resources  is  combined  with  that  of  ease  of 
communication.  Look  at  the  map  (Fig.  204) 
and  see  how  the  Lehigh  Valley  enables  rail- 
roads to  pass  out  of  the  Great  Valley  into 
the  coal  fields.  These  two  cities  are  throb- 
bing with  manufacture  and  busy  with  cement, 
iron,  and  steel  mills. 

The  thriving  city  of  Reading  is  at  the 
place  where  the  Schuylkill  River  gives  an  easy 
route  to  Philadelphia.  The  city  of  Harris- 
burg arose  where  the  Susquehanna  Valley 
makes  a break  in  the  highlands.  (Fig.  15.) 
There  the  main  line  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  from  Baltimore  to  Buffalo  crosses 
the  line  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh. 


least  of  these  things  has  to  be  carried  long 
distances  to  the  place  where  one  or  both  of 
the  others  are  found.  At  Birmingham  you 
can  stand  at  one  place  and  see  the  mouth  of 
the  coal  mine,  the  quarry  for  the  limestone, 
and  the  open  pits  in  the  hillside  from  which 
the  iron  ore  is  being  dug.  At  no  other  place 
in  the  world  can  iron  be  made  so  easily.  So 
Birmingham,  busy  with  its  iron  furnaces, 
has  grown  very  rapidly.  It  is  now  as  large 
as  Richmond,  Virginia,  but  its  English 
namesake  still  far  surpasses  it  in  size. 

At  Chattanooga  there  are  iron  and  steel 
plants,  machine  shops,  wood-working  plants, 
and  cotton  mills.  In  any  large  town  in  the 


Jj'ig.  243.  Dumping  cars  ot  antnracite  coal  into  oarges 
at  Hoboken,  N.  J.  Where  may  the  barges  go? 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


149 


Great  Valley  may  be  found  one  or  more  such 
plants. 

281.  Future  of  the  Great  Valley. — The 

towns  of  the  Great  Valley  have  many  things 
to  make  them  prosper.  The  local  mines  and 
quarries  have  plenty  of  material  for  cement 
plants  and  iron  furnaces;  the  mountains  can 
furnish  wood;  the  plateau  to  the  westward 
can  furnish  coal;  and  the  railroads  that  come 
through  from  the  south  can  bring  cotton  for 
the  spinning,  weaving,  and  knitting  mills 
that  are  already  established  in  many  valley 
towns.  The  rich  valley  land  can  be  made  to 
yield  much  greater  quantities  of  food  if  town 
markets  demand  the  milk,  fruits,  and  vege- 
tables. 

Part  II. — The  Appalachian  Ridges 
and  Valleys 

282.  Places  difficult  to  reach. — To  the 
west  of  the  Great  Valley  the  country 
changes  suddenly.  There,  one  sharp  ridge 
stands  so  close  to  the  next  sharp  ridge  (Sec. 
272,  and  Figs.  15,  241)  that  in  some  of  the 
little  valleys  there  is  scarcely  room  for  a wide 
field.  Some  of  the  ridges  are  so  sharp  that 
there  is  not  room  on  top  for  even  a small 
field,  and  the  soil  is  much  less  fertile  than 
that  of  the  Great  Valley.  Although  some 
of  these  valleys  are  thirty  or  forty  miles 
long,  very  little  of  the  land  is  fit  for  farms, 
and  not  many  people  live  there.  Therefore 
many  of  the  valleys  are 
very  much  isolated,  and 
some  people  have  abandoned 
their  farms  to  go  to  the  more 
level  land  in  western  states, 
or  to  mines  or  towns.  Some 
valleys,  however,  open  out 
into  wide  coves  of  fertile 
limestone  soil,  with  room 
enough  for  a dozen  or  twenty 
farms,  which  may  be  miles 
and  miles  from  a railroad. 

One  of  these  valleys,  fifty- 
three  miles  long  and  four 
miles  wide,  is  shaped  like  a 
canoe  (Fig.  236).  The  only 
way  to  get  into  or  out  of  it 

II— 8 


without  climbing  over  a high  ridge  is  to  fol- 
low the  one  stream  through  Logan’s  Gap,  in 
one  of  the  mountain  walls. 

In  these  valleys  the  only  cities  are  Cumber- 
land, Maryland,  and  Altoona,  Pennsylvania. 
Each  is  at  a place  where  a river  cutting  through 
the  ridges  has  made  a gap  through  which  a 
railroad  line  passes  across  the  ridge  country 
to  the  plateau.  The  chief  industry  in  both 
of  these  towns  is  repairing  cars  and  engines. 

283.  Thermal  belts  and  orchards. — The 
Appalachian  Ridge  district  is  one  of  the  best 
places  anywhere  in  the  United  States  to  grow 
fruit,  because  each  ridge  is  a thermal  belt; 
that  is,  it  has  frost  drainage.  (Sec.  184.) 
Sometimes  the  frost  line  is  so  sharply  drawn 
that  the  buds  on  the  trees  along  the  lower 
side  of  an  orchard  may  be  frozen,  while 
those  a little  higher  up  escape  frost  and  make 
a good  crop.  Fruit  trees  on  these  hillside 
farms  have  grown  so  well  that  many  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  peach  and  apple  orchards 
now  cover  the  mountainsides  near  the 
Potomac  River.  Orchards  are  situated  at 
points  where  the  through  lines  of  railway 
give  the  fruit  farmers  a chance  to  ship  their 
crop  eastward  to  the  cities  on  the  Atlantic 
slope,  or  westward  across  the  plateau  to 
Pittsburgh  and  interior  cities. 

284.  Unused  land. — There  is  room  enough 
in  the  thermal  belts  on  the  hillsides  to  raise 
many  more  peaches  and  apples  than  the 


Photo.  J.  Horace  McFarland  Co, 


Fig.  244.  Part  of  a 700-acre  apple  orchard  on  the  slope  of  an  Appalachian 
ridge  near  the  Maryland-West  Virginia  boundary.  How  does  the  Potomac 
Valley  help  to  make  these  ridges  a good  place  for  a commercial  orchard? 


150 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


making  a second  layer  of 
peat.  Then  more  mud  and 
sand  came  on,  making  an- 
other layer.  This  process 
continued  a very  long  time. 
The  pressure  of  all  these 
layers  helped  to  turn  the 
peat  into  brown  coal  or 

Fig.  245.  A cross  section  of  a valley,  with  its  bent  and  twisted  rocks,  in  the  lignite,  and  then  into  soft 
anthracite  region  of  Pennsylvania.  In  the  center  is  a river,  with  a town  beside  it.  i „„iipri  Uitii. 

The  building  at  the  left  beside  the  white  mine  shaft  is  a coal  breaker.  The  . ’ 

heavy  black  layers  are  coal  seams.  Why  does  the  earth  over  old  mines  minous  coal,  and  to  change 
sometimes  cave  in? 


markets  require.  As  our  population  increases, 
these  ridges,  with  their  favorable  climate 
and  thousands  of  square  miles  of  sloping  land, 
may  become  continuous  orchards  of  crop- 
yielding  trees  of  many  kinds  (Sec.  87).  They 
could  support  prosperous  villages  which  might 
be  connected  by  good  stone  roads  running  the 
whole  length  of  each  valley.  We  find  such 
wise  use  of  land  in  Corsica,  and  in  many 
other  European  places,  even  where  nature 
has  not  given  man  a climate  as  helpful  as 
that  of  our  own  Appalachians.  (Sec.  559.) 

285.  Coal. — The  early  settlers  in  the 
northeastern  end  of  the  Appalachian  Ridge 
region  found  something  in  the  hillside  that 
they  thought  was  a queer,  black  stone.  It 
was  anthracite,  or  hard  coal,  the  best  kind 
of  coal. 

In  western  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  are  many  thousand  square  miles 
of  soft  or  bituminous  coal.  (Fig.  44.) 

286.  How  coal  was  formed. — All  kinds  of 
coal  have  the  same  origin.  Coal  is  made  of 
trees  and  other  plants  that  grew  ages  ago. 
The  coal  beds  were  originally  swamps  in 
which  moss,  ferns,  and  big  trees  grew  and 
fell  down  into  the  water.  The  trunks,  leaves, 
bark,  and  moss  were  kept  covered  by  water, 
until  they  slowly  turned  to  peat,  which  is 
the  first  stage  of  coal.  (Fig.  336.)  Some- 
times these  peat  beds  became  one  hundred 
feet  thick.  Then  the  land  under  the  peat 
bed  sank  down  so  that  muddy  water  flowed 
over  it,  and  layers  of  mud  and  sand 
covered  the  peat.  Then  more  trees  grew 
on  the  earth  that  covered  the  peat,  and 
after  a long  time  they,  too,  were  submerged, 


the  layers  of  mud  and  sand 
into  shale  or  slate  or  sandstone.  To-day  in 
some  places  there  are  many  layers  of  stone 
and  coal,  one  on  top  of  the  other.  (Fig.  249.) 

It  is  very  hard  for  such  short-lived  beings  - 
as  we  humans  are  to  understand  how  many 
millions  of  years  it  takes  for  a bed  of  peat 
to  be  turned  into  good  coal.  In  various 
parts  of  our  country  we  can  find  coal  at  one 
or  another  stage  of  development,  from  the 
living  plant  growing  in  a peat  bog  to  the 
hard  coal  ready  to  burn  in  stove  or  furnace. 
When  we  burn  wood,  we  get  the  heat  that  a 
tree  took  from  the  sun  and  stored  in  its 
trunk  years  ago.  When  we  burn  coal,  we 
get  the  heat  that  came  out  of  the  sun  mil- 
lions of  years  ago  and  was  stored  in  the  plants 
of  the  ancient  peat  bog. 

287.  Anthracite  or  bituminous. — In  the 
ridge  country  of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  be- 
tween the  Susquehanna  and  the  Delaware 
rivers,  the  rocks  were  folded  in  such  a way 
that  (Fig.  245)  the  coal  was  pressed  until 
it  became  hard.  Coal  that  has  become  hard 
through  pressure  is  anthracite.  Layers  of 
coal  can  be  found  in  western  Pennsylvania 
where  the  rocks  are  still  nearly  level 
(Fig.  249).  The  coal  there  is  still  soft  or 
bituminous,  because  it  has  not  been  pressed 
so  much  as  has  the  anthracite.  The  scattered 
areas  of  anthracite  between  Reading  and 
Scranton  contain  the  best  anthracite  in 
America.  Europe  has  none  better. 

288.  The  anthracite  mines. — From  this 
one  small  section  of  eastern  Pennsylvania  we 
get  nearly  all  the  hard  coal  used  in  the  entire 
United  States.  Here  one  sees  big  towers 
(Fig.  246)  with  wheels  at  the  top.  Cables  pass 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


151 


over  the  wheels,  and  run  into  a large  hole  in 
the  ground.  Fastened  to  the  cable  is  a little 
car  that  every  morning  runs  down  into  the 
ground,  carrying  a load  of  men,,  who  come 
out  at  evening  black  and  grimy  from  digging 
coal.  The  coal  is  carried  to  the  surface  of 
the  earth  in  little  cars  that  are  pulled  up  by 
the  same  engine  that  lets  the  men  down. 
While  thousands  of  miners  have  been  digging 
and  blasting  beneath  the  earth,  other 
thousands  of  men  have  been  busy  in  the  big 
buildings  called  breakers,  where  the  coal  is 
cracked  and  sorted  into  sizes.  Hundreds 
of  boys  pick  pieces  of  slate  out  of  the  coal, 
so  that  there  may  be  good,  pure  coal  to  burn. 
The  great  centers  of  this  mining  industry  are 
Scranton,  Wilkes-Barre,  Shamokin,  and  Potts- 
ville.  So  much  coal  is  dug  in  these  regions 
that  eight  railroads  are  used  to  carry  it  away 
to  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  eastern  and 
central  parts  of  the  United  States. 

289.  Future  of  the  anthracite  fields. — 
What  will  be  the  future  of  a community 
depending  on  anthracite  mines?  Before  all 
the  coal  is  used,  we  may  expect  the  people 
living  there  to  turn  gradually  to  manu- 
facturing. Perhaps  they  will  be  able  to 
run  their  factories  by  elec- 
tricity brought  by  wire  from 
water-power  plants,  and 
from  coal-power  plants  in 
the  larger  coal  fields  of 
western  Pennsylvania, 
which  will  not  be  so  quickly 
exhausted. 


It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by , and  its  western 

limit  is  determined  by  the  The  three 

great  products  of  the  region  are , , and 

In  its  Pennsylvania  section  are  found  the  greatest 

mines  in  the  world.  Five  important  cities  are  , 

, , , and The  richest  section  of  the 

area  is  the , which  extends  from to , 

is  drained  by  the , , and rivers,  and 

has  large  deposits  of Much  of  this  mountain 

region  must  always  remain  in The  people  who 

live  near  the  ridges  could  make  their  farms  more 

productive  by  planting  on  their  hillsides. 

3.  Make  use  of  the  following  outline  to  explain  how 
limestone  is  the  Great  Valley’s  friend: 


Valley 

Making. 

Good 

Roads. 

Good 

Soil. 

Iron  and 
Cement 
Manu- 
facture. 

Great 

Natural 

Wonders. 

4.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  Appalachian  ridges 
from  the  following  maps  and  charts:  Figs.  15,  236, 
241?  5.  Tell  how  Nature  has  helped  Birmingham  to 
become  a great  center  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel. 

6.  Find  from  your  dictionary  the  definition  of  feuds. 
Many  are  found  among  the  mountain  people.  How 
much  of  this  unfriendly  feeling  may  be  due  to  the 
mountains  in  which  the  people  live?  7.  Describe  a 
railroad  trip  from  Philadelphia  to  Scranton.  Describe 
the  same  trip  when  all  the  coal  mines  of  the  region 
have  been  worked  out  and  tree  agriculture  has  been 
fully  developed.  8.  How  may  the  people  of  the 
United  States  economize  their  fast-disappearing  sup- 
ply of  hard  coal? 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Model  in  damp  sand  or 
earth  the  Appalachian  Region 
(Fig.  15).  Show  clearly  the  Blue 
Ridge,  the  Great  Valley,  the 
lesser  valleys,  and  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  plateau  area.  Indi- 
cate in  some  suggestive  way  the 
chief  cities,  rivers,  and  principal 
products  of  the  region.  2.  Fill 
in  the  blanks  in  the  following 
sentences:  The  Appalachian 

Ridge  country  extends  through 


It  consists  of  the 

mountains,  the  

and  many  smaller  


Photo.  W.  B.  Bunnell 

Fig.  246.  Anthracite  coal  mine  buildings  near  Scranton,  Pa.  At  the  right  is 
a breaker,  a building  where  coal  is  broken,  sorted,  sized,  and  run  into  freight 
cars  that  run  under  the  building.  Notice  the  smokestack  of  the  power  plant. 
Mine  cars  run  through  an  inclined  passage  from  the  mouth  of  the  mine 
at  the  foot  of  the  tower  to  the  top  of  the  breaker.  In  the  foreground  are  the 
little  cars  in  which  coal  comes  from  the  mine.  The  long  white  thing  coming 
to  the  bottom  of  the  picture  is  a covered  pipe  carrying  steam  to  a distant  engine. 


152 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Courtesy  Link-Belt  Co.,  Philadelphia 


Fig.  247.  Soft,  or  bituminous  coal  mine  buildings  in  the  Appalachian  Plateau. 
A layer  of  coal  is  near  the  top.  Mine  cars  run  down  to  the  tipple,  where  the 
coal  runs  through  screens  into  freight  cars.  What  states  have  such  mines  ? 


Part  III. — The  Allegheny-Cumberland 
Plateau 

290.  Bounds. — The  eastern  edge  of  the 
Allegheny  Plateau,  called  the  Allegheny 
Front,  extends  for  hundreds  of  miles  through 
West  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania. 
A long  climb  is  necessary  to  reach  the  top  of 
this  one-sided  mountain  (Sec.  272,  FTg.  241), 
but  the  climb  will  be  rewarded  by  the  beauti- 
ful view.  To  the  eastward  lie  many  ridges  that 
fade  away  at  last  in  the  blue  distance  toward 
the  Great  Valley.  If  we  turn  and  go  toward 
the  west,  we  are,  for  a time,  on  a fairly  level 
country,  which  is  higher  than  the  tops  of 
the  ridges  to  the  eastward.  The  rocks 
under  the  plateau  have  not  been  folded 
as  they  were  in  the  ridge  country  (Fig.  245). 
Instead,  they  lie  almost  flat,  for  when  this 
plateau  was  made,  the  rocks  were  simply 
raised  and  tipped  a little  to  the  westward, 
which  is  the  direction  in  which  the  plateau 
now  slopes.  (Fig.  239.) 

This  plateau  (Fig.  21)  extends  southward 
into  southern  Alabama,  and  its  northern  edge 
overlooks  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  the 
Mohawk  rivers,  and  the  plains  of  Lakes  Erie 
and  Ontario.  Its  western  edge  is  the  rolling 
country  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  a region  that  is 
much  like  the  Northern  Piedmont. 

291.  Rough  surface — travel  and  trade. — 
The  streams  have  cut  valleys  in  the  surface 


of  the  plateau.  These  we 
can  see  as  we  go  westward 
and  observe  that  the 
streams  become  larger,  and 
the  valleys  become  deeper 
and  deeper.  In  some  places 
the  streams  and  branch 
streams  have  cut  so  many 
valleys  and  little  side  valleys 
that  the  whole  plateau  is 
cut  up  into  little  pieces. 
Sometimes  there  is  room 
for  only  one  farm  on  one 
of  these  level  tops.  The 
steep-sided,  deep  valleys,  or 
ravines,  make  such  a hilltop 
farm  a very  hard  place  to 
reach,  and  a lonely  place  in 
which  to  live.  The  northern  part  of  this 
plateau  is  not  so  rough  as  is  the  southern 
part.  As  one  travels  south  into  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentucky,  one  sees  that  the  little 
pieces  of  upland  become  smaller  and  smaller 
and  the  valleys  are  deeper  and  steeper  (Figs. 
4,  247).  This  kind  of  surface  makes  it  harder 
to  travel  and  harder  to  make  a living  in  the 
southern  than  in  the  northern  part. 

This  southern  section  of  the  plateau  has 
many  mountain  farmers.  They  are  of  pure 
English  stock.  About  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  they  came  down  the  Great 
Valley  and  started  through  the  mountains, 
seeking  the  West.  Some  did  not  pass  through 
the  rough  country  but  stayed  in  the  plateau, 
and  on  that  account  their  life  has  been  very 
different  from  that  of  their  cousins  who 
stayed  in  the  Great  Valley,  and  their  other 
cousins  who  went  through  the  mountains  to 
the  more  level  farmlands  beyond  where  it  is 
easy  to  travel  and  use  machinery. 

292.  A new  mountain  agriculture. — The 
trouble  with  many  of  the  mountain  farmers 
is  that  they  are  trying  to  do  level-land-farm- 
ing  on  steep  hillsides.  The  teacher  of  Dave 
Douglas’  grandchildren’s  school  says:  “A 
colony  of  Swiss  would  turn  the  coves  (moist 
valleys  at  the  base  of  the  hills)  into  gardens, 
the  moderate  slopes  into  orchards,  the  steeper 
ones  into  vineyards  by  terracing,  and  export 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


153 


the  finest  of  cheese  made  from  the  surplus 
milk  of  their  goats.” 

Milk-giving  goats  of  Swiss  breeds  have 
been  brought  up  to  southern  Appalachia  and 
are  doing  well,  and  the  agricultural  schools 
are  teaching  people  how  to  make  cheese. 
The  new  business  is  growing.  This  land  is 
also  good  for  tree  crops.  (Secs.  87,  284.) 
The  Swiss  (Sec.  494)  have  lived  in  their 
mountains  so  long  that  they  have  learned 
how  to  farm  to  very  good  advantage. 

As  the  farmer  in  our  mountains  learns  to 
use  his  land  better,  he  will  have  enough 
money  to  send  his  children  to  better  schools, 
and  he  will  be  able  to  buy  books  and  have  a 
telephone.  He  can  do  this  if  he  has  a herd  of 
goats,  or  cows,  and  takes  their  milk  to  a 
neighboring  cheese  factory,  as  is  done  by 
some  mountain  farmers.  (Sec.  491.) 


Fig.  248.  Section  of  a blast  furnace.  Everything  that 
goes  into  it  comes  out  as  gas,  molten  iron,  or  molten  slag 
(waste).  The  fire  is  kept  burning  by  a blast  of  hot  air. 
The  automatic  conveyor  dumps  measured  quantities  of 
materials  into  the  hopper.  When  the  bell  is  lowered 
they  drop  into  the  furnace,  which  will  make  700  tons  of 
iron  per  day. 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  249.  Coal  miners  at  work  in  West  Virginia. 
How  does  it  happen  that  the  coal  has  layers  of  slate  in 
it?  (Sec.  286.)  One  man  is  boring  a hole  to  put  in 
powder  for  blasting.  Do  you  see  the  miner’s  lamp 

on  his  cap?  Some  miners  use  acetylene  lamps. 

293.  Forests  and  lumbering. — Much  of  the 
rougher  land  of  the  plateau  has  never  been 
made  into  farms,  and  in  some  places  in 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Kentucky 
one  can  go  for  miles  over  forested  mountain 
slopes  without  once  seeing  a house.  Ever- 
green trees  of  northern  species  grow  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  plateau  because  it  is  cooler 
there.  In  the  lower  parts  are  oaks  and 
poplars,  such  as  are  found  in  the  Piedmont. 

There  is  a great  lumber  industry.  Many  of 
the  best  trees  have  been  taken  to  the  mills 
and  sawed  into  lumber.  Many  oak  and 
hemlock  trees  were  cut  only  to  get  the  bark 
to  be  used  in  tanneries,  some  of  which  are 
still  to  be  found  in  this  region. 

The  people  who  cut  the  forests  are  often 
careless  in  letting  forest  fires  burn  up  the 
young  trees  that  remain.  Thousands  and 
thousands  of  square  miles  have  been  burned 
bare  of  trees.  People  who  wonder  why  the 
price  of  lumber  is  so  high  would  understand 
it  better  if  they  could  see  one  of  these  forests 
that  has  been  burned  year  after  year  until 
nothing  is  left  but  the  desolate  mountain- 
side with  little  dead  trees  and  a few  weak 
bushes  standing  upon  it.  Why  might  this 


154 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


be  called  a green  desert?  The  United  States 
Government  is  now  buying  some  of  this 
burned  region  and  taking  care  of  it  so 
that  its  forests  may  grow  again. 

294.  Pittsburgh,  a traffic  center. — Travel 
in  the  plateau  is  always  along  the  valleys 
cut  by  the  streams.  Otherwise  we  would  be 
endlessly  climbing  up  one  steep  side  of  a 
valley  and  down  the  next  side. 

One  cannot  cross  the  plateau  in  Pennsyl- 
vania without  coming  to  streams  that  flow 
down  to  Pittsburgh.  Thus  many  river  routes 
come  together  at  that  point.  That  is  why 
the  early  French  settlers  picked  this  place 
as  the  site  for  one  of  their  forts.  After  the 
French  were  driven  out,  Pittsburgh  became 
a starting  point  for  the  flatboats  of  the  early 
settlers  and  traders  (Sec.  85).  When  the 
railroads  came,  they,  too,  had  to  follow  the 
river  valleys,  and  thus  Pittsburgh  became  a 
railroad  center. 

295.  Pittsburgh,  an  iron  center. — Examine 
the  coal  fields  map  (Fig.  44)  and  see  what 
parts  of  this  region  have  coal.  Can  you  tell 
why  Pittsburgh  took  the  lead  in  coal  mining? 
This  city  is  surrounded  by  thousands  of 
square  miles  of  rich  seams  of  coal,  good  for 
smelting  iron.  Iron  ore  is  found  near  by,  and 
also  some  limestone,  which  is  put  into  the 
furnace  with  the  ore  to  help  the  melting. 
Pittsburgh  is  near  to  the  great  cities  of 

northeastern  United 
States.  It  has  de- 
veloped into  the 
greatest  iron  manu- 
facturing city  in  the 
world.  It  might  be 
called  the  capital  of 
the  world  of  coal 
and  iron.  Along  the 
river  banks,  both 
above  and  below 
the  city,  are  iron 
and  steel  plants. 
Some  of  them  have 
single  buildings  as 

Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N.  Y.  Jgj’gg  ag  a field  Or 

Fig.  250.  Cutting  (grinding)  as  ]arge  as  several 
figures  on  beautiful  cut  glass,  f 

near  Pittsburgh.  City  blocks.  Many 


Fig.  251.  Leading  pig  iron  pro-  - | 

ducing  states  (1917) : Million  , - 

tons  L- . j.. 

A.  Pennsylvania 16.3  i i 

B.  Ohio 8.6  ,B- ' 

C.  Illinois 3.8 

D.  Alabama 2.6  y 

E.  New  York 2.2 

How  would  you  show  that  ;•  j 
New  York  and  Illinois  had  simi-  i-j-i 
lar  advantages  for  making  iron?  <=» 

towns  make  steel,  and  Charleston,  W.  Va., 
has  a United  States  Government  armor  plant. 
Each  day  one  of  these  big  steel  plants  sends 
out  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  tons  of 
rails  to  be  used  for  trolley  and  railroad  tracks. 
Many  other  useful  things  are  made  of  iron 
and  steel,  such  as  material  for  bridges,  iron 
pipe,  wire  fences,  nails,  and  tin  plate,  from 
which  tin  cans  and  other  tinware  are  made. 

296.  Iron  ore  from  Lake  Superior. — After 
Pittsburgh  was  well  started  at  iron-making, 
it  was  found  that  iron  could  be  made  more 
cheaply  from  the  rich  ores  that  had  been  dis- 
covered near  the  western  end  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior. (Sec.  834.)  Hundreds  of  big  steamboat 
loads  of  this  ore  are  now  brought  down 
the  lakes  each  summer,  and  thousands  of 
cars  are  busy  carrying  it  from  lake  ports  to 
the  iron  furnaces  in  and  near  Pittsburgh. 

297.  Pittsburgh,  a manufacturing  center. 
— Other  industries  have  grown  up  around  the 
steel  mills.  Pittsburgh  and  the  towns  near  it 
have  many  plants  that  use  some  of  the  iron 
and  steel  to  manufacture  machinery.  Sand 
pits  and  natural  gas  (Sec.  301)  help  western 
Pennsylvania  and  northern  West  Virginia  to 
make  much  glass.  (Sec.  230.) 

While  the  men  are  working  in  the  coal 
mines  and  steel  mills,  many  of  the  women 
work  in  the  silk  mills.  This  is  true  in  both 
the  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  fields. 

298.  The  soft  coal  mines. — This  rich  coal 
field  of  western  Pennsylvania,  western 
Maryland,  and  West  Virginia  has  many 
ether  towns  of  the  coal-miner.  From 
Pittsburgh  and  these  smaller  towns,  coal 
is  sent  every  day  by  thousands  of  car- 
loads to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, New  England,  and  the  central 
states.  Carloads  of  Appalachian  soft  coal 
are  dumped  by  machinery  into  lake  steamers 


THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 


155 


Courtesy  Knoxville  Board  of  Commerce 


Fig.  252.  A row  of  beehive  (old-fashioned)  ovens  in  which  coal  is  partly  burned 
and  thus  turned  to  coke.  Many  Appalachian  valleys  are  smoky  and  dusty 
with  this  industry.  The  fumes  often  kill  the  near-by  trees. 


at  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and 
other  lake  ports,  as  easily 
as  a man  dumps  a wheel- 
barrow. For  a very  low 
freight  charge,  the  boats 
take  the  coal  to  Detroit, 

Milwaukee,  and  Duluth. 

The  soft  coal  of  the  Ap- 
palachian Plateau  is  easier 
to  dig  than  is  anthracite. 

Its  seams  are  level  and 
many  of  them  open  on  hill- 
sides, so  that  little  mine 
cars  can  run  straight  into 
the  hillside,  and  bring  out 
coal  with  much  more  ease 
than  can  be  done  from  the 
deep  mines.  It  is  therefore 
much  less  expensive  to  dig 
soft  coal  there  than  to 
dig  hard  coal  in  the  ridge  country  farther 
east. 

More  coal  is  mined  near  Pittsburgh  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  plateau.  This  is 
true  not  only  because  so  much  coal  is  there, 
but  also  because  the  Ohio  River  and  its 
branches  made  this  the  easiest  place  for  the 
railroads  to  cross  the  plateau  from  the  great 
cities  of  the  east  to  the  great  cities  of  the 
west.  As  the  population  of  the  country 
grows,  and  more  and  more  coal  is  needed, 
new  mines  are  being  opened  up,  especially 
in  the  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky  parts  of 
the  plateau.  The  new  railroads  and  mines 
give  the  mountain  people  work  and  money 
with  which  to  buy  many  things.  This  has 
changed  the  way  in  which  they  live.  Few 
people  anywhere  in  the  mountains  now  live 
as  Dave  Douglas  lived  (Sec.  3),  although  it 
has  not  been  very  long  since  nearly  all  the 
people  of  whole  countries  lived  that  way. 

299.  Foreign  people.— There  is  so  much 
work  in  Pittsburgh,  Fairmont,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  surrounding  coal  fields  that 
many  thousands  of  immigrants  have  come 
from  Europe  to  work  and  live  there. 

300.  Coke. — Many  thousands  of  people 
are  busy  making  coke  in  plants  near  the  coal 
mines.  Coke  is  used  for  fuel  in  the  iron 


furnaces  (Fig.  248)  because  coke  is  hard  and 
will  not  choke  the  fire.  Coke  is  made  of  soft 
coal  that  has  been  heated  red-hot  in  a furnace 
which  has  a very  poor  draft,  so  that  the  coal 
does  not  bum  well.  The  heat,  however, 
drives  off  the  gas  from  the  coal,  which  burns, 
and  a black  solid  called  coke  remains  in  the 
furnace. 

301.  Oil  and  gas. — It  was  in  the  valley  of 
the  Allegheny  River,  north  of  Pittsburgh, 
that,  in  1859,  wells  were  first  drilled  down 
through  the  rocks  to  find  petroleum.  Before 
that  time  American  homes  had  been  poorly 
lighted  with  lamps  burning  expensive  whale 
oil  or  lard  oil.  After  petroleum  was  found, 
and  kerosene  could  be  had,  it  became  much 
easier  to  light  houses  well.  This  first  oil 
field  has  long  since  ceased  to  yield  much 
oil.  It  usually  takes  only  a few  years  to  use 
all  the  oil  there  is  in  an  oil  field. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  porous  rock  lying 
below  non-porous  rocks  through  which  the 
oil  cannot  escape  until  a hole  is  made. 
Natural  gas  is  often  found  with  the  oil,  and 
when  a well  drill  goes  through  the  tight  rock 
into  the  oil  and  gas,  they  sometimes  spurt 
out  just  as  soda  water  does  when  the  bottle 
is  uncorked.  In  West  Virginia,  south  of 
Pittsburgh,  both  oil  and  natural  gas  come 


156 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  253.  Mountain  farms  near  Big  Pigeon  River  in  the  Carolina  mountains. 
What  is  the  rainfall  of  this  region?  (Fig.  158.)  Show  the  slope  of  the  steepest 
field  by  a drawing.  What  will  happen  to  these  fields  if  they  are  plowed  often? 
Why  is  it  good  to  keep  this  land  in  trees  and  grass? 


from  the  wells.  They  are  carried  in  pipes  to 
Pittsburgh  and  other  cities.  The  gas  pro- 
vides a cheap  fuel  in  many  glass  works  and 
other  factories. 

302.  Northern  Plateau — a farming  region. 
— Almost  no  coal  is  found  in  that  part  of  the 
plateau  which  lies  in  northern  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York.  The  hills  there  are  more 
rounded  and  not  so  steep  as  those  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  plateau.  It  is,  therefore, 
easier  to  travel  through  this  country  and  to 
cultivate  the  land,  most  of  which  has  long 
been  used  for  farming.  It  is  a beautiful 
rolling  country,  with  grassy  hills,  many 
shade  trees,  and  clear,  cool  brooks.  As  in 
New  England,  some  of  these  hill  farms  have 
been  abandoned  by  people  who  went  to 
the  cities,  or  to  the  more  level  farms  of  the 
west,  but  many  farmers  stiil  prosper  by 
keeping  dairy  cows  and  shipping  dairy  prod- 
ucts to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Buffalo, 
Rochester,  and  other  cities.  (Fig.  267.)  Fast 
trains  bring  the  much-needed  milk  daily. 

In  this  part  of  the  plateau  are  Binghamton, 
Elmira,  and  many  other  prosperous  manu- 
facturing towns,  located  on  the  railroads 
going  from  Buffalo  and  the  west  to  New  York. 

303.  Future  of  the  Appalachian  Plateau. — 
In  this  age  of  machinery  we  need  more  and 


still  more  coal  to  run  fac- 
tories and  railroads  and  to 
heat  buildings.  What  does 
this  mean  for  the  future  of 
the  plateau?  Some  of  the 
plateau  tops  are  level  and 
good  for  farming,  but  they 
are  so  high  that  it  is  a great 
deal  cooler  there  in  summer 
than  it  is  in  the  lower  land 
near  the  ocean.  (Fig.  253.) 
Some  of  the  plateau  is 
too  cold  for  corn  to  grow 
well,  and  the  season  is  too 
short.  Farming  here  must 
be  like  that  of  New  Eng- 
land. Mountain  slopes  have 
thermal  belts,  but  flat  pla- 
teau tops  have  none,  and 
they  are  places  where  late 
frosts  in  spring  and  early  frosts  in  autumn  are 
apt  to  occur.  For  this  reason,  the  grow- 
ing season — the  time  between  the  last  killing 
frost  in  spring  and  the  first  killing  frost  in 
autumn — is  seventy  days  less  on  the  plateau 
in  western  Maryland  than  it  is  only  one  hun- 
dred miles  to  the  east,  near  sea  level,  along  the 
shores  of  the  upper  Chesapeake.  (Sec.  328.) 
Much  of  the  plateau,  however,  is  too  rough 
for  farming  and  should  remain  in  forest. 
Let  us  hope  that  instead  of  cutting  the  forests 
and  letting  fires  keep  on  destroying  them,  the 
American  people  will  soon  be  willing  to  take 
care  of  their  forests  as  the  French,  the 
Swiss,  and  the  Austrian  people  do  (Sec.  516). 
This  cannot  be  done,  however,  until  more 
people  begin  to  feel  that  it  is  wise  and  right 
to  save  things  that  may  soon  be  needed  by 
others. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Add  the  plateau  area  to  your  sand  model  of  the 
ridge  and  valley  section.  Show  products,  rivers, 
and  chief  cities.  2.  Make  a short  comparison  be- 
tween the  plateau  areas  and  the  ridge  country,  using 
an  outline  somewhat  like  the  following:  (a)  Location 
and  bounds;  (6)  Character  of  surface;  (c)  Important 
rivers;  (d)  Products  of  the  farms;  (e)  Products  of  the 
mines;  (/)  Probable  future  development.  3.  To 
which  state  in  the  whole  Appalachian  country  has 
Nature  been  most  kind?  Name  the  products  she  has 
stored  for  man  in  that  state.  How  have  these  prod- 
ucts made  the  state  a great  manufacturing  area? 


THE  OZARK  AND  OUACHITA  HIGHLANDS 


157 


4.  Give  the  population  of  Pitts- 
burgh; of  Birmingham.  What 
natural  advantages  do  these  cities 
possess  in  common?  Which  are 
peculiar  to  each  city?  5.  Name 
and  locate  six  important  cities  of 
the  Allegheny  Plateau  region. 

Give  a fact  of  importance  about 
each. 

6.  If  land  in  the  United  States 
were  as  precious  as  in  Switzer- 
land, how  would  the  Appalachian 
Plateau  lands  be  used?  7.  What 

I effect  does  a surface  such  as  that 
of  the  Allegheny  Plateau  (Fig. 

15)  have  upon  the  building  of 
railroads  and  highways?  upon 
the  lifer  of  the  plateau  people?  8.  Would  you  as  a 
member  of  Congress  vote  to  purchase  Allegheny 
Plateau  lands  for  national  forests?  Give  reasons  for 
your  answer. 

9.  From  your  Statistical  Abstract  (see  Question  11, 
p.  22),  list  the  states  of  the  United  States  as  producers 
of  coal,  petroleum,  and  iron.  What  is  the  total  pro- 
duction of  each  of  these  products  by  the  entire 
country?  10.  Why  should  the  state  or  national  gov- 
ernment control  some  of  the  Appalachian  forests?  11. 
Give  three  good  reasons  why  iron  ore  is  brought  over 
the  Great  Lakes  waterway  to  Pittsburgh  for  manufac- 
ture. Why  is  the  iron  not  made  on  Lake  Superior? 

Part  IV.— The  Southern  Appalachian 
Mountains 


often  call  these  mountains  “The  Land  of 
the  Sky.”  The  forests  on  the  higher  parts 
of  this  cool  section  are  the  same  kind  as  those 
in  New  England.  (Sec.  316.)  This  health- 
ful section  has  no  coal,  but  the  soils  and  rain- 
fall are  good  and  will  support  a good  moun- 
tain agriculture.  (Sec.  292.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Suppose  you  lived  in  the  little  house  beside  the 
Big  Pigeon  River  (Fig.  253)  and  your  farm  extended 
up  the  big  mountain.  Name  all  the  products  you 
might  make  your  farm  produce. 

OZARK  AND  OUACHITA  HIGHLANDS 


304.  A mass  of  mountains. — In  western 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  north- 
ern Georgia,  and  eastern  Tennessee,  the  Blue 
Ridge  spreads  out  into  a wide  mass  of  moun- 
tains. Here  several  thousand  square  miles 
of  mountainous  country  lie  between  the  Pied- 
mont, the  Northern  Cotton  Belt  and  the 
Great  Valley.  This  section  is  not  made  up 
of  ridges  like  the  northern  Appalachians, 
or  of  a plateau  like  the  soft-coal  fields.  It  is 
just  a jumbled  mass  of  mountains  running 
in  all  directions.  (Fig.  253.)  Like  the 
plateau,  it  is  a hard  country  to  travel  through, 
and  at  one  time  people  lived  there  very  much 
as  the  Douglases  lived.  Several  railroads 
now  pass  through  these  mountains.  There 
is  much  lumbering,  and  many  people  from 
the  lower,  hotter  lands  of  the  Cotton  Belt 
and  Florida  go  up  there  in  summer  to  enjoy 
the  beautiful  scenery  and  cool  climate  of  the 
mountains,  and  many  northern  people  go 
there  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Asheville  is 
the  chief  resort  center.  The  people  there 


305.  A region  of  few  railroads. — This  re- 
gion is  quite  like  another  and  smaller 
southern  Appalachia.  If  you  look  at  the 
railroad  map  of  the 
United  States  (Fig. 

494),  you  will  see 
that  the  eastern 
half  of  the  country 
seems  to  be  almost 

covered  with  rail-  Fig.  255.  The  Ozark  and 
road  lines  except  in  Ouachita  Highlands. 

two  areas.  One  of  these  is  the  Appalachian 
Highlands,  and  the  other  is  the  region  of  the 
Ozark  and  Ouachita  Highlands.  These 
upland  regions  are  not  tempting  to  builders 
of  railroads.  Why  not? 


Part  I. — The  Ozark  Highlands 


306.  Surface  and  soil. — The  western  part 
of  the  Ozarks  is  a plateau  much  like  parts  of 
the  Appalachian  plateau.  The  eastern  edge 
of  that  western  plateau  is  called  the  Burling- 
ton Escarpment  (Fig.  239). 


158 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Photo.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  256.  A trail  down  which  Ozark  logs  are  dragged  to 
a stream  bank  without  the  use  of  wagons.  To  what  use 
can  this  land  be  put?  Why  is  it  hard  for  families  to 
make  a good  neighborhood  in  such  a rugged  country? 

The  center  of  the  Ozark  region  is  an  irregu- 
lar mass  of  roundish,  crooked  mountains, 
much  like  the  mountains  of  western  North 
Carolina,  but  not  so  high.  There  are  no 
straight,  open  valleys  through  it;  that  is 
one  of  the  reasons  why  there  are  so  few  rail- 
roads there.  The  highest  part  is  named 
the  St.  Francis  Mountains. 

The  soil  of  the  Ozark  hills  is  not  rich  like 
that  of  the  level  prairies.  Moreover,  in  places 
the  soil  is  covered  to  a depth  of  several 
inches  with  little  pieces  of  flint  stone,  about 
as  big  as  the  end  of  your  finger.  This  cover- 
ing of  flints  is  all  that  remains  of  a thick 
layer  of  limestone  that  once  overlaid  the 
tops  of  the  hills.  The  limestone,  which  dis- 
solves easily,  has  been  dissolved  and  carried 
down  the  streams,  but  the  flints  which  were 
scattered  through  it  dissolve  very  slowly 


indeed.  Therefore  they  remain,  and  in  some 
places  make  the  soil  unsuited  to  farming. 
But  since  trees  can  get  their  roots  down 
among  the  little  stones  to  the  earth  below, 
the  country  was  thickly  forested  when  the 
white  man  came. 

307.  Living  in  the  Ozarks. — By  the  year 
1900,  men  with  the  aid  of  cultivators  and 
reapers  had  farmed  almost  every  acre  of  the 
rich,  smooth,  level  plains  north  of  the 
Ozarks.  These  people  had  grown  rich  and 
had  good  schools,  and  the  land  was  dotted 
with  comfortable  houses  and  big  barns. 
But  a short  distance  to  the  south,  among  the 
stony  Ozark  hills,  the  living  conditions  were 
very  different.  There,  many  counties  had 
no  railroads  at  all,  and  the  people  were 
living  very  much  as  Dave  Douglas  lived  in 
the  Appalachian  Highlands  (Sec.  3).  Their 
houses  were  small  log  cabins.  In  a little 
patch  of  a field,  fenced  with  rails,  barely 
enough  corn  could  be  grown  to  furnish  bread 
for  the  family  and  to  feed  the  horse  and  the 
cow  when  snow  covered  the  earth  in  winter. 
There  were  no  fields  of  corn  with  which  to 
feed  pigs,  so  the  pigs  roamed  in  the  forest 
hunting  nuts  and  acorns  for  food.  The  land 
is  too  rough  to  grow  much  wheat.  Because 
the  summer  was  too  short  to  allow  a cotton 
crop  to  mature  well,  they  had  little  or  no 
cotton  to  sell.  With  little  to  sell,  those 
people  had  to  live  in  a primitive  way.  They 
had  to  make  most  of  the  things  they  needed, 
and  thus  for  a time  they  remained  poor. 
The  schools  were  few,  and  many  of  the 
people  could  neither  read  nor  write. 

308.  Apples  and  peaches. — But  a change 
has  come  in  parts  of  the  Ozarks.  Orchards 
were  planted.  Now  there  are  apples  and 
peaches  to  sell.  Fruit  trees,  like  forest  trees, 
can  thrive  in  well-drained  stony  soil. 

The  Ozark  hills,  like  the  Appalachian 
ridges,  have  thermal  belts,  or  frost  drainage, 
and  in  some  sections  peaches  and  apples  are 
growing  on  the  level  hilltops  (Sec.  283). 
The  mountains  also  serve  to  keep  off  the 
north  wind.  There  have  been  seasons  when 
cold  waves  have  swept  down  the  middle  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  frozen  the  fruit 


THE  OZARK  AND  OUACHITA  HIGHLANDS 


159 


crops  from  Nebraska  to  West  Virginia,  and 
from  Dakota  and  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
Ozarks.  But  in  the  orchards  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts  of  the  Ozarks,  the  fruit 
was  not  frozen  in  those  seasons,  and  there 
was  a good  crop  which  the  farmers  sold  at 
good  prices.  In  some  parts  of  the  region 
the  people  have  become  as  prosperous  as 
are  the  people  of  the  Cotton  Belt  or  the 
Corn  Belt. 

309.  Lumber. — Since  most  of  this  land  is 
still  woodland,  there  is  lumber  to  sell.  Many 
loads  of  oak  railroad  ties  and  barrel  staves 
are  hauled  to  the  few  railroads  and  shipped 
out  of  the  Ozarks  each  year.  This  lumber 
comes  from  small  sawmills  that  saw  up  logs 
from  a few  acres,  and  then  move  on  to  the 
next  tract.  The  farmers  haul  the  logs  when 
they  are  not  busy  with  their  crops. 

310.  Towns  and  mining. — We  do  not 
expect  to  find  many  towns  in  a region  such 
as  this.  The  largest  are  Springfield,  Mis- 
souri, with  railroad  repair  shops;  and  Joplin, 
Missouri,  the  chief  center  in  the  United 
States  for  zinc  mining.  In  this  part  of  the 
plateau  are  many  ore  deposits  containing 
both  lead  and  zinc,  and  there  are  many  mines. 
Zinc  smelters  are  at  work  in  and  near  Joplin. 
How  many  things  made  of  zinc  can  you  find 
in  your  neighborhood? 

Recently  several  railroads  have  been  built, 
but  there  are  still  many  places  that  are 
fifteen  or  twenty  miles  from  the  station. 
They  can  be  reached  only  by  bad  roads  over 
steep  hills.  You  can  see  why  towns  would 
not  grow  large  on  such  a plateau. 

Part  II. — The  Ouachita  Ridges 

311.  The  Arkansas  Valley. — South  of  the 
Ozarks  is  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Arkansas 
River.  This  rich,  warm  lowland  can  and 
does  grow  cotton.  It  is,  therefore,  really  a 
narrow  strip  of  the  Cotton  Belt,  merely 
because  it  is  fifteen  hundred  feet  lower  than 
the  Ozark  hills  immediately  to  the  north 
of  it  and  the  Ouachita  Mountains  imme- 
diately south  of  it. 

312.  Mountains  with  few  people. — Just 
south  of  the  Arkansas  River  the  Ouachita 


Mountains  cover  several  counties  in  Arkansas 
and  Oklahoma.  These  sandstone  ridges  with 
valleys  between  them  are  very  much  like  the 
narrow  ridges  and  valleys  of  the  Appa- 
lachians in  West  Virginia,  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  (Sec.  282.)  Most  of  the  sandy 
surface  of  the  Ouachita  Mountains  is  still  cov- 
ered with  forest,  part  of  which  is  a national 
forest.  Few  people  live  here,  but  at  the  edge 
of  the  mountains  is  the  famous  health  resort, 
Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  Visitors  from  many 
distant  places  go  there  to  receive  the  benefits 
of  the  spring  water  and  of  the  sanitariums. 

313.  Future  of  the  Ozark  and  Ouachita 
Highlands. — The  pleasant,  healthful  climate 
of  this  region  and  its  great  natural  beauty 
should  encourage  man  to  make  better  use  of 
it.  It  is  far  enough  south  to  have  winters 
that  are  not  severe.  The  summers  have 
plenty  of  rain  and  the  weather  is  not  so 
unpleasantly  hot  as  in  the  prairies  to  the 
north  or  the  humid  Cotton  Belt  to  the  south. 
Since  there  are  no  swamps  in  which  mos- 
quitoes may  live,  the  upland  does  not  have 
the  malaria  that  afflicts  some  parts  of  the 
Cotton  Belt. 

As  we  learn  to  know  our  continent  better, 
progressive  people  from  other  regions  should 
make  their  homes  in  the  Ozarks.  America 
is  such  a big  country,  and  land  has  been  so 
cheap  in  the  past,  that  we  have  used  only  the 
best,  the  part  that  is  level  and  easy  to  culti- 
vate with  machinery.  With  the  increase  in 
the  price  of  food  and  land,  new  kinds  of 
farming  are  needed  in  order  to  develop 
such  regions  as  these  central  highlands.  We 
may  expect  many  new  things,  now  that 
there  is  an  agricultural  experiment  station 
and  an  agricultural  college  in  every  state. 
There  is  such  a college  at  Fayetteville, 
Arkansas,  in  the  Ozarks.  Agriculture  is 
being  taught  now  in  many  of  the  high  schools. 
In  Arkansas,  as  in  many  other  states,  there 
are  clubs  of  boys  who  are  growing  corn,  pigs, 
and  other  valuable  things;  and  of  girls  who 
are  growing  tomatoes  and  canning  them. 
As  our  people  become  better  trained,  the 
Ozarks  and  the  Appalachians  can  become 
delightful  places  in  which  to  live,  and  the 


160 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


people  can  have  health,  good  roads,  produc- 
tive farms  (Sec.  292),  good  schools,  and  pretty 
towns  and  villages  in  the  midst  of  beautiful 
green  hills  and  blue  mountains. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Find  the  Ozark-Ouachita  Highland  on  Figure  494. 
What  is  its  average  elevation?  (Fig.  21.)  How  does  this 
influence  its  climate?  In  what  respect  is  the  climate  of 
the  Ozarks  superior  to  that  of  the  Cotton  Belt?  to  that 
of  Corn  Belt?  2.  How  does  nature  partly  repay  the 
people  of  this  region  for  the  rugged  surface  and 
poor  soil?  3.  Name  the  products  of  the  region, 
grouping  them  as  follows:  (a)  Products  of  farms; 

(6)  Products  of  orchards;  (c)  Products  of  mines; 
(d)  Products  of  forests.  4.  Tell  an  Ozark  farmer 
how  tree-crop  agriculture  might  increase  the  yield 
from  his  farm. 

5.  Draw  a simple  diagram  picturing  a valley  be- 
tween two  mountains,  such  as  might  be  found  in  the 
Ozarks.  Show  on  the  diagram  where  you  would 
grow  forests;  where  you  would  place  your  orchards; 
your  vegetable  gardens  and  cornfields;  your  pasture 
lands.  6.  Name  some  points  of  similarity  and  differ- 
ence between  southern  Appalachia  and  the  Ozark- 
Ouachita  Uplands. 

7.  Suppose  you  were  a schoolboy  or  girl  in  Fayette- 
ville, Arkansas;  what  would  you  desire  to  learn  in  order 
to  help  make  your  region  a more  pleasant  place  in 
which  to  live?  8.  Use  the  Ozark-Ouachita  Uplands 
and  the  New  England  Maritime  District  for  illus- 
tration, and  show  how  people  become  more  prosperous 
when  they  carry  on  trade. 

THE  NORTHEASTERN  HIGHLANDS 

314.  Character  and  bounds. — One  part  of 
our  Eastern  Upland  Region  yet  remains — 
the  Northeastern  Highlands.  It  lies  north 

of  the  Mohawk  Val- 
ley and  northwest 
of  the  New  Eng- 
land-C  a n a d i a n 
Maritime  District. 

How  many  states 
and  provinces  help 
to  make  it?  What 
fertile  valley  cuts  this  region  in  two?  All  the 
mountains  in  this  highland  are  very  old,  and 
their  tops  are  worn  down  to  a rounded  form. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  White  Mountains 
(Fig.  216)  and  of  the  Adirondacks  have  only 
grass  and  bare  rock,  for  they  are  beyond  the 
timber  line,  but  most  of  the  other  mountains 
are  forested  to  the  tops. 

While  the  glaciers  were  leveling  the  prairie 
country,  they  were  picking  up  rocks  on  the 


mountains  of  New  England  and  eastern 
Canada  and  scattering  them  everywhere. 
There  is  even  a string  of  these  rocks  across 
Long  Island,  where  the  glacier  left  its  termi- 
nal moraine.  By  filling  valleys  with  earth 
here  and  there  the  glacier  made  dams  that 
held  the  water  of  the  streams,  thus  turning 
valleys  into  lakes  and  swamps,  and  sending 
streams  into  new  courses  where  they  tumbled 
over  rocky  ledges.  For  this  reason,  the 
Northeastern  Highland  country  of  moun- 
tains and  hills  and  woods  is  also  a land  of 
lakes,  swamps,  rocky  land,  and  waterfalls. 

315.  Climate. — The  growing  season  in  this 
region  is  only  110  to  140  days  long.  The 
winter  is  very  cold.  It  is  amazing  how  much 
colder  the  winter  is  in  the  Adirondacks  or 
in  upper  New  Hampshire  than  it  is  in  New 
York  City  or  Cape  Cod.  At  New  York  it 
often  rains  and  thaws  in  the  winter  months; 
in  the  Northeastern  Highlands  it  is  nearly 
always  freezing,  and  almost  every  winter 
storm  is  snow.  When  snow  is  shoe-top  deep 
in  New  York  City,  it  may  be  knee-deep  or 
waist-deep  or  even  shoulder-deep  in  the 
woods  of  Maine  and  in  the  Adirondacks,  and 
the  ice  on  the  rivers  and  lakes  is  often  two 
or  three  feet  thick.  For  weeks  after  people 
on  Long  Island  can  plant  their  gardens, 
snow  still  covers  the  ground  250  miles  to  the 
northward.  Hence  this  region  has  few  farms, 
few  towns,  and  few  people.  One  sees  why 
skiing  is  a great  sport  among  the  students  of 
Dartmouth  College  at  Hanover,  New  Hamp- 
shire. (Fig.  258.) 

316.  Agriculture  and  lumbering. — There  is 
very  little  agriculture  in  this  district,  except 
in  a few  spots.  Not  only  is  the  growing  sea- 
son too  short,  but  the  land  is  too  rough  for 
farming.  But  it  is  a good  country  for  grass, 
and  Vermont  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
fine  merino  sheep,  its  horses,  and  its  dairy 
farms.  In  the  Aroostook  Valley  in  north- 
eastern Maine  is  a tract  of  sandy  loam  soil 
which  is  easy  to  cultivate.  The  cool,  moist 
summer  exactly  suits  the  potato,  and  this 
section  has  become  a famous  potato  region, 
sending  seed  potatoes  to  many  states  lying 
farther  south. 


Fig.  257.  The  Northeastern 
Highlands. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  HIGHLANDS 


161 


Most  of  the  Northeastern 
Highland  district  is  a great 
forest.  Even  the  farms  are 
for  the  most  part  woodland, 
and  many  of  them  have 
large  groves  of  maple  trees 
from  which  sugar  is  made. 

The  income  of  the  people 
comes  largely  from  forests, 
which  furnish  lumber,  pulp 
wood,  and  paper.  Each 
winter  scores  of  lumber 
camps  are  built  in  the 
woods.  There,  men  are  busy 
chopping  trees  and  hauling 
logs  to  the  stream  banks. 

Each  spring  the  streams 
carry  logs  out  in  all  direc- 
tions to  the  sawmills  and 
papermills.  Bangor  and 
Augusta  in  Maine  have 
many  such  mills  busy  with 
the  logs  that  float  down  from  the  high- 
lands. It  is  the  same  with  towns  in  southern 
New  Brunswick,  and  with  towns  on  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  Most  of  the  towns  within  this  region 
cluster  around  papermills,  built  at  some 
place  where  a waterfall  furnishes  the  power 
to  grind  spruce  logs  into  the  pulp  from 
which  news  paper  is  made. 

In  the  winter  of  1919-1920  the  snow  was 
so  deep  in  this  region  that  trains  could  not 
reach  the  papermills  for  weeks  at  a time. 
Many  newspapers  in  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, and  other  cities  had  to  reduce  their 
size  because  the  papermill  towns  of  New 
England  and  eastern  Canada  could  not  ship 
paper  as  usual. 

317.  The  resort  business.— Few  parts  of 
the  United  States  equal  New  England  in  the 
variety  of  vacations  that  a short  journey  may 
furnish.  The  shores  of  Cape  Cod,  on  the  tip 
of  the  Coastal  Plain,  furnish  a flat  coast 
with  the  charm  of  the  sandy  beach.  From 
Boston  northward  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
the  Maritime  District  has  a very  rugged, 
rocky  coast.  Inland  throughout  the  whole 
maritime  region  are  cozy  farmhouses  by 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  258.  New  York  boy  and  girls  enjoying  winter  sports  in  the  Adirondacks. 
Could  you  slide  down  hill  on  skis  and  keep  your  balance? 

stream  and  pond.  The  highland  district 
offers  wilder  scenes.  It  invites  those  who 
wish  to  go  where  mail  and  newspapers  can 
not  follow  them,  and  where  leaping  trout 
make  the  sportsman  rise  before  dawn  to 
creep  stealthily  up  to  clear  pools. 

Each  summer  thousands  of  people  may  be 
found  canoeing,  tenting,  and  tramping  along 
the  streams,  lakes,  and  hills  in  the  solitude 
of  the  north  woods.  There  they  can  know 
for  a few  days  or  weeks  how  it  feels  to  be  in 
a wild  place  far  from  town.  Here  also,  in 
locations  of  great  beauty,  are  many  large 
summer  hotels,  and  in  scores  of  permanent 
camps,  thousands  of  schoolboys  and  school- 
girls have  a few  delightful  weeks  of  swimming, 
boating,  and  outdoor  life. 

318.  Future. — Is  this  a place  where  many 
people  will  live  all  the  year?  In  much  of  it 
there  are  now  not  more  than  two  or  three 
people  to  the  square  mile.  Will  this  change? 
Three  words  describe  the  future  of  this 
region:  forests,  water  power,  recreation. 
Tell  how  an  increase  of  population  in  New 
York  City  and  in  the  New  England  Mari- 
time District  will  influence  each  of  these 
three  things  in  the  highlands.  . . 


162 


THE  EASTERN  AND  CENTRAL  UPLANDS 


Most  of  the  forests  have  been  cut  over 
once  or  twice,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
ruined  by  fire.  Some  of  the  wooded  land 
now  belongs  to  paper  companies  that  take 
excellent  care  of  their  forests,  because  they 
must  have  wood  to  keep  their  mills  going. 
The  United  States  Government  has  begun 
to  buy  some  of  the  forest  land  that  private 
owners  will  not  protect  from  fire,  and  much 
of  it  will  doubtless  become  a great  national 
forest.  The  state  of  New  York  has  taken  a 
large  part  of  the  Adirondacks  as  a park  for 
its  people.  Lovers  of  the  great  outdoors 
may  paddle  their  canoes  over  the  chains  of 
lakes,  may  fish  in  the  clear,  rapid  streams,  or 
may  climb  the  steep  mountainsides;  but  as 
a condition  of  their  life  in  the  open  they 
must  beware  of  setting  fire  to  the  woods. 

Into  the  spongy  ground  shaded  by  the 
forests  of  the  Northeastern  Highlands,  the 
rain  and  the  melted  snow  sink  and  are  held. 
So  gradually  does  water  drain  from  this 
forest-earth  that  the  streams  which  it  sup- 
plies are  clear,  strong  and  constant.  Many 
stream-valleys  have  been  blocked  by  the 
material  brought  by  the  Great  Glacier;  in 
this  way  ponds  and  lakes  are  formed. 

By  damming  their  outlets,  lakes,  which 
are  natural  reservoirs,  can  be  made  to  hold 
more  water  than  they  do  now.  How  may 
this  be  useful?  When  New  York  City  needed 
a greater  water  supply,  it  created  a great 
lake  in  the  Catskill  Highland.  In  like  man- 
ner many  large  cities  of  the  future  will  draw 
clear  cold  water  from  these  highlands.  Some 
of  the  water  may  generate  electricity  in  its 
descending  course,  to  move  the  wheels  of 
mills  in  distant  places. 

This  land  will  invite  many  kinds  of  men. 
For  a few  months  in  summer  and  autumn 
the  canoeist,  the  camper,  the  tramper,  the 
fisherman,  the  hunter,  the  motorist,  and  the 
hotel  guest  will  throng  the  land  where  for 
months  at  a time  and  for  miles  at  a stretch, 
in  the  long,  cold  winter,  the  sound  of  a 
human  voice  is  not  heard — save  that  of  the 
fur  hunter,  creeping  stealthily  after  pelts,  or 
that  of  the  forester,  protecting  and  studying 
his  trees.  Then  at  intervals  many  years  apart 


will  come  the  lumbermen  with  noisy  winter 
camp,  loud  halloo,  and  ringing  ax.  The 
winter  stillness  will  be  broken  by  the  sound 
of  falling  trees.  Thus  men  will  harvest  the 
crop  of  logs  that  has  taken  a half  century  or 
more  to  grow. 

If  we  should  have  to  use  all  of  our  land  as 
closely  as  the  Swiss  do,  what  parts  of  this 
region  might  have  a dairy  industry? 

Animals  in  this  cold  region  have  very 
good  fur  and  fur  farming,  which  has  already 
begun,  may  become  important.  The  Prince 
Edward  Islanders  (Sec.  247)  have  shown  the 
way  by  raising  black  foxes  with  skins  selling 
sometimes  for  $1000.  One  mother  fox  has 
been  known  to  sell  for  $15,000,  and  to  raise 
a litter  of  young  that  were  worth  $10,000. 
Many  millions  of  dollars  are  now  invested 
in  fox  farms.  Muskrats  and  otherj  fur- 
bearers  may  also  be  domesticated. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  these  mountains  a land  of  forests  and 
not  of  farms?  a vacation  land?  a land  with  great 
water-power  possibilities?  2.  Plan  a pleasure  trip  to 
this  region.  3.  Name  and  locate  three  mountain 
groups  within  the  area.  4.  What  products  do  the 
people  of  this  land  produce  to  sell  to  the  other  regions 
of  the  United  States?  5.  How  may  they  have 
helped  to  furnish  you  with  your  reading?  6.  What 
has  your  region  to  send  them  in  return  for  their  service 
to  you?  How  high  is  Mt.  Washington?  (Fig.  216.) 

7.  Make  the  following  comparisons: 


Topic. 

Location 

AND 

Bound- 

aries. 

Char- 
acter 
of  Sur- 
face. 

Chict 

Prod- 

ucts, 

Impor- 

tance. 

Appalachian  Ridges 

and  Valleys 

Appalachian  Plateau . 
Northeastern 

Highland 

Ozark-Ouachita 
Highland 

8.  What  natural  conditions  in  parts  of  these  highlands 
help  the  farmers  to  produce  merino  sheep  and  fine 
horses?  9.  Name  some  sports  the  students  at  Dart- 
mouth College  enjoy  which  are  denied  to  the  students 
at  the  University  of  California.  (Fig.  258.) 

10.  Were  you  given  a year’s  vacation,  which  land 
would  you  choose — the  Northeastern  Highlands  or 
Southern  California?  Give  three  good  reasons  for 
your  answer.  11.  What  are  seed  potatoes?  Can  you 
suggest  why  many  farmers  in  eastern  United  States 
market  their  entire  potato  crop,  and,  for  next  year’s 
planting,  buy  seed  potatoes  from  the  Aroostook 
Valley,  Maine? 


© A.  E.  Young,  Soo,  Mich. 

Fig.  259.  Lake  steamers  passing  through  the  locks  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  Michigan.  You  see  boats  standing  at  different 
levels.  The  boat  at  the  left  has  a gate  in  front  of  it  which 
we  can  see,  and  one  behind  it  which  we  cannot  see.  Big  valves 
in  the  gate  nearest  us  open,  and  let  the  water  out  so  that  the 
ship  settles  down  to  the  lower  level.  The  gate  then  opens  and 
the  boat  steams  away.  Perhaps  you  can  show  this  by  a draw- 
ing. Also  show  how  the  boat  goes  up  the  locks.  Which  end 
of  the  boat  nearest  you  holds  the  crew?  the  machinery? 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES 


Part  I. — The  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and 
the  Lower  Lake  District 

319.  A long  trade  route  region. — It  is  a 
long  way  from  Duluth  and  Chicago  past 
Detroit,  Montreal,  and  Quebec  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  but  all 
parts  of  the  region  are  much  alike  in  their 
great  dependence  on  trade,  and  also  in  their 
climate  and  agriculture. 

What  regions  bound  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valley  and  the  Lower  Lake  District?  All 
of  this  region  is  lowland,  except  the  north- 
western part,  which  we  call  the  Upper  Lake 
District. 

320.  The  effects  of  the  Great 
Glacier. — The  Great  Lakes  form 
the  largest  group  of  lakes  in  the 
world.  Lake  Superior  is  the 
largest  body  of  fresh  water  in 
the  world.  These  lakes  were 


over  this  part  of  North  America.  The  moving 
mass  of  ice  scooped  out  great,  deep  holes 
(Fig.  262).  The  dirt  from  the  holes,  car- 
ried along  by  the  ice,  dammed  up  the  old 
channels  of  streams  (Sec.  314).  When  the 
glacier  filled  up  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley,  the 
waters  from  the  melting  ice  formed  a large 
lake  in  front  of  the  glacier.  The  mud  and 
sand  deposited  on  the  bottoms  of  these  old 
lakes  now  make  fine  agricultural  soils  along 
the  south  shores  of  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  and 
Michigan. 

As  the  ice  front  changed,  the  water  found 
different  outlets.  At  one  time 
the  waters  of  Lake  Superior 
flowed  south  into  the  Mississippi 
at  a point  north  of  St.  Paul.  The 
waters  of  Lake  Michigan  flowed 
down  the  Illinois  River  into  the 
Mississippi.  Lake  Erie  waters 


made  by  the  great  ice  mass  that  fig‘  260-  The  BfsiTof  st;  flowed  to  the  Ohio  River.  Later, 

Lawrence  and  the  Great  . 7 

once  pushed  its  way  southward  Lakes.  as  the  glacier  melted  still  more. 


063) 


164 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


Lake  Erie  waters  flowed  across  New  York  by 
way  of  the  Mohawk,  and  finally  they  found 
still  another  new  channel  by  tumbling  over  a 
ledge  of  rock  into  Lake  Ontario.  The  swiftly- 
flowing  stream  cut  the  edge  of  the  ledge,  and 
gradually  wore  the  rock  away,  until  to-day 
the  falls  are  at  Niagara  instead  of  at  the 
place  where  Lewiston  now  stands.  Measure 
on  the  map  (Fig.  204)  the  length  of  the 
river  channel  below  Niagara  Falls.  See  in 
Fig.  262  how  great  the  difference  in  level  is 
between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario. 

The  Niagara  River  is  a very  young  river 
flowing  through  a narrow  gorge.  (Figs.  142, 

146,  147.)  Niagara  Falls,  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  the  earth,  is  visited  by  thousands  of 
tourists  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Niagara 
Falls  is  to-day  developing  more  hydroelectric 
power  than  any  other  waterfall.  (Fig.  261.) 

In  this  region  the  glacier  has  (a)  helped 
man  to  trade  by  making  waterways;  ( b ) put 
men  into  factories  by  giving  them  water 
power;  (c)  made  farming  easier  by  making 
smooth  plains  on  old  lake 
beds;  (d)  made  farming 
harder  than  in  some  other 
regions  because  it  left  much 
of  the  region  rolling  and 
hilly  and  dotted  with  many 

small  lakes.  For  this  rea- 

son  a hundred-acre  farm  Fig*  262.  A diagram  showing  sea  level  and  the  depth  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

’ , t i How  deep  is  each  lake?  Between  which  two  is  the  difference  in  level  great- 

near  tile  threat  Lakes  or  est?  How  long  is  the  river  which  connects  Erie  and  Ontario?  (Fig.  204.) 


iron  box  with  a flat  bottom.  (Fig.  281.) 
It  has  a little  house  in  one  end  full  of  ma- 
chinery, and  another  little  house  in  the  other 
end  where  the  crew  live.  There  are  hundreds 
of  these  black,  smoking  freight  boxes,  which 
are  really  floating  warehouses.  Many  of 
them  carry  10,000  tons  of  freight  from  the 
far  ends  of  Lake  Superior  or  Michigan  to  thi 
lower  end  of  Lake  Erie.  The  Welland  Canal, 
by  way  of  which  boats  go  from  Lake  Erie 
to  Lake  Ontario,  is  large  enough  to  allow 
only  boats  of  2,500-ton  capacity  to  pass 
through,  but  there  are  plans  for  enlarging  it. 
When  it  has  been  improved,  the  cargoes  of 
the  large  boats  will  not  have  to  be  unloaded 
at  one  end  of  the  canal  and  reloaded,  but  will 
pass  directly  through  the  canal  in  the  big 
ships  to  their  destinations.  Look  at  the  New 
York  Barge  Canal  (Fig.  204)  and  explain  how 
the  Great  Lakes  route  has  two  sea  ends,  and 
why  Montreal  and  Quebec  are  important 
commercial  cities.  The  great  drawback 
to  the  route  is  that  the  river  and  all  the 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES  165 


canals  are  frozen  for  several  months  each 
winter.  Fortunately  the  seaports  are  not 
frozen  more  than  a day  or  two  at  a time. 

If  we  examine  the  western  ends  of  the 
Great  Lakes  route,  we  see  that  cities  have 
grown  up  wherever  the  lakes  reach  into  the 
good  country.  What  is  the  population  of 
each  of  eight  American  cities  on  these  lakes? 

The  lake  steamer  carries  freight  more 
cheaply  than  a train.  Explain  how  that 
fact  has  caused  the  lake  cities  to  be  larger 
than  the  inland  cities. 

Chicago  is  the  second  city  of  America  in 
size  because,  like  New  York,  it  is  a center 
for  many  trade  routes.  Chicago  is  larger 
than  Toledo  or  Duluth  chiefly  because  it  is 
the  trade  center  for  more  good  farmland 
than  either  of  the  other  cities.  It  has  been 
made  not  only  by  the  lake,  but  also  by  the 
land.  (Figs.  264, 308, 494.)  Chicago  is  on  the 
edge  of  the  Lake  Region,  yet  the  lakes  make 
it  the  greatest  center  of  trade  with  the  rich 
region  of  the  Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain 
Belt.  This  region  sends  to  Chicago  many 
thousands  of  meat  animals  for  the  packing- 
plants,  and  many  millions  of  bushels  of  grain 
to  be  forwarded  over  the  lakes.  In  return, 
Chicago  sends  machinery  and  all  kinds  of  sup- 
plies back  to  the  farming  country.  Chicago 
and,  to  a lesser  extent,  all  the  other  lake  cities 
are  really  gateways  through  which  streams 
of  goods  are  flowing  in  both  directions.  Raw 
materials  are  going  east  and  finished  products 
are  going  west. 

Being  centrally  located  in  the  United 
States,  Chicago  is  a good  place  for  mail-order 
houses.  (Figs.  308, 494.)  All  the  people  of 
the  country  can  be  more  quickly  reached  by 
mail  from  this  point  than  from  any  other. 

In  the  summer  season  some  of  the  produce 
that  comes  down  the  lakes  from  Chicago  and 
other  American  cities  is  forwarded  to  Europe 
from  the  ports  of  Montreal  and  Quebec. 
It  is  a great  hindrance  to  trade  that  the 
produce  of  the  Lake  District  and  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  Valley  must  go  overland  to  the 
Atlantic  ports  for  nearly  five  months  when 
the  river  is  icebound. 

322.  Population. — The  lake  region  is  the 


© Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y* 

Fig.  263.  State  Street,  in  the  heart  of  Chicago.  See 
if  an  encyclopedia  will  tell  you  what  was  here  one 
hundred  years  ago. 

most  northerly  part  of  eastern  North 
America  where  many  people  are  living,  and 
it  has  many  kinds  of  people  in  it.  Quebec 
was  once  a French  colony.  The  people  still 
speak  French,  and  many  refuse  to  learn 
English,  or  to  speak  it  when  they  know  it. 
Ontario  was  settled  by  British  people,  and 
they  retain  English  ideas  and  ways  of  living. 
Michigan  was  settled  by  Yankees  from  New 
York  and  New  England.  The  same  kind  of 
people  also  settled  in  Wisconsin.  Later 
many  Germans,  Danes,  and  Poles  settled 
there.  A great  many  people  have  recently 
come  from  many  countries  in  Europe  to 
work  in  the  mining  towns  near  the  west  end 
of  Lake  Superior,  and  to  live  in  Chicago, 
Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  other  big  cities. 

323.  Transportation  helps  make  manufac- 
turing.— The  lake  cities  are  busy  with  fac- 
tories as  well  as  with  trade.  The  lake  steamer 
that  carries  ore,  grain,  lumber,  meat,  and 
copper  eastward,  often  brings  on  its  return 


166 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


Mg.  264.  An  airman’s  view  of  Chicago.  Compare  its  harbor,  made  by  a breakwater,  with  that  of  New  York 
(Fig.  278).  Into  what  river  does  the  drainage-canal  water  flow?  (Fig.  54.)  Chicago  water  comes  from  far  out  in  the 
lake  at  the  cribs  (screened  boxes  where  the  water  enters  pipes).  Find  these  cribs  in  the  picture. 


journey  cargoes  of  Pennsylvania  coal  from 
Buffalo,  Cleveland,  Erie,  or  Ashtabula. 

, The  lake  shores  produce  the  materials  for 
making  machinery,  and  Chicago,  the  trade 
center  of  the  greatest  agricultural  district 
in  the  world,  is  also  the  greatest  center  in 
the  world  for  the  manufacture  of  agricultural 
machinery.  Such  products  are  so  bulky  that 
they  need  to  be  made  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  place  where  they  are  to  be  used.  This 
gives  Chicago  an  advantage  over  distant 
places. 

To  supply  Chicago  with  steel,  a new  city 
was  started  near  by  at  Gary,  Indiana.  Here, 
on  a waste  of  sand,  the  largest  steel  plant 
in  the  world  was  built.  A harbor  was  dug 
out  of  the  sand.  Here  steamers  loaded  with 
iron  ore  from  Lake  Superior  can  run  into 
docks  directly  beside  the  iron  furnaces.  At 
this  big  plant  the  newly-melted  iron  runs 
into  little  cars,  and  is  carried,  still  molten, 
to  the  steel  furnaces.  There  it  is  changed  to 
steel,  and  sent  on  as  a great  white-hot 
chunk  to  the  rolling  mill,  to  be  rolled  out 
into  steel  rails  for  railroad  and  trolley  tracks, 
or  girders  for  bridges  and  skyscrapers,  or 
billets  (chunks)  for  the  wire  mill  or  the  nail 
mill.  A thousand  different  factories  use  the 
product  of  this  one  great  plant. 


Since  Chicago  is  so  near  to  the  stock  farms 
of  the  corn-growing  prairies,  it  slaughters 
more  meat  animals  than  any  other  city  in 
the  world.  An  English  traveler  said:  “To 
watch  an  animal  from  the  pen  to  the  tin 
(can)  is  an  extraordinary  experience.  You 
see  it  killed;  it  falls;  a conveyor  carries  it 
away;  it  is  flayed  (skinned)  while  you  wait; 
it  disappears.  Then,  suddenly,  it  is  an  open 
carcass;  it  passes  the  veterinary;  in  a few 
seconds  it  is  cut  up,  and  hurriedly  you  follow 
the  dwindling  carcass  that  is  no  longer  an 
ox,  but  fragments  of  meat;  you  see  the  meat 
shredded;  in  another  room  the  manicured 
girls  are  filling  the  shreds  into  tins,  and  the 
tin  is  closed  and  labeled.  A superior  force, 
which  is  called  organized  industry,  has  cut 
up  the  cattle  on  a traveling  belt  and  carried 
them  away.” 

Milwaukee,  like  Chicago,  is  a machinery 
and  trade  center;  it  has  also  large  factories 
manufacturing  leather  and  many  other  things. 

Cleveland,  like  Buffalo,  is  a city  of  machine 
shops,  steel  plants,  and  many  other  industries 
using  iron  and  wood.  Cleveland  and  the 
smaller  lake  ports  near  it  forward  each  year 
millions  of  tons  of  iron  ore  to  Pittsburgh, 
Youngstown,  Sharon,  and  other  iron  centers. 

324.  Standardization  and  the  machinery 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES  167 


Fig.  265.  _ The  Ford  Motor  Co.  plant,  Detroit,  Michigan,  and  some  of  the  workers.  Do  these  people  help  you? 


industry. — More  than  half  the  automobiles 
in  the  world  are  made  in  a little  triangle 
of  land  between  Saginaw  Bay,  Chicago,  and 
Cleveland. 

This  industry,  like  so  many  of  our  other 
manufacturing  industries,  has  grown  up 
because  methods  called  standardization  and 
specialization  have  been  used.  Standard- 
ized things  are  all  made  alike,  and  thus 
fit  the  place  for  which  they  were  intended. 
For  instance,  you  can  buy  cartridges  that 
will  fit  your  gun;  you  do  not  need  to  have 
them  made  especially  to  fit  it.  There  are 
standardized  needles  and  records  that  will 
fit  your  phonograph.  You  can  buy  ready 
made  a new  piece  that  will  replace  a broken 
part  in  your  automobile,  your  typewriter, 
your  reaper,  your  bicycle,  or  almost  any 
machine  in  your  factory.  A short  time  ago 
when  a part  was  broken,  another  had  to  be 
made  to  replace  it.  That  was  very  hard 
to  do,  and  made  things  costly.  Good 
mechanics  were  then  needed  in  every  part 
of  the  country  where  machinery  was  used. 

Now  that  standardization  has  come,  one 
little  town  in  Michigan  has  a plant  that 
makes  automobile  rims.  Another  town 
makes  axles;  another,  doors;  another,  bodies; 
another,  bearings;  another,  lamps;  and 
so  on,  until  almost  every  town  for  many 
miles  around  Detroit  is  busy  with  plants 


making  the  parts  of  automobiles.  These 
parts  may  be  shipped  to  factories  every- 
where, and  used  on  twenty  different  kinds 
of  cars. 

325.  Specialization  and  the  machinery 
industry. — When  a factory  has  begun  making 
a few  standardized  things,  a second  great 
advantage  appears,  viz.:  standardized  things 
can  be  made  easily  and  cheaply.  Therefore 
the  factory  specializes  on  one  or  at  most 
a few  standardized  things.  These  two 
practices  have  given  us  this  age  of  cheap 
machinery. 

326.  The  great  automobile  center. — By 

the  use  of  standardized  parts,  manufacturing 
becomes  a kind  of  assembling.  Perhaps  the 
most  wonderful  plant  of  this  kind  in  the 
world  is  the  Ford  automobile  plant,  where 
you  can  see  a car  put  together  in  a few  minutes 
by  a long  row  of  workmen.  First,  two  axles 
and  a frame  come  down  a chute  in  front  of 
several  men,  each  of  whom  turns  a bolt  or 
two,  and  then  an  endless  conveyor  takes  the 
frame  and  carries  it  forward  to  the  next 
man.  In  this  manner  the  car  passes  in  front 
of  a long  line  of  men,  each  of  whom  receives 
from  above  or  from  one  side  a part  which  he 
fastens  to  the  frame.  One  man  puts  on  com- 
pleted wheels  from  the  wheel  department; 
another,  the  case  that  covers  the  driving 
shaft;  another,  springs;  another,  some  other 


168 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


and  Chicago,  by  way  of 
either  Detroit  or  Cleveland, 
is  exactly  on  the  line  of  a 
railroad  running  fast  trains 
between  the  east  and  the 
west.  Iron  and  wood  of 
the  upper  lakes  and  coal  of 
the  lower  lakes  can  come 
by  water  to  every  lake  city. 
These  cities  are  on  the  very 
edge  of  the  greatest  food- 
producing  region  in  Amer- 

, , © Ewing  Gaiioway,  n.  y.  fCa.  They  have  a wholesome 

Fig.  266.  Cleveland  harbor.  Notice  the  lighthouses;  the  protecting 

breakwater;  a lake  steamer  sailing  out;  the  many  railroad  tracks;  coal  docks  climate,  and  the  summer  IS 
with  dumping  apparatus.  (Fig.  281.) 


part.  Finally  a completed  engine  from  the 
engine  department  swings  out  on  a little 
crane,  is  lowered  to  the  car,  and  quickly 
bolted  fast.  Next  the  gasoline  tank  with 
gasoline  in  it  is  bolted  fast,  and  the  skeleton 
car  that  has  not  yet  received  its  body  is 
ready  to  run  with  its  own  power,  and  to  be 
tested  out.  After  the  test  the  car  is  taken 
apart  and  packed  up  to  be  shipped,  perhaps 
to  the  very  end  of  the  earth,  and  there  it  is 
repaired  with  pieces  that  are  sent  out  from 
the  home  plant. 

The  automobile  industry  of  Detroit,  Tole- 
do, and  the  many  smaller  cities,  has  grown 
with  such  great  speed  that  between  1910  and 
1920,  Detroit,  the  automobile  center,  in- 
creased from  465,766  to  993,678  in  popula- 
tion, and  from  ninth  to  fourth  in  rank  among 
the  cities  of  the  United  States.  Does  this 
industry  affect  Detroit  alone?  Can  one 
part  of  our  country  have  good  business  all 
by  itself?  In  the  spring  of  1921,  the  manager 
of  the  Hood  River  Apple  Growers’  Associa- 
tion complained  that  Detroit  was  buying 
only  one  carload  of  boxed  apples  a week, 
because  the  automobile  business  was  dull 
and  the  workers  were  not  spending  money 
for  apples.  They  had  been  buying  five 
carloads  a day  when  business  was  good. 

327.  Future. — Will  the  demand  for  auto- 
mobiles and  other  machinery  continue? 
Will  these  industries  move  away  from  the 
Lake  District  where  they  are  so  thoroughly 
established?  Every  city  between  Buffalo 


neither  so  hot  nor  so  long 
as  that  of  regions  to  the  south.  These  cities 
being  located  in  a land  of  lakes,  both  big 
and  little,  are  provided  with  coolness  and 
recreation  as  well  as  with  cheap  freight  rates. 
Increasing  population  and  production  in  the 
regions  around  the  lakes  means,  of  course, 
more  traffic  over  the  lakes.  Meat,  grain, 
and  farm  supplies  will  continue  to  move  as 
they  do  now. 

328.  How  the  lakes  make  fruit  crops. — 
The  Lower  Lake  District  is  great  in  trade, 
great  in  manufacture,  and  it  also  has  an 
interesting  agriculture. 

Owing  to  the  lakes,  this  region  rivals 
California  in  the  amount  of  fruit  it  produces. 
One  of  the  greatest  dangers  to  fruit  crops  in 
the  United  States  is  the  spring  frost  that  kills 
the  buds  and  flowers  of  the  blooming  trees. 
The  lakes  reduce  the  danger  from  spring 
freezing,  because  they  are  full  of  ice  and  cold 
water  which  keep  the  land  near  them  cool 
until  the  end  of  May.  Trees  do  not  put 
forth  leaves  and  buds  in  cool  weather,  so 
the  danger  of  frosts  is  mostly  past  before 
orchards  along  the  shores  of  Lakes  Ontario 
and  Erie  begin  to  bud.  Often  there  are 
good  crops  of  fruit  near  the  lakes  in  the 
same  season  when  frosts  kill  the  crop  twenty 
miles  inland.  For  this  reason,  orchards  of 
apples,  peaches,  and  cherries  almost  touch 
each  other  for  miles  and  miles  along  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 

In  June  and  July,  men  and  women,  boys 
and  girls  are  picking  wagonloads  of  cher- 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES  169 


Photo.  J.  C.  Allen 

Fig.  268.  Cornfields,  dairy  barns,  and  silos  at  Delavan,  Wis. 


ries  to  send  to  neighboring 
canneries.  In  August  and 
September,  peaches  are 
picked,  graded,  packed  in 
boxes  and  baskets,  and  sent 
off  by  carloads  to  the  city 
markets.  After  the  peaches 
are  picked,  the  apple  har- 
vest begins,  and  for  a month 
or  six  weeks  everyone  who 
can  be  persuaded  to  work  is 
picking  and  sorting  apples. 

Thousands  of  carloads  of  apples  are  shipped 
from  western  New  York  to  the  markets  and 
cold-storage  plants  of  cities  as  far  distant  as 
Boston,  New  Orleans,  and  Minneapolis. 

Across  the  Niagara  River,  in  the  little 
peninsula  between  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  and 
Huron,  the  Canadians  are  likewise  busy  with 
crops  of  fruit. 

The  waters  of  Lake  Michigan  also  protect 
the  many  orchards  of  peaches,  apples,  and 
cherries  that  grow  close  together  along  the 
eastern  shore.  One  morning  in  January, 
1920,  the  thermometer  at  Grand  Haven, 
Michigan,  was  22°  F.,  while  directly  across 
the  lake  at  Milwaukee  it  was  0°.  At  this 
time  the  lake  surface  had  no  ice  and  the 
water  temperature  was,  therefore,  only  32°, 
so  that  the  slow-blowing  southwesterly  wind 
was  warmed  by  the  water  in  crossing  the 
lake.  A body  of  water  as  small  as  Green  Bay 
protects  fruit  crops,  and  the  little  peninsula 
between  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan  has 
many  cherry  orchards.  Cherries  for  the 


Fig.  267.  Value  of  dairy  products  produced  for  sale. 
Compare  the  two  ends  of  the  Appalachian  Plateau. 
Find  the  Adirondacks;  the  Upper  Lake  District. 


canning  factory  are  the  chief  industry  of  the 
Leelanau  Peninsula  just  across  the  lake. 

The  grape  crop  shows  another  example  of 
the  influence  of  water  on  climate  and  crops. 
Nearly  all  of  the  grapes  grown  east  of  Cali- 
fornia, for  shipment  to  market,  are  produced 
along  the  north  and  south  shores  of  Lake 
Erie,  especially  along  the  eastern  end,  and 
along  the  several  long,  slender  lakes,  called 
finger  lakes,  in  west  central  New  York. 
(Figs.  30,  204.)  In  these  districts  vineyards 
often  join  each  other  for  miles  along  the  lake 
shores.  If  you  live  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
read  the  address  on  a basket  of  grapes  that 
is  for  sale  in  October  or  November. 

Fruit  crops  are  also  grown  on  the  islands 
in  Lake  Erie  near  Sandusky,  and  on  the 
two  peninsulas  that  reach  into  Lake  Superior. 

329.  Northern  agriculture. — Although  in 
its  southern  part,  this  district  touches  the 
Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt,  only  a 
little  corn  is  grown  in  it.  The  coolness  of 
the  lake  waters  causes  com  to  be  absent 
from  the  lake-shore  farms,  although  it  may 
be  grown  only  a few  miles  farther  inland. 
Instead  of  corn,  most  of  the  farmers  grow 
potatoes,  sugar  beets,  and  navy  beans  (Fig. 
42).  These  three  crops  do  well  where  it  is 
too  cool  for  corn.  Many  farmers  also  grow 
fields  of  peas,  cabbage,  tomatoes,  and  sugar 
corn  (Sec.  247),  all  of  which  are  taken  to 
the  canneries  that  are  so  common  in  the 
Ontario  plain  and  in  southern  Michigan 
and  lower  Wisconsin.  More  work  is  required 
to  grow  these  crops  than  to  grow  corn,  oats, 
and  hay,  but  the  return  per  acre  is  greater. 
For  this  reason  we  say  the  agriculture  is  more 


170 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


intensive  than  that  of  the 
corn,  oats,  and  hay  farms. 

330.  Dairying. — Next  to 
the  fruit  industry  and  the 
trucking  industry,  dairying 
is  the  chief  industry  of  the 
entire  region  from  Quebec  to 
the  suburbs  of  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Paul.  Why  do  the 
farmers  in  the  whole  of  this 
long  region  keep  cows?  Be- 
cause cows  will  help  the 
farmer  to  make  a living  on  a 


dairying  we  can  see  how 
teamwork,  or  organization, 
helps  industry.  Wisconsin 
has  been  the  leading  dairying 
state  in  the  United  States, 
partly  because  the  state  agri- 
cultural college  has  given  so 
many  extension  courses  in 
dairying,  that  nearly  every 
farmer  in  the  state  knows 
how  to  take  care  of  cows, 
milk,  and  butter.  Butter 


Courtesy  Minnesota  Forest  Service  and  cheese  from  Wisconsin 

small,  rough  farm  in  a place  £Se2siperi?f  and  Minnesota  are  used  in 

where  the  winter  is  long  and  by  the  forest  fires  of  one  year.  thousands  of  homes  in  New 
the  summer  is  cool. 


On  the  wide,  level 
stretches  of  Kansas  and  Texas,  a farmer  can 
make  his  living  by  selling  grain  or  feeding 
meat  animals;  but  in  the  sections  made 
hilly  by  glaciers,  a farmer  having  a hundred 
acres  of  land  often  has  only  fifty  acres  that 
are  fit  to  plow,  the  rest  being  woodlands  or 
pasture.  That  farmer  keeps  cows,  and  has 
milk  to  sell  daily  instead  of  meat  to  sell 
once  a year.  The  dairy  farm  has  a pasture 
field,  a hay  field,  an  oat  field,  and  sometimes 
a field  of  beets  of  a big,  coarse  kind  that 
cattle  like  to  eat.  The  only  thing  sold  from 
a farm  like  this  is  milk,  and  from  time  to  time 
some  calves  or  cows. 

331.  The  downs  and  ups  of  agriculture. — 
Between  1910  and  1920,  thousands  of  farms 
in  this  region  were  abandoned  because  the 
people  could  make  more  money  in  the  auto- 
mobile and  other  factories.  As  the  number 
of  our  people  increases,  and  the  rising  price 
of  food  makes  us  give  more  attention  to  farm- 
ing, this  section  can  greatly  increase  the 
amount  of  fruit  and  vegetables  grown  in 
the  plains  along  the  lakes.  It  can  also  pro- 
duce many  more  potatoes  and  much  more 
butter  and  cheese  in  the  hilly  farms  of  Wis- 
consin and  Michigan,  of  Ontario  and  Quebec. 

We  find  the  dairying  industry  in  the  part 
of  New  York  west  of  the  Adirondacks,  and 
in  the  part  of  Vermont  that  drains  toward  the 
St.  Lawrence.  It  is  especially  important  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  Wisconsin. 

332.  Government  aid  to  industry. — In 


England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States. 
But  the  Canadians  have  beaten  the  Amer- 
icans in  the  export  of  cheese  to  Europe, 
because  they  guarantee  the  quality  of  their 
goods.  In  the  United  States,  any  person 
can  send  what  he  pleases  to  Europe. 
Some  people  have  sent  cheeses  that  were 
good  on  the  outside  but  poor  on  the  inside, 
so  that  the  name  ‘‘Yankee  Cheese”  means 
in  England  bad  cheese.  The  Canadian 
Government  will  not  let  any  cheese  go  out 
unless  it  has  been  officially  inspected  and 
stamped.  This  guarantee  has  won  the 
market,  and  Ontario  and  Quebec  alone 
export  much  more  cheese  than  the  whole  of 
the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  From  your  charts  and  pictures  make  a list  of 
the  products  of  this  region,  grouping  them  as  follows: 
(a)  Farm  products;  (6)  Orchard  products;  (c)  Dairy 
products;  (d)  Manufactured  products.  Add  to  the 
list  any  commodity  produced  by  the  region  but  not 
illustrated  in  the  text.  2.  Name  the  place  in  this 
region  you  most  desire  to  visit.  Why?  3.  How  many 
names  of  automobiles  can  you  quickly  recall?  Where 
was  each  car  manufactured?  4.  Why  were  so  many 
produced  in  the  Great  Lakes  Region?  5.  Were  you 
planting  an  orchard,  would  you  plant  it  near  Mil- 
waukee or  Muskegon?  Give  some  good  reasons  for 
your  answer.  6.  How  do  you  account  for  the  enor- 


Fi«.  270.  Dairy  cows  in  Canada. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES  171 


mous  growth  (Figs.  237,  267,  268,  270)  of  the  dairy 
industry  about  the  Great  Lakes? 

7.  Were  it  possible,  would  you  recommend  that  the 
Great  Lakes  be  drained  and  their  beds  be  converted 
into  farms?  Give  three  good  reasons  for  your  answer. 
8.  From  Fig.  210  suggest  two  possible  routes  by  which 
ocean-going  steamers  may  in  the  future  reach  Chicago. 
What  improvements  must  be  made  in  each  route 
before  this  can  be  possible?  9.  Tell  something  about 
standardized  machinery.  Did  George  Washington 
have  any?  Does  the  President  now?  10.  Give  three 
good  reasons  why  Chicago  is  second  in  size  among 
the  cities  of  the  United  States.  11.  Why  does  most  of 
the  lake  trade  go  eastward  through  the  Valley  of  the 
Mohawk  rather  than  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence? 

12.  Explain  how  a large  lake  makes  climate  cooler 
and  also  warmer? 

13.  Complete  the  following  outline  on  the  cities  in 
this  region: 


Name  of  Citt. 

Location. 

Facts  I Should  Remember. 

14.  Debate  in  your  class  the  following  question: 
Resolved,  that  the  governments  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  set  aside  Niagara  Falls  as  an  inter- 
national park,  and  permit  no  more  of  the  river’s  waters 
to  be  diverted  for  power  purposes. 

Part  II. — The  Upper  Lake  Region 

333.  A region  desolated  but  rich. — The 
Upper  Lake  Region  is  a land  of  old,  worn- 
down  mountains,  of  very  hard  rocks,  and 
of  shallow  soil.  The  glaciers  have  scraped 
the  surface,  piled  stones  upon  it,  and 
made  thousands  of  swamps,  ponds,  and  lakes. 
Minnesota  alone  is  said  to  have  ten  thousand 
lakes  and  ponds. 

It  was  once  a land  of  fine  forests,  but  most 
of  the  big  trees  have  been  cut.  Sometimes 
forest  fires,  leaping  from  treetop  to  treetop, 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  271.  This  desert  made  by  American  neglect,  was 
once  a rich  forest  of  pine.  Dark,  spongy  earth  once 
covered  the  stones  in  front  of  the  stump.  Tell  what  has 
happened.  What  would  have  prevented  it?  (Fig.  410.) 


Fig.  272.  A steam  shovel  loading  freight  cars  in  an 
open  pit  iron  mine  on  the  Mesaba  Range,  Minn.  How 
does  the  freight  train  get  out  of  the  hole? 


have  burned  forests,  railroads,  towns,  and 
even  people.  In  some  places  the  fires  killed 
every  tree,  and  the  earth,  no  longer  held  in 
place  by  roots,  has  been  washed  away,  leav- 
ing bare  round  knobs  of  granite  on  which 
sometimes  the  stumps  of  the  original  forests 
still  stand,  dry  as  old  bones.  Lumbering  still 
goes  on,  and  much  furniture  is  made  in  the 
cities  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan,  some 
of  which  are  in  the  Lower  Lake  District. 

Some  of  the  once,  forested  land  is  being 
turned  into  farms,  but  the  rough  land  here, 
as  elsewhere,  naturally  belongs  in  forests. 
Parts  of  the  cut-over  land  have  already  been 
taken  by  the  states  as  state  forests,  and  by 
the  nation  as  national  forests,  but  here,  as 
in  many  other  parts  of  our  country,  it  will 
take  many,  many  years  of  care  to  make  these 
forests  half  as  good  as  they  were  when  the 
white  men  first  began  chopping  at  our  wood- 
lands, the  richest  in  the  world. 

334.  Mines. — The  long  peninsula  that 
projects  into  Lake  Superior  has  many  cop- 
per mines,  and  for  a long  time  Michigan 
was  the  leading  copper-producing  state  in 
the  country,  but  it  has  since  been  surpassed 
by  Montana  and  Arizona. 

The  greatest  iron-mining  region  in  the 
world  is  near  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Superior.  Here  many  thousands  of  newly- 
arrived  Europeans  live  in  prosperous  mining 
towns  scattered  around  in  the  wild  woods. 
There  are  whole  mountain  ranges  of  iron  ore 


172 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


VERMILION 

RANGE. 


[ichipicoten. 


MOOSE 
MOUNT  ALH 


[Sault  Ste. Marie 


\vpcrior( 


MFNOMlNE( 

\range 


JO  SYDNEVMINES, 


"Rochester 


baraboc 

/RANGE 


.Buffalo 


Detroit 


CleveW; 

Veubenv 


SeVhleh! 

DISTRICT 


lake  sup.moN.oni 


Fig.  273.  A map  showing  the  movement  of  iron  ore  from  the  mines  of  the 
Upper  Lake  Region  to  the  furnaces.  Note  that  the  stream  of  ore  grows  steadily 
less  as  various  cities  draw  from  it.  Where  is  the  iron  from  this  ore  used? 


has  already  begun  in  these 
cities. 

What  will  be  the  results  if 
the  Hudson  Bay  route  to 
Europe  succeeds  as  a grain 
carrier?  (Sec.  101.)  If  the 
plan  for  a ship  canal  from 
Georgian  Bay  to  the  St. 
Lawrence  comes  to  pass? 
Or  if  the  enlarged  Welland 
Canal  permits  the  passage 
of  ocean  steamships? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  explanation  can  you 
offer  for  the  many  small  lakes 
and  swamps  dotting  this  section? 
2.  Name  another  region  which 
you  have  studied  where  exten- 
sive areas  must  be  drained  before 


so  soft  and  so  near  the  surface  that  the 
steam-shovel  can  scoop  it  up  by  the  ton  and 
drop  it  into  cars,  which  carry  it  to  the  piers 
on  Lake  Superior.  At  the  pier  the  brake- 
man  pulls  a lever  which  opens  the  bottom 
of  the  car,  so  that  the  ore  drops  through 
into  bins.  A big  steamer  comes  alongside, 
and  in  a few  hours  ten  thousand  tons  of  ore 
drop  with  a roaring  noise  into  the  great  hold, 
and  the  ship  steams  away  to  the  Lower 
Lakes.  (Figs.  259,  281.) 

Four  American  ports  on  Lake  Superior 
ship  nearly  fifty  million  tons  of  iron  ore  a 
year,  as  much  as  four-fifths  of  the  total 
production  of  the  United  States,  and  more 
than  the  entire  production  of  any  two  foreign 
countries. 

335.  Cities. — Name  the  port  cities  at  the 
western  part  of  Lake  Superior.  We  can 
think  of  these  Lake  Superior  ports  as  funnels 
through  which  the  northwest  pours  its 
products  to  the  eastward.  These  products — 
grain,  iron  ore,  and  lumber — are  very  bulky 
and  are  mostly  handled  by  machinery,  and, 
therefore,  do  not  employ  so  many  people  as 
are  needed  to  handle  manufactures. 

336.  Future.— Will  the  iron-ore  business 
increase?  What  will  be  the  influence  of  more 
population  and  more  business  in  the  Northern 
Wheat  Belt  upon  the  cities  near  the  western 
end  of  Lake  Superior?  Some  manufacturing 


they  can  be  cultivated.  3.  Would  you  like  to  live  near 
some  small  lakes?  Why?  4.  Wffiat  products  will  the 
lock  tender’s  boy  in  the  Soo  Canal  see  the  lake  steamers 
carry  on  their  voyage  eastward?  westward? 

5.  Compare  the  Lake  Districts  as  follows: 


Topic. 

Upper  Lake 
District. 

Lower  Lake 
District. 

Surface 

Soil 

Chief  industries .... 
Products  of  farms. . . 
Products  of  forests. . 
Products  of  mines . . 
Products  of  mills . . . 

6.  Give  some  points  of  similarity  between  the 
method  of  mining  iron  (Fig.  272)  and  the  mining  of 
copper  (Fig.  150  B).  7.  Name  and  locate  four  impor- 
tant cities  of  the  Upper  Lake  Region.  8.  What  raw 
materials  constitute  the  bulk  of  their  trade?  9.  How 
does  their  position  account  for  their  growth? 

10.  Which  canal,  the  Soo  or  Welland,  handles  the 
bulk  of  the  lake  traffic?  Why?  11.  Write  a letter 
as  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Forestry  to  the 
people  of  the  upper  lakes,  telling  what  their  forest 
areas  need.  12.  Read  one  of  Stewart  Edward  White’s 
interesting  lumber  stories  of  Michigan,  and  find  out 
what  were  the  chief  kinds  of  lumber  secured. 

Fig.  274.  The  five  leading  iron 
ore  producing  states  (1919-20). 

Tons 

A.  Minnesota 37,860,000 

B.  Michigan 16,350,000 

C.  Alabama 5,440,000 

D.  Wisconsin 930,000 

E.  New  York 890,000 

How  much  came  from  the  Lake 
Superior  District?  How  much 
from  the  Great  Appalachian 

Valley? 


THE  ERIE  CANAL  BELT 


173 


THE  ERIE  CANAL  BELT 

337.  Where  it  is. — With  your  finger,  trace 
on  the  map  the  location  of  the  Erie  Canal 
Belt.  (Fig.  210.)  What  great  bodies  of  water 
are  at  its  ends?  Find  cities  at  the  western  end. 
Find  cities  at  the  southeastern  end.  (Fig.  204.) 

338.  The  kind  of  region  it  is. — Think  a 
moment  about  the  great  volume  of  trade  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Lower  Lake  Regions. 
Some  of  these  goods  pass  out  through  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  but  a great  many  more 
reach  the  sea  by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal  Belt. 

This  region,  then,  like  that  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  is  a trade-route  region.  Try  to  see  a 
picture  of  goods  and  raw  materials  continu- 
ally passing  into  this  region  from  other 
regions.  Imagine  millions  of  people  work- 
ing to  keep  these  goods  moving,  and  thou- 
sands of  boats  and  trains  carrying  the  goods 
from  one  end  of  the  region  to  the  other  end. 
If  you  can  think  of  the  Erie  Canal  Belt  as 

an  avenue  or  artery 
along  which,  by 
night  as  well  as  by 
day,  goods  and  raw 
materials  are  for- 
ever passing,  pass- 
ing, you  will  realize 

6 what  a very  busy 

region  it  is.  Because  of  this  and  other 
reasons,  the  Erie  Canal  Belt  is  also  a great 
industrial  and  manufacturing  region.  Nu- 
merous thriving  cities  are  situated  within 
its  bounds. 

339.  New  York  City. — We  shall  need  to 
study  New  York  City  from  three  points  of 
view:  (1)  As  a crowded  city,  the  center  of  a 
metropolitan  district  of  many  cities.  (2) 
As  a great  port.  (3)  As  a great  manufac- 
turing center. 

(1)  New  York,  the  crowded  city. — The 
City  of  New  York  was  founded  at  the  lower 
end  of  Manhattan  Island.  In  1800  it  had 
60,000  people;  Philadelphia  then  had  69,000; 
Baltimore,  26,000.  The  people  of  New  York 
thought  that  it  would  be  a great  advantage 
to  them  if  there  were  a trade  route  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  their  city,  because  then 
New  York  would  become  the  gateway  of 


Photo.  Brown  Bros..  N.  Y. 


Fig.  276.  An  airplane  view  of  Ellis  Island,  New  York 
harbor,  where  immigrants  land.  What  do  you  see  in 
the  background? 


the  commerce  of  the  Lake  Regions.  So  they 
set  to  work  to  build  the  Erie  Canal,  which 
would  connect  the  Hudson  River  with  Lake 
Erie.  The  task  was  completed  in  1825. 
The  first  boat  to  go  through  the  Erie  Canal 
brought  a cask  of  water  from  Lake  Erie,  and 
the  governor  of  the  state,  with  great  cere- 
mony, emptied  the  water  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  as  a symbol  of  the  union  of  the  two 
bodies  of  water.  The  canal  has  recently  been 
rebuilt  so  that  it  can  carry  much  larger 
boats.  It  is  now  called  the  Barge  Canal. 

Thus  did  New  York  City  secure  the  best 
route  to  the  Great  Lakes,  and  then  the  city 
began  to  grow  more  rapidly  than  any  other 
in  America.  To-day  it  is  one  of  the  most 
crowded  places  in  the  world. 


homes.  In- 
stead, they 
live  in  build- 
ings that  are 
ten  or  twelve 
stories  high. 
Each  story 
is  divided 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  277.  General  Grant’s  Tomb  over- 
looking the  Hudson,  on  the  west  side 
of  Manhattan  Island,  New  York  City. 
What  is  there  in  this  picture  to  remind 
you  of  a cause  of  New  York’s  com- 
mercial greatness?  (Fig.  278.) 


174 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


Fig.  278.  New  York  and  surrounding  cities  as  the  airman  sees  them.  Trace  the  limits  of  Greater  New  York. 
Point  out  its  five  boroughs.  Which  are  on  islands?  What  two  seashore  resorts  are  within  the  city  limits?  Point 
out  some  drowned  valleys.  Why  has  a new  harbor  in  Jamaica  Bay  been  planned?  Trace  a state  boundary. 

Where  would  you  expect  to  find  lighthouses? 


into  several  family  apartments.  Most  New 
York  children  have  only  the  city  street  for  a 
playground,  unless  they  are  fortunate  enough 
to  live  near  a park  or  public  playground. 

. Most  of  the  steamers  that  carry  passengers 
from  various  parts  of  Europe  to  the  United 
States  arrive  at  New  York,  so  most  of  our 
immigrants  land  there.  Sometimes  5,000 
and  even  10,000  have  arrived  in  a single 
day.  Many  stay  in  New  York,  so  the  city 
contains  many  foreign-born  people,  repre- 
senting fifty  different  races.  More  Italians 
live  in  New  York  City  than  in  any  Italian 
city.  In  one  section  of  New  York  the  people 
speak  Greek;  in  another,  Spanish;  in  another, 
Rumanian;  in  another,  French;  in  another, 
German;  in  another,  Chinese;  in  another, 
Russian.  There  are  restaurants  that  serve 
food  cooked  as  it  is  cooked  in  the  home 
countries.  The  children  from  these  foreign 
colonies  go  to  the  public  schools,  where  they 
learn  English,  and  soon  become  Americans. 


340.  A cluster  of  cities. — There  was  not 
enough  room  on  Manhattan  Island  for  so 
many  people,  so  towns  sprang  up  on  Long 
Island  and  on  the  mainlands  of  New  York 
State  and  New  Jersey.  Now  the  City  of 
Greater  New  York  includes  Brooklyn  and 
Queens  to  the  east,  Richmond  to  the  south, 
and  the  Bronx  to  the  north. 

Most  of  the  people  who  live  in  this  cluster 
of  cities,  and  many  others  besides,  go  each 
day  to  work  in  Manhattan.  Every  means  of 
transportation  is  taxed  by  big  crowds.  Long 
trains  of  cars  roar  through  the  New  York  sub- 
ways every  two  minutes  during  the  morning 
and  afternoon  hours  when  travel  is  greatest. 
Every  seat  of  the  long  train  is  filled,  and 
people  stand  packed  in  the  aisles.  Some- 
times the  guards  crowd  the  people  into  the 
cars  until  the  doors  can  scarcely  be  shut. 

(2)  A great  port. — First,  we  need  to  con- 
sider the  water  front,  of  which  Manhattan 
Island  and  Brooklyn  have  many  miles. 


THE  ERIE  CANAL  BELT 


173 


Wharves  and  docks  line  much  of  this  water 
front;  this  makes  a very  fine  place  for 
ships  to  come.  Just  as  the  people  of  Brook- 
lyn, the  Bronx,  and  the  neighboring  cities 
and  suburbs  rush  to  Manhattan  Island  every 
day,  so  the  ships  from  almost  every  land 
steam  past  Sandy  Hook  lighthouse  and  into 
the  splendid  harbor.  Here  the  ocean  steamer 
meets  coastwise  vessel,  river  boat,  barge, 
freight  car,  express  car,  truck,  and  wagon. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  on  the  wharves  and 
docks  and  in  the  warehouses  of  the  city 
you  will  find  assembled  great  stores  of 
wheat,  meat,  corn,  flour,  and  other  com- 
modities brought  there  from  the  rich  interior 
of  our  continent?  The  goods  came  by  many 
railroads  and  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  Hudson  River,  and  the  Barge  Canal.  The 
Mohawk  River  cuts  through  the  wall  of  the 
highlands  to  the  northwest  of  New  York, 
and  furnishes  an  open  highway  for  trade 
by  boat  and  by  rail.  This  water  route  from 
the  interior  to  New  York  City  can  carry 
freight  more  cheaply  than  the  railroads  can. 
By  water  and  by  rail  great  masses  of  goods 
arrive  at  the  port  of  New  York  for  export. 

Ships  from  everywhere  arrive  at  the  docks 
to  take  goods  away,  and  these  ships  bring 
with  them  the  things  that  we  import.  Be- 
cause shiploads  of  cloth,  machinery,  and 
the  fine  manufactures  of  Europe  arrive  in 
New  York,  it  is  the  right  place  at  which 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.Y. 


Fig.  279.  Workers  in  a New  York  clothing  factory 
cutting  one  hundred  layers  of  cloth  with  the  electric 
cutter.  Why  does  this  make  suits  cheaper? 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  280.  A baseball  game  with  Harvard,  in  front  of 
the  Library  at  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

to  build  wholesale  stores,  where  goods  such 
as  these  can  be  bought  and  sold. 

(3)  A great  manufacturing  center. — Trade 
makes  manufacture.  Since  New  York  be- 
came the  greatest  wholesale  market  in  the 
country,  it  was  naturally  a good  place  for 
manufacturers  to  sell  goods.  This  fact 
encouraged  men  to  build  factories  there. 
The  ships,  railroads,  and  canals  made  it  easy 
for  manufacturers  to  get  raw  materials 
and  for  workers  to  get  food.  Thus  New  York 
has  become  the  greatest  manufacturing  city 
in  North  America. 

It  is  easy,  too,  to  get  coal  for  manufac- 
turing, because  the  Pennsylvania  coal  fields 
are  so  near.  Other  advantages  of  location 
are  healthful  climate  and  near-by  recrea- 
tion, which  help  to  keep  people  strong  and 
vigorous.  New  York  City  is  so  close  to  the 
sea  that  it  is  cooler  than  many  places  farther 
inland.  Seashore  resorts  on  Long  Island 
are  within  the  city  limits.  People  can  go  to 
Coney  Island  (Fig.  278)  and  to  other  shore 
places  on  trolley  cars.  Bathing  beaches  in 
New  Jersey  are  also  near  by.  Beautiful 
spots  in  the  Adirondack  and  Appalachian 
plateaus  and  the  many  resorts  of  New  Eng- 
land attract  people  for  vacation  trips. 

341.  Industries. — The  chief  industry  of 
the  City  of  New  York  is  the  clothing  industry. 
The  method  of  making  a suit  of  clothes  has 
been  greatly  changed  since  the  time  when 
a tailor  made  the  whole  suit.  Now  the  work 
is  so  divided  that  forty  people  may  do  some- 


176 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


© Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  281.  Buffalo  harbor.  In  the  distance  are  the 
breakwater  and  the  grain  elevators.  In  the  foreground 
an  unloading  machine  is  about  to  plunge  its  clam-shell 
grab  bucket  down  into  the  hold  of  the  long  freight 
steamer  to  bring  up  five  tons  of  ore. 

thing  to  a suit  before  it  is  finished.  A single 
worker  runs  an  electric  cutter  that  may  cut 
out  a hundred  suits  at  once;  another  worker 
makes  a part  of  a sleeve;  another  finishes 
the  sleeve;  another  makes  buttonholes; 
another  sews  on  buttons;  another  finishes 
the  collar.  Thousands  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  men  and  women  are  busy  in  New  York 
City  clothing  factories,  some  of  which  are 
on  upper  floors  on  famous  Broadway  itself. 

So  many  magazines,  newspapers,  and  books 
are  published  in  New  York  that  the  city  is 
one  of  the  greatest  publishing  centers  in  this 
country.  So  varied  are  the  manufactures 
near  New  York,  ranging  from  lead-pencils 
to  steamships,  that  it  would  be  hard  to  name 
something  that  is  not  manufactured  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson.  All  these  indus- 
tries help  to  make  New  York  the  huge  city 
it  is. 

342.  Skyscrapers. — To  accommodate  the 
great  masses  of  workers,  office  buildings 
are  often  built  to  a height  of  twenty  or 
thirty  stories.  The  Woolworth  Building  has 
fifty-one  floors  of  offices.  It  is  so  high  that 
passengers  must  use  two  elevators  to  reach 
the  top,  changing  cars  at  the  fortieth  floor. 

343.  Travelers. — Thousands  of  people  from 
all  parts  of  the  country  go  to  New  York 
every  year.  They  go  to  transact  business, 


and  to  see  the  sights  of  this  rich,  crowded, 
busy  metropolis,  and  to  walk  along  its 
streets.  Broadway  is  so  brightly  lighted  at 
night  that  it  is  called  the  Great  White  Way. 

New  York  is  the  greatest  travel  center 
in  the  United  States.  Every  day  express 
trains  leave  for  distant  parts  of  our  country: 
Key  West,  Eastport,  Maine,  San  Diego, 
Seattle,  and  all  big  intermediate  places.  As 
the  city  is  the  leading  port  of  the  United 
States,  its  hotels  are  crowded  with  boat 
travelers,  who  are  either  going  abroad  or 
coming  from  some  other  port  of  the  world. 

344.  Neighboring  cities. — The  many  other 
cities  which  have  grown  up  around  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  all  share  the  oppor- 
tunities for  trade  and  manufacture  that  are 
at  New  York.  Across  the  Hudson,  opposite 
New  York,  there  is  a settlement  that  seems 
to  be  one  city,  but  it  is  so  long  that  it  is 
called  by  three  names  and  has  three  city 
governments:  Jersey  City  is  the  central 
part;  Bayonne,  the  southern ; and  Hoboken, 
the  northern.  A little  farther  away,  to  the 
west,  are  the  factory  cities  of  Newark  and 
Paterson;  and  scattered  around  are  many 
suburban  towns,  from  which  each  morning 
thousands  of  business  men  go  to  work  in 
New  York  City. 

345.  A string  of  cities. — The  great  water- 
way which  made  so  many  large  cities  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  has  also  caused  cities 
to  spring  up,  almost  like  a string  of  beads, 
along  its  entire  course.  Buffalo,  at  the  west- 


Fig.  282.  Buffalo  and  its  vicinity.  Can  you  tell  how 
the  Erie  Canal  and  the  Barge  Canal  have  made  Buffalo 
the  largest  city  of  New  York  except  New  York  City. 


THE  ERIE  CANAL  BELT 


177 


em  end,  has  become  the  second  city  of  New 
York  State,  and  the  twelfth  in  the  United 
States.  Buffalo  is  a large  city  partly  because 
so  many  people  are  needed  to  help  with  load- 
ing and  unloading  ships  and  cars  of  goods 
bound  for  some  distant  place.  The  manufac- 
tured goods  (Sec.  340)  and  raw  materials 
from  foreign  countries,  such  as  sugar,  wool, 
rubber,  skins,  varnish,  and  gums,  come  to 
New  York  at  one  end  of  this  route.  At 
Buffalo,  the  other  end  of  this  great  trade 
route,  lake  steamers  unload  lumber  and 
iron  ore  from  the  upper  lakes;  wheat  from 
the  Wheat  Region;  and  com,  oats,  and  meat 
from  the  Central  Farming  Region.  With  all 
these  raw  materials,  it  is  natural  that  Buffalo 
should  have  many  manufactures  of  wood, 
iron,  and  machinery,  as  well  as  flour-milling 
and  meat-packing  industries. 

The  cities  along  the  route  from  New  York 
to  Buffalo  manufacture  many  interesting 
specialties.  Troy  makes  nearly  all  the  collars 
and  cuffs  that  are  used  in  the  United  States. 
There  is  a story  that  the  industry  started 
there  because  a clergyman’s  wife  in  that 
town  made  and  sold  collars  that  were  not 
attached  to  shirts.  This  was  such  a practical 
idea  that  the  collar  industry  grew  in  Troy. 

At  Cohoes,  an  enterprising  man  learned  to 
hitch  a knitting  machine  to  a water  wheel, 
and  thus  started  power  knitting  mills. 
Now  knitting  mills  give  employment  to 
many  thousands  in  every  large  town  along 
the  Mohawk  River,  except  Schenectady. 

In  Schenectady  nearly  everybody  works  in 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 
Fig.  284.  A view  of  the  Barge  Canal  crossing  New  York 
State.  How  many  important  things  can  you  pick  out 
in  this  picture? 

machine  shops,  making  locomotives  and 
electrical  machinery  for  use  all  over  the 
United  States  and  in  many  foreign  countries. 

A few  miles  away,  near  the  foot  of  the 
Adirondacks,  are  the  two  towns  of  Johnstown 
and  Gloversville.  They  were  settled  about 
1750  by  Scotch  glovemakers,  and  to  this 
day  glove-making  is  the  chief  source  of  in- 
come there.  Gloves  are  cut  out  by  machinery 
in  factories,  and  are  then  sent  to  the  homes 
of  the  people,  where  they  are  finished  on 
electric  sewing  machines. 

At  Solvay,  a suburb  of  Syracuse,  farther 
to  the  westward,  is  the  chief 
industry  of  this  long  nar- 
row district  that  has  a local 
supply  of  raw  material. 
Salt  found  nearby  is  brought 
to  the  factory  by  gravity. 
Water  flows  through  a pipe 
from  a lake  down  into  a 
salt  well,  dissolves  some  of 
the  salt  and  flows  out 
through  another  pipe  line 
down  to  the  factory.  Chem- 
ical products  are  made  from 
this  salt. 


Fig.  283.  A view  of  the  works  of  the  General  Electric  Company  at  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.  Why  is  this  a good  location  for  a machine-manufacturing  plant? 


178 


THE  TRADE  ROUTE  REGIONS 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  285.  Court  Street  Bridge  over  the  Genesee  River  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.  What  do  you  see  about  this  river 

that  helps  to  explain  why  a city  grew  up  here. 


Still  farther  westward  is  Rochester,  where 
the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River  give  power  at 
the  same  place  that  the  canal  gives  transpor- 
tation. This  city,  like  New  York,  makes 
much  fine  clothing,  and  it  is  the  greatest 
center  in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of 
cameras  and  photographic  materials,  and 
for  growing  young  fruit  trees. 

346.  Few  farms. — The  farms  of  the  Hud- 
son and  the  Mohawk  valleys  produce  a 
great  deal  of  milk  and  many  apples.  In 
Sections  328-331  we  read  about  the  farming 
on  the  lakeshore  plain  west  of  the  Mohawk. 

347.  Resources  for  the  future. — The  ad- 
vantages that  have  made  the  remarkable 
string  of  cities  extending  from  the  sea  to  the 
lake  are  permanent  advantages.  In  this  re- 
gion it  will  continue  to  be  easy  to  get  raw 
materials  for  factories  and  food  for  the  work- 
ers. From  this  region  it  will  be  easy  to  ship 
goods  over  the  sea  to  foreign  countries,  and 
over  the  canal,  the  lakes,  and  the  railroads 
to  the  interior  of  North  America.  Good 
drinking  water  for  the  cities  is  to  be  had 
in  the  neighboring  highlands. 

The  Erie  Canal  Belt  has  good  resources 
for  power  to  turn  its  factory  wheels.  Elec- 
trical energy  from  power  plants  at  Niagara 
Falls  is  now  carried  by  wire  over  the  whole 
section  between  Detroit  on  the  west  and 
Syracuse  on  the  east.  If  New  York  and 


the  cities  on  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk 
grow  tired  of  paying  freight  on  coal  from 
Pennsylvania,  they  can  get  power  by  wire 
from  plants  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pittsburgh 
coal  mine  300  miles  distant,  or  by  wire  from 
water-power  plants  in  the  northeastern  high- 
lands 300  miles  distant,  or  even  from  Niag- 
ara to  the  St.  Lawrence.  Power  has  been 
carried  over  400  miles  by  wire  from  our 
western  mountains.  On  a map,  trace  a circle 
that  is  400  miles  from  New  York  as  a cen- 
ter; Albany;  Buffalo;  Boston.  What  sources 
of  power  does  each  circle  touch?  (Fig.  261; 
Sec.  352.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Fill  blanks  in  the  following  sentences:  The  Erie 

Canal  Belt  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a carpenter’s , 

with  the  city  of - at  its  western  end,  and 

at  the  eastern  end.  To  the  northeast  lies  the 

District  and  the  Highland;  to  the 

southwest  the and  the Mountains  and 

The  region  is  drained  by  the  and  rivers. 

The  River,  which  enters  the  Hudson  at  the  city 

of , cuts  a in  the  highlands,  through  which 

has  been  built  the  - Many also  make 

use  of  this  gap.  The  important  cities  along  the  high- 
way beginning  at  are  , , , , 

, , and  Some  of  the  important  prod- 
ucts of  this  region  are  , ....  ....  , and  

2.  If  you  lived  in  New  York  City,  where  would  you 
like  to  go  for  a two  weeks’  vacation?  3.  What  five 
physical  features  have  helped  to  make  New  York  the 
world’s  metropolis?  4.  Why  do  five-sixths  of  the 
population  of  New  York  State  live  in  the  counties 
bordering  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers  and  the 
Barge  Canal?  ..  . 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  286.  Gold-seekers  setting  out  from  winter  camp  on 
the  upper  Yukon.  What  stories  have  you  read  of  adventure 
in  this  region?  Is  life  easy?  This  is  the  way  some  of  the 
Great  Northern  Forest  looks  in  winter. 


THE  NORTH  LANDS  AND  ANTARCTIC 

THE  GREAT  NORTHERN  FOREST 


348.  A vast  solitude. — To  the  north  of  all 
the  regions  we  have  studied  is  the  vast  land 
of  the  gloomy  evergreen  forest;  of  the  lonely 
fur-hunter,  and  the  trading  post  on  the  green- 
clad  river  bank.  There  man  must  travel  by 
canoe  on  the  streams,  or  by  dog  team  through 
the  dark  and  often  pathless  forest.  It  is  so 
lonely  there  that  people  sometimes  wish  so 
much  to  hear  the  human  voice,  that  they 
begin  to  talk  to  themselves.  Sometimes  they 
can  not  stop  talking,  and  so  go  crazy — “ bush 
crazy,”  as  it  is  called. 

This  country  lies  beyond  the  land  of 
farms.  (Fig.  14.)  For  that  reason  the  white 
man  has  let  it  remain  the  home  of  the  Indian, 
and  goes  there  himself  only  to  hunt,  to  trade, 
or  to  seek  minerals.  What  regions  form  its 
southern  bounds?  Its  northern  boundary  is 
the  northern  limit  of  trees.  It  reaches  from 
near  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  almost  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  it  does 
not  quite  touch  either  coast,  because  trees 
cannot  grow  near  the  cold  waters  of  Bering 
Sea,  or  close  to  where  the  Labrador  current, 
ice  cold  and  dotted  with  floating  ice,  flows 


down  from  the  Arctic.  A short  distance 
inland  from  the  cold  ocean  waters  trees  grow, 
and  for  this  reason  the  interior  of  Newfound- 
land is  forest  country,  where  there  are  a few 
very  large  papermills.  These  papermills  have 
been  built  by  the  owners  of  London  news- 
papers, which  are  printed  on  Newfoundland 
pulpwood  paper. 

349.  Lumbering. — Most  of  our  timber  has 
been  taken  from  land  we  were  clearing  for 
farms,  but  this  Northern  Forest  Region  will 
not  be  made  into  farms.  It  is  the  great 
wood  reserve  of  North  America.  As  yet, 
the  white  man  can  use  it  only  at  a few  places 
on  its  edge.  One  such  place  is  along  the  St. 
Lawrence  tributaries,  where  Canadian  lum- 
bermen camp  all  winter,  chopping  and  haul- 
ing logs  to  the  stream  banks,  ready  to  float 
down  in  the  spring  log  drive.  These  logs 
supply  many  papermills  and  sawmills,  and 
make  Ottawa  a great  lumber  city.  Some 
of  the  lumber  from  the  Northern  Forests  is 
used  on  the  edge  of  the  Wheat  Region,  and 
a little  has  been  used  by  the  miners  on  the 
Yukon  in  Alaska  and  in  British  territory; 


(179) 


180 


THE  NORTH  LANDS  AND  THE  ANTARCTIC 


Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  287.  A log  jam  fills  this  northern  river  with  logs- 
In  what  ways  does  the  river  help  the  lumber  and 
paper  industries? 

but  throughout  most  of  its  vast  extent  the 
forest  has  been  of  value  to  man  mainly 
through  the  fur  and  game  that  it  produces. 
What  rivers  drain  this  region?  Would  it  be 
better  for  trade  if  they  all  flowed  south? 

350.  Mining — In  some  places  rich  minerals 
are  being  found.  The  land  is  probably  rich 
in  minerals,  but  most  of  it  is  still  unexplored. 
There  are  rich  silver  mines  at  Cobalt,  in 
eastern  Ontario,  and  since  1897  gold  has 
been  mined  near  Dawson,  on  the  Yukon. 
At  that  time  there  was  a great  rush  of  miners 
to  the  gold  region  of  the  Yukon.  In  1921 
there  was  great  excitement  because  petroleum 
had  been  discovered  near  Great  Slave  Lake, 
and  on  the  Mackenzie  River  at  latitude  60°. 
Steamboats  run  in  the  Mackenzie  River  and 
carry  supplies  down  stream  from  the  Cana- 
dian railroads.  The  Canadian  Yukon  settle- 
ments are  so  dependent  upon  the  Yukon 
steamers  that  they  can  not  get  even  a bottle 
of  medicine  by  any  other  route. 


351.  A timber  reserve.  Can  we  save  it?— 
The  great  future  use  of  this  region  is  to 
produce  wood.  Civilized  man  needs  ever- 
increasing  amounts  of  wood,  and  the  world’s 
forests  are  steadily  growing  smaller  and 
smaller.  The  time  is  soon  coming  when 
much  of  North  America  will  have  to  depend 
upon  this  great  northern  forest.  Already 
millions  and  millions  of  fine  logs  have  been 
burned  there  by  terrible  forest  fires.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  governments  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States  (which  controls  Alaska) 
will  be  able  to  keep  the  fires  out  of  this  won- 
derful forest  and  will  preserve  it  until  the 
time  comes  when  we  need  to  use  it.  The  time 
is  not  far  away  when  sawmills  and  pulp- 
mills  along  the  Yukon,  the  Mackenzie,  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  the  Nelson  rivers,  as  well 
as  those  already  at  work  on  the  branches  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  should  be  making  the 
boards  needed  for  houses,  and  the  rolls  of 
paper  which  will  finally  be  made  into  the 
newspapers  and  books  which  we  use.  This 
can  not  happen,  however,  unless  the  forests 
are  protected.  Many  trees  must  be  protected 
from  fire  for  a hundred  years  before  they 
are  big  enough  to  be  made  into  good  boards. 

352.  A water-power  reserve. — The  eastern 
part  of  this  district,  in  Ontario  and  Quebec, 
has  thousands  of  glacial  lakes  on  a plateau. 
These  lakes  store  water,  and  provide  an  even 
flow  in  the  streams  that  tumble  down  toward 
the  St.  Lawrence.  This  is  one  of  the  great 
water-power  regions  of  the  world.  In  time  to 
come  much  of  this  power  can,  if  needed,  be 
taken  by  wire  even  to  the  coast  of  New 
England.  Compare  the  distances  with  the 
power  lines  in  Fig.  194.  Thus  this  northern 
land  of  few  people  may  send  wood  and  paper 
to  the  entire  continent,  and  it  may  also  help 
the  whole  United  States  by  furnishing  power 
to  turn  the  wheels  in  the  mills  of  New  Eng- 
land and  other  states.  This  forest  belongs  to 
Canada,  but  we  in  the  United  States  will 
be  its  chief  users. 

353.  Hunting  as  an  industry. — Already 
thousands  of  Americans  go  into  Canadian 
woods  each  year  to  hunt  and  fish.  Indians 
earn  money  by  serving  as  guides  for  the 


ARCTIC  PASTURES,  SEAS,  AND  ICE  CAPS 


181 


Courtesy  S.  D.  Warren  Co. 

Fig.  288.  At  the  far  end  of  this  vast  machine  a thin  layer  of  water,  filled 
with  floating  shreds  of  wood  fiber,  flows  over  a screen  and  leaves  the  fiber 
on  it.  This  soft  wet  sheet  is  then  passed  between  rollers  hot  with  steam 
which  press  it,  dry  it,  and  finally  pass  it  to  the  last  roll  as  an  endless  sheet 
of  clean  white  paper. 


visiting  white  men. 

Throughout  most  of  its 
length  the  Great  Northern 
Forest  still  is  and  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  permanent 
home  of  the  fur-hunting 
Indian. 

354.  Possible  farmland 
for  the  future. — Most  of 
the  Great  Northern  Forest 
stands  on  ground  made 
rough  and  stony  by  the 
great  glaciers,  but  the 
Mackenzie  Valley  and  parts 
near  the  Rockies  have  soil 
that  can  be  plowed.  Big 
crops  of  potatoes  have  been 
grown  at  Fort  Vermilion 
near  Lake  Athabaska,  and 
even  on  the  Yukon  near  the 
Klondike.  As  we  come  to  need  more  land, 
and  secure  new  crop  plants  that  will  grow  in  a 
land  having  cool,  short  summers,  some  parts 
of  the  forest  may  be  cleared  for  farms.  In 
northern  Ontario  is  a district  of  clay  soil  and 
few  stones  where  some  farmers  are  settling. 
Near  the  base  of  the  Rockies  some  of  the 
plain  may  be  cleared  and  added  to  the 
Wheat  Belt;  but  this  will  not  be  done  until 
the  land  farther  south  is  used  much  more 
fully  than  it  now  is.  Most  of  this  region  is 
good  for  nothing  but  forest. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  source  of  wealth  in  this  region? 
Name  two  other  products  of  great  value.  2.  Sketch 
on  an  outline  map  of  Canada  the  forest  area.  Indi- 
cate the  important  rivers  and  lakes,  the  chief  towns, 
and  the  district’s  productions  suggested  by  Question 
1.  Show  where  agriculture  may  in  time  replace  some 
of  the  forest.  3.  Find  two  other  parts  of  the  world 
similarly  located,  from  which  the  future  timber  supply 
may  come. 

4.  What  difficulties  face  the  gold-miner  along 
the  Yukon  (Fig.  286)  which  are  not  present  in  the 
mountains  of  California?  5.  Make  a list  of  the 
town  names  in  the  Great  Northern  Forest  beginning 
with  Fort.  What  do  such  names  indicate  about  life 
in  this  region?  How  long  would  you  want  to  stay  in 
this  region? 

6.  Define  “timber  line.”  Is  it  at  the  same  eleva- 
tion in  the  Northern  Forests  as  in  Colorado? 
Explain  the  difference.  7.  England  is  a land  of  rich 
farms  and  many  cities.  Why  is  this  not  the  case  with 
the  Northern  Forest  Region  in  the  same  latitude? 


ARCTIC  PASTURES,  POLAR  SEAS,  AND 
POLAR  ICE  CAPS 

355.  The  Arctic  tundra. — The  land  north  of 
the  Great  Northern  Forests  is  a treeless  plain 
called  the  tundra.  (Fig.  14.)  It  has  less  snow- 
fall each  year  than  has  New  York  or  Michi- 
gan. The  air  is  so  cold  that  it  does  not  hold 
enough  moisture  to  make  deep  snow.  In  a 
few  weeks  the  summer  sun  melts  the  snow 
from  all  the  land  of  Arctic  America,  except 
the  ice  of  Greenland  and  a few  mountain  tops. 
This  happens  because  for  weeks  and  even 
months  the  sun  shines  at  midnight  as  well 
as  at  mid-day  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle. 
This  continuous  heat  melts  the  snow  and 
warms  the  land  so  that  moss,  flowers,  and 
grass  grow  rapidly,  and  the  land  is  soon 
bright  with  flowers.  Even  blue-grass,  like 
that  in  Kentucky  (Sec.  83),  grows  at  Etah, 
Greenland,  a thousand  miles  beyond  the 
Arctic  Circle.  Two  or  three  feet  below  its 
flower-decked  surface  the  tundra  earth  is  still 
frozen.  This  underground  ice,  melting  a 
little,  keeps  the  top  moist,  so  there  is  never 
any  drought.  This  condition  is  true  of  all 
those  parts  of  America  north  of  the  limit  of 
trees  and  not  covered  by  the  ice  cap.  Name 
some  of  these  lands.  (Figs.  14,  94.)  What 
governments  rule  them? 


HI 5 


'anbuio' 


rCO'JJJL- 


f/M tjgS/ 


Copyright,  The  Jobu  c.  Winston  Co.  130° 120°  Longitude  110°  100°  West°/~"'902  80°  from  70°  60°  Greenwich 


183 


Fig.  290. 


Copyright)  Tbo  John  Ct  WJrfgtop  Co. 


184 


THE  NORTH  LANDS  AND  THE  ANTARCTIC 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  291.  The  monarch  of  the  Arctic  ice.  A snapshot 
of  a living  polar  bear  on  his  throne  of  floating  ice. 
What  other  animals  make  their  home  in  this  cold  land? 

356.  The  animals  and  waterfowl. — In  sum- 
mer the  tundra  buzzes  with  the  sound  of 
millions  of  mosquitoes,  and  is  noisy  with  the 
cries  and  calls  of  ducks,  geese,  swans,  loons, 
and  other  waterfowl  that  go  there  to  eat 
mosquitoes  and  grass,  and  to  rear  their 
young.  In  winter  when  the  ground  is 
frozen  hard  and  covered  with  snow  the  water- 
fowl  have  migrated  to  the  southland,  some 
going  as  far  as  Argentina.  The  tundra  is  the 
permanent  home  of  the  caribou,  or  wild 
reindeer.  In  summer  he  finds  pasture  and 
in  winter  he  gets  food  by  digging  away  the 
snow  to  eat  the  grass  and  moss  that  lie 
beneath  it.  His  enemy  is  the  wolf  pack. 
The  wolves  in  this  region  live  almost  entirely 
on  reindeer. 

357.  The  Eskimo  and  his  future. — The 
Eskimo  hunts  along  the  seashore  and  on  the 
tundra,  living  in  his  tent  in  summer  and  in 
his  snow  house  in  winter;  but  a new  era  is 
dawning  for  the  Eskimo.  He  is  becoming 
a reindeer  farmer. 

White  men  have  always  thought  that  the 
tundra  was  useless,  but  the  explorer  Stefans- 
son  and  other  men  are  now  sure  that  it  is  to 
become  a land  of  reindeer  ranches,  which  will 
furnish  much  venison  (reindeer  meat)  to  the 
people  who  live  far  away  to  the  southward. 
The  reindeer  industry  is  already  succeeding 
on  the  Alaska  tundra.  This  is  lucky  for  the 
Alaska  Eskimos,  who  were  about  to  starve 

i; 


because  the  white  men  were  killing  so  much 
of  the  game  on  which  they  had  lived. 

Mr.  Sheldon  Jackson,  an  American  super- 
intendent of  schools  for  the  natives  of 
Alaska,  persuaded  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  buy  some  tame  reindeer  from  Lap- 
land  and  Siberia,  and  to  hire  Siberian  rein- 
deer herders  to  come  with  the  animals  to 
teach  the  Alaskan  natives  how  to  take  care 
of  reindeer.  The  Alaskans  have  learned. 
The  flocks  have  increased.  In  1892  there 
were  1200  reindeer.  In  1921  there  were  over 

200.000,  even  after  the  natives  had  eaten 

100.000.  The  Eskimos  would  rather  follow 
flocks  of  reindeer  than  hunt  wild  animals  for 
a living.  They  are  proud  of  their  new  flocks, 
which  furnish  them  with  food  and  clothes 
and  something  to  sell,  and  which  also  serve 
them  as  beasts  of  burden. 

The  American  superintendent  of  schools 
in  Alaska  travels  each  year  with  reindeer 
teams  more  than  a thousand  miles,  inspecting 
schools.  He  says  reindeer  are  better  than 
dogs  as  sledge  animals.  (Fig.  286.)  The 
Canadian  Government  has  recently  given 
large  grants  of  land  to  companies  that  will 
raise  reindeer,  and  in  a short  time  there  may 
be  millions  of  those  very  useful  animals. 

358.  A land  of  ice. — People  used  to  think 
that  all  of  northern  North  America  was 
covered  the  whole  year  with  snow  and  ice. 
This  is  true  only  of  a part  of  Greenland.  All 
of  Greenland  except  the  southwestern  and 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  292.  Eskimos  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
River. 


ARCTIC  PASTURES,  SEAS,  AND  ICE  CAPS 


185 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  293.  Icebergs  on  the  Grand  Banks  in  the  United  States-United  Kingdom 
steamer  route.  A United  States  revenue  cutter  is  reporting  icebergs  by  wireless 
to  distant  steamers.  About  one-eighth  of  an  iceberg  is  above  water.  You  can 
scarcely  see  men  standing  on  the  deck  of  the  ship.  What  do  you  conclude 
about  the  size  of  icebergs? 


southeastern  coasts  is  cov- 
ered with  solid  ice,  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of 
feet  thick,  and  having  new- 
fallen  snow  on  top  of  it. 

This  ice  mass  is  supposed 
to  be  just  like  the  con- 
tinental glacier  that  once 
covered  so  much  land. 

(Fig.  53.)  It  creeps 
slowly  along  down  to  the 
sea,  and  there  huge  chunks 
break  off  and  float  away 
asiceoergs.  (Secs.  159,251.) 

Sometimes  they  wreck  ships 
that  happen  to  be  sailing 
past  Newfoundland.  Ice- 
bergs floating  south  meet 
the  warm  Gulf  Stream, 
which  melts  them.  The 
windstorms  that  rip  across 
the  Greenland  ice]  are  so  terrible  that  only 
one  or  two  parties  have  ever  made  the  hard 
journey  across  the  ice  cap. 

359.  Animal  life  in  a sea  of  floating  ice. — 
The  Arctic  Sea  north  of  Alaska  and  between 
the  islands  that  lie  west  of  Greenland  is  so 
full  of  blocks  of  floating  ice  that  only  one 
ship,  the  46-ton  Gjoa,  has  ever  been  through 
it,  and  it  took  Captain  Amundsen  three 
years,  1903-1906,  to  make  the  passage.  (Fig. 
289.)  But  there  is  life  even  in  this  polar  sea, 
and  on  its  ice  floes,  some  of  which  may  be 
as  small  as  a table,  some  as  large  as  a city 
block,  and  some  even  a mile  or  two  long. 

Many  fish  and  other  water  animals  live 
in  these  cold  waters.  The  shrimp  is  the 
chief  food  of  seals  that  live  under  the  ice 
and  come  up  from  time  to  time  to  breathe 
at  holes,  or  to  crawl  out  and  rest.  Often, 
while  the  seal  sleeps  on  the  ice  cake,  the 
polar  bear  steals  up  to  catch  him.  Thus  the 
bear  gets  his  living. 

Each  polar  bear,  as  he  prowls  about  the 
shore  or  on  cakes  of  floating  ice,  is  followed 
by  Arctic  foxes,  sometimes  by  as  many  as 
six.  When  the  bear  catches  a seal  and  begins 
to  eat  it,  his  fox  followers  sit  at  a safe  dis- 
tance, barking  at  him.  When  the  bear 


finishes  his  feast  and  goes  away,  the  foxes 
then  come  and  eat  the  leavings.  After- 
ward they  hunt  up  the  bear  and  wait  for 
him  to  catch  another  seal. 

An  American  explorer,  Stefansson,  has 
learned  how  to  live  on  ice  floes,  and  how  to 
get  a living  much  as  the  animals  do.  He  can 
catch  seals  better  than  the  bear  can.  With 
one  team  of  dogs,  a tent,  a rifle  and  car- 
tridges, he  can  travel  about  on  the  ice  cakes 
and  shoot  enough  seals  to  feed  himself  and 
his  dogs.  He  has  traveled  for  hundreds  of 
miles  over  the  Arctic  Ocean,  camping  on 
floating  ice  and  stepping  from  one  block  to 
another,  studying  the  things  he  found  there. 

360.  The  Antarctic  continent. — While  the 
knowledge  of  the  Arctic  regions  is  still  fresh 
in  our  minds,  it  will  be  well  to  study  about 
Antarctica  (Fig.  290),  the  cold  land  about 
the  south  pole. 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  part  of  the 
Antarctic  land  nearest  the  equator?  (Fig. 
290.)  Find  a place  in  North  America  hav- 
ing the  same  latitude.  Point  out  places 
on  the  coast  of  North  America  as  far  from 
the  equator  as  is  the  tip  of  South  America, 
of  Africa,  and  of  New  Zealand. 

The  Antarctic  Region  differs  from  the 


11-10 


186 


THE  NORTH  LANDS  AND  THE  ANTARCTIC 


Arctic  in  having  a continent  at  the  pole  and 
wide  seas  all  around. 

The  Antarctic  continent  is  larger  than  the 
United  States,  but  no  one  lives  there.  Ice 
caps  cover  all  of  it  except  a few  rocky  shores. 
On  all  sides  the  ice  creeps  down  from  the 
land  and  works  out  into  the  sea.  Ships 
have  sailed  for  days  in  front  of  solid  cliffs 
of  ice  that  are  much  higher  than  the  highest 
mast  of  a ship.  Enormous  pieces  of  the  ice 
sheet,  some  of  them  as  big  as  a city  or  a town- 
ship, break  off  and  float  away  before  the 
west  winds,  leaving  a high  wall  of  ice  rising 
from  the  cold  sea. 

Brave  men  anxious  to  find  the  South  Pole 
have  risked  their  lives  and  died  in  the  terrible 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  territories  and  islands  which  are 
included  within  these  regions.  2.  Make  a list  of  the 
animals  which  Mr.  Stefansson  probably  saw  during 
his  journey  across  the  polar  seas  and  lands.  Tell 
about  a new  animal  industry.  3.  How  far  is  Nome 
from  the  equator?  Compare  its  climate  with  that 
of  Sitka.  Offer  two  good  reasons  for  the  difference. 
4.  How  are  icebergs  formed?  Why  are  so  many 
found  in  the  North  Atlantic? 

5.  Name  a great  vessel  wrecked  some  years  ago  by 
collision  with  an  iceberg  off  Newfoundland  Banks. 
What  precautions  (Fig.  293)  does  our  government 
take  to  prevent  such  disasters  ? 6.  How  does  the 
Eskimo  provide  himself  with  food  and  clothes  before 
he  becomes  a reindeer  farmer?  When  he  has  reindeer 
meat  and  hides  to  sell,  what  changes  will  take  place 
in  the  way  he  lives.  7.  Make  use  of  the  follow- 
ing outline  to  compare  the  manner  in  which  the 
Eskimo  and  the  Indian  of  the  Great  North  Woods 
supply  their  needs. 


journey  over  this  Antarctic  ice.  The  North 
Pole  was  found  to  be  on  an  ice-covered  sea, 
but  the  South  Pole  is  on  an  icy  plateau 
nearly  twice  as  high  as  Mt.  Washington. 

The  southernmost  homes  of  men  are  on 
Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 
(Sec.  837.)  Between  this  land  and  the 


Food. 

Clothing. 

Shelter. 

Fuel. 

Transpor- 

tation. 

Luxuries 

Indian 

Eskimo 

Antarctic  ice  wall  there  are  a few  small, 
cold,  damp  islands,  inhabited  by  seals,  wal- 
ruses, and  penguins.  Penguins  are  queer- 
looking birds  that  cannot  fly,  but  like  the 
seals  swim  in  the  sea,  and  get  their  living  by 
catching  fish  and  small  animals. 


8.  Mr.  V.  Stefansson,  Admiral  R.  Peary,  Mr.  R 
Amundsen,  and  Mr.  D.  Macmillan  have  each 
written  splendid  accounts  of  their  explorations  of  the 
Polar  Seas.  Some,  perhaps  all,  of  these  you  may  secure 
from  a library.  9.  Find  from  some  good  encyclo- 
pedia a few  facts  about  the  aurora  borealis.  How 
does  it  make  life  more  pleasant  for  the  people  of  the 
northlands? 


lWTAx 


© Lomen  Bros.,  Nome,  Alaska 


Fig.  294.  A large  herd  of  Siberian  reindeer  on  the  Arctic  tundra.  (Sec.  357.) 


THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF 

NORTH  AMERICA 

THE  LOW  PLAINS  AND  UPLANDS  OF  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


361.  Lands  without  winter. — Let  us  now 
travel  from  the  lands  of  ice  and  snow  to  the 
lands  where  these  things  are  unknown.  In 
imagination  we  can  do  this  in  an  instant, 
but  it  takes  many  days  to  make  the  actual 
journey.  Can  you  tell  how  we  might  travel 
from  the  land  of  reindeer  to  the  land  of 
bananas  on  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean? 
What  changes  need  we  make  in  our  clothing  ? 

In  the  lands  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  there 
is  no  winter,  as  we  know  winter,  and  no  frost, 
except  on  high  mountains.  There  the  weather 
is  much  less  changeable  than  our  own.  People 
can  often  tell  for  several  weeks  ahead  what  the 
weather  will  be,  because  the  winds  are  not  like 
the  irregular  cyclones  that  cross  our  country. 
Their  winds  blow  almost  always  from  one 
direction  only,  and  for  that  reason  are  called 
constant  winds. 

362.  Winds. — The  lands  between  the 
tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn  (Fig.  10) 


have  three  wind  regions:  (1)  the  north- 

east trade,  (2)  the  doldrums,  and  (3) 
the  southeast  trade.  We  shall  study  about 
all  of  these  winds  later.  Now  we  are  inter- 
ested in  only  the  northeast  trades,  because 
they  make  the  climate  of  this  region. 

363.  The  northeast  trade  winds. — In 

southern  Mexico  and  Central  America  the 
wind  blows  from  the  northeast  nearly  all  the 
time,  and  is  called  the  northeast  trade  wind. 
For  thousands  of  miles  this  northeast  wind 
sweeps  across  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and 
the  Indian  oceans  in  this  latitude. 

364.  Trade-wind  rains  and  forests. — 
When  winds  from  the  ocean  blow  against 
mountains,  they  cause  rain.  (Sec.  158.) 
Which  side  of  Central  America,  of  Mexico, 
and  of  the  big  islands  in  the  trade-wind  belts 
will  have  the  most  rain?  (Figs.  144,  641.) 
What  can  you  tell  about  the  plants  that 
grow  on  the  northeast  or  windward  side 


(187) 


188  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


© H.  Wimmer 

Fig.  296.  Salamanca  Indians  shooting  fish  in  eastern  Costa  Rica.  The  chief 
wears  a headgear  of  white  feathers. 


of  Jamaica?  of  Hawaii?  on  the  southwest 
or  leeward  side?  The  climate  on  a coast 
against  which  the  trade  wind  blows  has  rain- 
fall at  all  seasons.  (Fig.  303.)  Frequent  rain 
and  steady  heat  make  thick,  tangled  forests 
along  the  eastern  side  of  Central  America 
and  Mexico.  On  the  Pacific  side  there  is 
less  rainfall  than  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and 
the  forests  there  are  not  so  dense. 

365.  The  people  of  Central  America  and 
Mexico. — Before  the  English  and  French 
settled  the  frosty  lands  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  people  from  Spain  had  made 
settlements  on  the  hot  shores  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  This  land  is  so  hot  that 
the  white  man  does  not  thrive  there  as  he 
does  farther  north,  so  white  people  do  not 
outnumber  the  Indians  as  they  do  in  the 
parts  of  North  America  having  frosty  winters 
and  warm  summers.  In  some  of  the  Central 
American  countries  there  are  only  a few 
hundred  or  a few  thousand  people  of  pure 
white  race.  A somewhat  larger  number  are 
part  Indian  and  part  white,  but  most  of  the 
people  are  the  native,  dark-skinned  Indians. 

366.  Many  countries. — If  the  people  of 
Central  America  wish  to  go  from  one  country 
to  the  next,  the  journey  over  land  is  up  and 
down,  up  and  down,  from  valley  to  ridge, 
from  ridge  to  valley.  Roads  are  few,  travel 
is  difficult.  This  difficulty  of  travel  separates 


the  people  more  than  they 
would  be  separated  if  they 
lived  on  different  islands 
in  the  sea.  Several  times 
they  have  tried  to  form  a 
union.  In  1920,  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  and  Salvador 
united  to  form  one  govern- 
ment. It  is  called  the  Cen- 
tral American  Federation 
and  its  capital  is  Teguci- 
galpa. The  governments  of 
the  Central  American  coun- 
tries are  much  like  that  of 
Mexico  (Sec.  149),  and 
peonage  is  common. 

367.  The  three  regions. 
— The  people  of  Central 
America  and  Mexico  speak  of  their  land  as 
having  three  parts:  (1)  the  cool  land  of  the 
high  plateau;  (2)  the  hot  land  of  the  low 
plains,  and  (3)  the  temperate  land  which  is 
on  the  slope  between  the  other  two. 

We  need  not  study  the  cold  or  cool  land 
now,  as  we  have  already  become  acquainted 
with  it  (Sec.  143),  and  we  know  that  much  of 
Mexico  is  high  enough  to  be  a cool  plateau. 
It  is  there  that  most  of  the  Mexican  people 
live  and  enjoy  a pleasant  climate  with  warm 
days  and  cool  nights. 

368.  The  warm  or  temperate  lands. — 

Name  the  countries  between  the  southern 
end  of  the  southwestern  plateaus  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  (Fig.  299.)  The  moun- 
tains of  this  region  are  as  high  as  the  highest 
Appalachians.  The  so-called  temperate  region 
is  on  the  eastern  and  western  slopes  of  these 
mountains  and  on  the  similar  slopes  coming 
down  from  the  Central  Plateau  of  Mexico. 

Much  of  this  temperate  land  is  high 
enough  to  be  cool,  but  not  cold  enough  for 
frost.  Indeed  it  has  the  delightful  tem- 
perature of  a pleasant  spring  day.  Yet  it 
has  enough  heat  to  produce  fine  crops  and 
enough  rainfall  to  support  forests.  It  is  in 
this  temperate  region  that  most  of  the  people 
of  Central  America  live.  Nearly  all  of  it  is 
made  up  of  small  uplands,  the  slopes  of  hill- 
sides, and  narrow  valleys  through  which 


PLAINS  AND  UPLANDS  OF  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA  189 


Courtesy  United  Fruit  Co. 

Central  American  villagers  and  their  village  in  the  “Temperate 
Where  is  the  cost  of  living  greater,  in  your  home  or  in  this  village? 


streams  rush  down  toward 
the  lowlands.  There  are  no 
wide,  level  plains  like  the 
Corn  Belt,  the  Wheat  Belt, 
or  the  Plateau  of  Mexico. 

369.  Village  life.  — The 
people  continue  to  live 
much  as  they  did  before 
Columbus  came  to  Amer- 
ica. The  grass  huts  and 
stone  houses  are  group- 
ed in  little  villages  which 
are  surrounded  by  banana 
and  orange  trees,  and  by 
other  trees  whose  fruit  we 
may  not  have  tasted. 

Space  for  little  gardens  is  Fig-  297. 
secured  by  chopping  down  Land‘ 
the  weeds  with  a long  knife, the  machete.  (Fig. 
300.)  The  planting  is  sometimes  done  with 
the  aid  of  a sharp  stick,  and  the  crops  are  cul- 
tivated with  hand  tools  and  without  the  aid  of 
animals  or  plow.  This  simple  culture  is  applied 
to  gardens  and  to  little  patches  of  corn,  yams, 
and  cassava.  These  three  vegetables  have 
the  same  place  in  the  native  diet  that  bread 
and  potatoes  have  in  our  own.  The  cassava 
is  an  edible  root  somewhat  like  the  sweet 
potato  or  yam.  (Fig.  551.)  For  eating,  the 
root  is  first  boiled,  then  dried  and  grated  into 
meal.  The  meal  is  mixed  with  water,  and 
baked  in  little  thin  cakes  which  serve  as 
bread.  Milk,  eggs,  and  meat  are  furnished 
by  the  cows,  goats,  chickens,  and  pigs  which 
roam  about. 

Above  the  villages  perched  on  the  hillsides 
are  the  sharp  mountain  tops;  below  are  the 
hot,  forested  lowlands  where  swamps  breed 
mosquitoes. 

370.  Trade. — Coffee  and  hides  are  the 
chief  exports  of  the  upland  people.  These 
articles  are  easy  to  carry  on  the  back  of  a 
mule  down  a rough  trail  to  the  port,  or  to 
the  railroad  station  from  which  they  are  ship- 
ped. Equally  easy  to  carry  is  chicle,  a gum 
gathered  from  trees  in  the  forest,  and  from 
which  chewing  gum  is  made.  These  people 
of  the  green  hillsides  pay  with  chicle,  coffee, 
and  hides  for  the  hardware,  clothes,  and 


other  manufactures  that  we  send  them  on 
the  steamers  going  to  the  Caribbean  ports. 

371.  The  hot  lands. — The  low  land  along 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Carib- 
bean, and  the  Pacific  is  a hot  land.  It  is  a 
flat  country,  and  heavy  rains  make  many 
swamps,  especially  in  the  eastern  part,  where 
the  rains  are  heavier  and  the  low  plain  is 
wider. 

Every  day  in  the  year  mosquitoes  buzz; 
there  is  no  frost  there  to  lay  them  low  even 
for  a season.  For  a long  time  the  Mexicans 
called  Vera  Cruz  “The  City  of  the  Dead,” 
because  it  was  so  unhealthful.  Trees  grow 
rank  and  green  on  this  jungle  plain.  Creep- 
ers and  vines  climb  the  trees  and  tangle 
the  branches  into  jungle  masses,  through 
which  a man  can  pass  only  after  cutting  a 
path  with  the  machete,  a piece  of  property 
more  common  than  shoes  in  this  tropic  forest 
land.  For  centuries  these  coast  forests  have 
been  little  more  than  a barrier  which  kept 
people  from  the  interior  slopes  and  plateaus. 
Until  recently  only  a few  logs  of  mahogany 
and  cedar  had  been  exported,  but  now  some 
rubber  has  been  sent  out,  and  banana  plan- 
tations (Sec.  375)  have  been  started.  But 
from  the  Lower  Rio  Grande  district  to 
Panama,  as  well  as  on  the  Pacific  side,  the 
coast  plain  still  remains  an  almost  unbroken 
forest,  with  fringes  of  beautiful  coconut 


190  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


© E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  298.  The  National  Theater  at  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  a city  as  far  above 
the  sea  as  Denver  is. 


trees  waving  their  long  leaves  along  the 
shore.  (Figs.  302,  535.) 

372.  Hot  land  cities. — Name  four  coast 
cities  in  this  region.  (Fig.  299.)  They  are 
all  small  cities,  for  people  do  not  live  on  the 
coast  unless  held  by  business.  (Sec.  371.) 
Steamers  call  at  a few  small  Pacific  ports 
on  their  way  from  Panama  to  San  Fran- 
cisco; but  most  of  the  trade  of  the  region  is 
from  the  east  coast  for  two  reasons:  (1)  The 
eastern  plain,  with  bananas,  sisal,  and  petro- 
leum, produces  much  more  than  the  western 
plain  does;  (2)  nearly  all  of  the  trade  is 
with  countries  across  the  Atlantic. 

The  capitals  of  all  the  Central  American 
countries  except  Panama  are  pretty  cities 
of  white-walled  houses,  nestled  on  the  up- 
lands of  the  interior. 

Colon  and  Panama,  at  the  ends  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  are  chiefly  supported  by  busi- 
ness arising  from  the  passage  of  many  ships 
through  that  great  waterway.  Both  cities 
are  in  the  Canal  Zone,  a strip  of  land  which 
was  ceded  by  the  Republic  of  Panama  to 
the  United  States  before  the  canal  was  built. 
The  Canal  Zone  is  ruled  by  a governor  sent 
out  by  the  United  States. 

373.  The  Yucatan  sisal  district. — The  wide 
flat  plain  of  northern  Yucatan  differs  from 


the  rest  of  this  coast 
because  it  has  less  rain. 
Still  worse,  the  little  rain 
that  falls  runs  away  into 
caves  and  underground 
passages  that  are  present 
because  the  rock  is  lime- 
stone. (Sec.  22).  Conse- 
quently this  region  has  no 
real  forest.  Much  of  it  is 
covered  with  the  scraggy 
growth  of  the  century 
plant,  whose  long  leaves 
have  a fiber  good  for  mak- 
ing cordage.  Millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  this  fiber, 
called  sisal,  is  shipped  each 
year  from  the  port  of  Pro- 
greso. American  farmers 
use  it  to  bind  up  the 
sheaves  of  wheat  at  harvest  time. 

Southeastern  Yucatan  is  quite  a different 
place.  Here  the  rainfall  is  greater,  and  the 
solid  forest  is  so  thick  that  for  many  miles 
the  land  is  absolutely  uninhabited,  even  by 
wild  Indians. 

374.  Mexican  oil. — One  of  the  great  oil 
fields  of  the  world  is  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Mexican  lowlands,  near  the  port  of 
Tampico.  Sometimes  when  wells  are  dug, 
the  oil  spurts  out  in  a solid  stream.  Single 
wells  have  produced  millions  of  barrels. 
Each  year  hundreds  of  tank-ships  loaded  with 
tens  of  thousands  of  gallons  of  valuable  crude 
petroleum  sail  out  of  the  port  of  Tampico 
for  American  and  European  ports.  English 
and  American  companies  run  this  industry. 
The  engineers  and  the  skilled  men  are 
usually  Americans,  but  most  of  the  work  is 
done  by  the  Indians  and  half-breeds  of 
Mexico. 

375.  Americans  and  the  banana. — The 
forest  of  the  hot  lands,  where  forages  only  the 
Indian  has  lived,  is  at  last  being  conquered 
by  an  organized  industry.  (Fig.  301.)  New 
villages  are  springing  up  on  the  hot  coasts  of 
Central  America.  Thousands  of  men  live 
there  and  work  for  American  banana  com- 
panies. These  men  attack  the  forest  almost 


\ SLOS 
ofJ^JVd/vA  o± 


^ t; 


/rTdtSN?, 


.— CM 

<t  COUJUJt 


QC 


o 


o 


z 


Fig.  299 


90 ° Longitude  West  from  Greenwich  80 


192  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


Photo  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  300.  Jamaica  negro  laborers  harvesting  the 
first  crop  of  bananas  on  a Guatemala  plantation 
that  belongs  to  a New  England  corporation. 

as  an  army  besieges  a fortress.  A banana 

company  begins  work  by  building  a wharf  on 

some  protected  bay.  Next,  a village  is  built 

to  shelter  the  workers,  and  a hospital  is 

established  where  a physician  and  nurses 

care  for  the  sick.  Then  a ship  brings  white 

superintendents,  bookkeepers,  machinists, 

and  other  skilled  persons  from  the  United 

States.  Other  ships  bring  hundreds  of  black 

men  from  Jamaica  or  other  West  Indian 

islands.  The  newcomers  move  into  the 

houses,  and  the  black  men  begin  to  chop  down 

the  forest.  The  trees  are  allowed  to  lie  as 

they  fall,  for  in  a few  months  all  will  have 

been  eaten  by  the  white  ants.  These  terrible 

insects  sometimes  enter  houses  and  eat  up 

the  furniture.  If  you  lived  in  tropic  America, 

some  day  when  you  touched  your  desk  it 

might  fall  to  pieces,  the  inside  entirely  eaten 

out  by  the  ants.  If  you  picked  up  a book, 
u 


you  might  find  that  it  was  only  a shell — the 
white  ants  having  eaten  it.  But  the  ants 
are  useful  help  in  the  banana  plantation, 
where  they  eat  up  a whole  forest  after  men 
have  cut  it  down.  Little  banana  plants  are 
stuck  in  among  the  fallen  trees  on  the  newly 
cleared  land,  and  every  few  weeks  the  black 
men  come  with  their  machetes  to  chop  down 
the  bushes  that  would  otherwise  choke  the 
plants  and  keep  the  sunshine  and  plant  food 
away  from  them.  In  twelve  months  the 
trees  have  become  much  higher  than  a man, 
and  have  bunches  of  green  bananas  hanging 
ready  for  the  harvest. 

Then  onq  day  the  superintendent  of  a 
banana  plantation  receives  a wireless  message 
from  a ship  at  sea.  It  tells  him  to  have 
bananas  ready  in  three  days.  Everybody 
goes  to  work.  A single  blow  of  the  machete 
(Fig.  300)  cuts  a bunch  of  green  bananas 
from  the  tree.  A mule  carries  two  bunches 
at  a time  to  a little  narrow-gauge  railroad 
that  connects  the  plantation  with  the  larger 
railroad  leading  to  the  wharf  and  the  ship. 

All  day  and  all  night  the  bunches  of  green 
bananas  are  carried  into  the  ship  and  packed 
into  her  great  hold,  where  they  are  cooled 
to  just  the  right  temperature  required  to  keep 
bananas.  In  four,  five,  or  six  days  they  will 
be  unloaded  at  New  Orleans,  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  or  Boston.  Mov- 
ing belts  will  carry  them  from  the  ship  to 
freight  cars  which  are  waiting  to  whisk  them 
away  at  full  speed  to  inland  cities,  even  to 
those  far  away  in  Canada  or  the  Pacific 
Coast.  (Fig.  301.)  In  summer  the  banana 
car  is  cooled.  In  winter  it  is  heated  so  that 
the  bananas  will  keep  perfectly. 

When  the  ship  returns  to  get  more  bananas, 
it  carries  barrels  of  meat  from  the  Chicago 
packing  houses,  sacks  of  flour  from  Minneap- 
olis, clothes  from  New  York,  and  machetes 
from  Connecticut.  Thus  do  the  hot- land 
dwellers  send  away  bananas  and  receive  in 
return  goods  and  utensils.  The  Connecticut 
machete  is  very  highly  prized  in  tropic 
America.  It  is  the  most  important  tool  that 
the  people  have. 

From  the  tall  palm  trees  that  grow  near 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


193 


the  seashore,  many  coconuts  are  sent  to  this 
country. 

376.  Future.— The  future  of  the  low  plains 
may  be  very  different  from  the  past,  because 
man  is  learning  to  conquer  diseases.  Yellow 
fever,  malaria,  and  other  diseases  have  in  the 
past  killed  so  many  people  that  the  lowlands 
of  these  countries  are  still  almost  empty  and 
the  uplands  are  not  fully  used.  When  work 
was  first  started  on  the  Panama  Canal,  about 
1880,  men  died  like  flies  from  yellow  fever. 
Then  no  one  knew  how  the  disease  spread. 
But  when,  about  1900,  work  was  again 
begun  on  the  canal,  scientific  men  had 
found  out  that  a few  of  the  several 
varieties  of  mosquitoes  carry  all  the  yellow 
fever  germs  and  all  the  malaria  germs  that 
man  ever  gets.  By  protecting  the  men  from 
being  bitten,  and  by  killing  the  mosquitoes, 
the  canal  workers  were  kept  almost  as  free 
from  disease  as  men  are  in  their  homes  in 
America.  There  is  no  doubt  that  we  want 
the  bananas,  coconuts,  and  other  products  of 
that  land,  and  the  people  there  want  the 
products  of  our  land.  As  living  in  the 
tropics  has  been  made  safer  for  the  white 
man  by  discovering  how  to  combat  diseases, 
we  may  expect  the  tropic  population  to  grow, 
and  production,  trade,  and  prosperity  to 
increase. 

QUESTIONS 


1.  Group  the  products  of  this  region  as  follows: 


The  Hot  Lands. 
Products  of 

The  Temperate  Lands. 
Products  of  Farms. 

Mines. 

Farms. 

Forests. 

2.  How  does  the  climate  of  northern  Yucatan  differ 
from  that  of  most  of  the  East  Coast  Lowlands?  Give 
two  reasons  for  the  difference.  Name  the  chief 
product  of  the  peninsula.  How  does  the  Yucatan 
farmer  help  the  Wheat  Belt  farmers  to  produce  their 
crops?  3.  What  part  of  our  country  is  benefited 
when  a shipload  of  freight  goes  from  San  Francisco 
to  New  York  through  the  Panama  Canal? 

4.  Which  is  the  more  pleasant  place  in  which  to 
live,  Port  Limon  (Fig.  299)  or  San  Jose?  Why?  5. 
How  many  countries  do  you  find  in  all  North  America? 
in  Central  America?  How  is  the  surface  of  the  coun- 
try largely  responsible  for  the  many  small  Central 


Fig.  301.  A banana  trade  map.  Through  what  port 
do  your  bananas  come? 


American  States?  6.  What  lessons  may  be  learned 
from  the  many  successful  banana  plantations  of 
Central  America  about  the  agricultural  possibilities 
of  the  tropics? 

7.  Gather  the  following  data  about  Central  America: 

(a)  Number  of  rainy  months  (Fig.  303). 

( b ) Number  of  warm  months  (Figs.  328,  329). 

(c)  Average  yearly  rainfall  (Fig.  144) inches. 

From  this  data  explain  the  following: 

(а)  Dense  tropical  lowland  jungles. 

(б)  Indolent  character  of  the  people. 

8.  Mexico  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  a “storehouse 
of  the  world.”  What  facts  can  you  recall  about  this 
country  to  justify  such  a title?  (Sec.  150.) 

THE  WEST  INDIES 

377.  The  name.— When  Columbus  dis- 
covered one  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  in  1492, 
he  thought  he  had  reached  the  East  Indies, 
so  he  called  the  people  Indians.  The  name 
Indian  still  clings  to  them.  All  the  islands 
near  are  called  the  West  Indies. 

378.  Formation. — The  West  Indies  are 
really  the  tops  of  a high  and  rugged  chain 
of  mountains  that  rises  up  three  miles  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  before  the  tops  can  appear 
as  islands.  In  some  places  the  sea  near  them 
is  more  than  three  miles  deep.  The  four  big 
islands  are  called  the  Greater  Antilles. 
Where  are  the  Lesser  Antilles?  (Fig.  299.) 

379.  Climate. — The  trade  wind  blows  over 


194  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


all  the  West  Indies.  To  which  part  of  these 
islands  does  it  bring  the  most  rain?  (Figs. 
144,  641  and  Sec.  364.)  Which  side  is  there- 
fore green  with  thick  forests,  and  on  which  side 
would  you  expect  to  find  scattered  trees  and 
thinner  forests,  such  as  grow  in  dry  places? 
The  weather  is  always  warm  in  the  West 
Indies.  A grass  house  is  all  that  the  people 
really  need  to  keep  off  the  rain  and  sunshine 
(Fig.  302) , but  stone  houses  are  quite  common. 

Sometimes  terrible  storms,  called  hurri- 
canes, visit  the  islands.  These  storms  are 
much  like  the  cyclones  that  cross  the  United 
States,  except  that  the  wind  blows  harder; 
so  hard  that  sometimes  it  beats  down  the 
banana  trees  and  does  much  other  damage. 

380.  Settlement  and  people. — The  Euro- 
peans who  first  explored  America  wanted 
sugar  and  molasses.  These  are  made  from 
sugar  cane,  which  did  not  grow  in  Europe. 
Also  they  wanted  rum  that  is  made  from 
molasses.  For  this  reason,  long  before  the 
United  States  was  settled,  the  West  Indies 
were  settled  by  colonists  from  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  Even  now  there  are 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  colonies  there, 
as  well  as  many  Spanish  people,  and  sugar 
cane  is  still  the  chief  crop. 

The  early  planters  not  only  made  slaves 
of  the  Indians,  but  brought  negro  slaves  from 


Africa  to  work  their  sugar 
plantations.  The  Indians 
either  died  or  ran  away, 
but  the  negroes  stayed  and 
throve.  Now  nearly  all  the 
people  on  many  of  the 
islands  are  black.  Only  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  is 
the  population  chiefly  white. 
In  Trinidad  and  Jamaica, 
two  of  the  British  islands, 
there  are  many  thousands 
of  dark-skinned  people  who 
were  recently  brought  there 
from  India  to  work  by  con- 
tract in  the  sugar  planta- 
tions. When  their  work 
contracts  were  finished, 
instead  of  going  home 
to  India,  they  remained  in  the  West  Indies. 

381.  Government. — There  are  many  kinds 
of  government  in  the  West  Indian  islands. 
Most  of  the  European  colonies  have  gov- 
ernors from  Europe,  and  councils,  each  com- 
posed of  a few  resident  men,  who  help  rule 
an  island  or  a group  of  islands. 

Cuba  was  once  a Spanish  colony,  but  is 
now  a republic.  The  United  States  has  a 
treaty  with  Cuba  which  provides  that,  in 
case  of  civil  war  in  Cuba,  we  will  send  a 
governor  to  rule  until  peace  comes  again. 
Not  long  ago  there  was  civil  war,  and  we 
sent  a governor  there  who  ruled  for  three 
years. 

The  governor  of  Porto  Rico  is  sent  from 
Washington.  The  members  of  Congress  are 
chosen  by  the  people,  but  their  Congress 
cannot  pass  laws  of  which  our  Congress 
at  Washington  disapproves. 

Haiti  is  about  the  size 
of  West  Virginia  and  has 
twice  as  many  people, 2 
almost  all  of  whom  are  the 
descendants  of  negro  slaves. 

There  are  two  countries 

Fig.  303.  Rainfall  of  San  Juan, 

Porto  Rico,  64.3  inches  per  year. 

This  rainfall  is  a trade  wind  shore 
type.  Will  this  rain  make  sugar 
cane  and  forests  grow? 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


195 


on  this  island:  Haiti,  whose 
people  speak  the  French 
language,  because  that  part 
of  the  island  once  was  a 
French  colony;  and  the 
Dominican  Republic,  where, 
for  a similar  reason,  Spanish 
is  spoken.  The  government 
of  these  countries  is  run 
partly  by  the  natives  and 
partly  by  the  United  States. 

These  countries  are  almost 
colonies  of  the  United 
States. 

382.  Agriculture. — Sugar 
cane,  coconuts,  bananas, 
oranges,  and  other  tropic 
fruits  thrive  in  the  trade- 
wind  islands.  Many  things 
grow  in  these  warm  lands 
that  can  not  be  produced 
successfully  in  most  parts 
of  the  United  States,  be- 
cause frost  injures  or  kills  them.  Especially 
does  sugar  cane  thrive,  and  sugar  is  the  chief 
export  from  the  West  Indies.  In  Louisiana, 
where  there  is  frost,  sugar  cane  must  be 
planted  every  year  or  two;  but  in  the  West 
Indies  and  some  other  tropic  countries,  the 
roots  live  from  seven  to  twelve  years,  and 
send  up  a crop  of  the  sweet  canes  each  season. 
Cuba,  which  is  about  the  size  of  Louisiana, 
but  which  has  more  people,  is  the  greatest 
sugar  island  in  the  world.  When  you  reach 
for  the  sugar  bowl  or  a glass  of  soda-water, 
you  can  think  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

383.  Sugar  plan- 
tations.— The  mill 
on  the  sugar  plan- 
tation is  a big 
building  having 
tall  smoke-stacks 

and  much  machin- 
Fig.  304.  Average  production  of  prv  cn  cane 

cane  sugar  in  five  leading  coun-  ery*  “lucri 
tries  (1916-1918)  Tons  is  needed  to  keep  a 

?uba mill  busy  through - 

B- Java 1,790,000  ° 

C.  Hawaii 610,000  out  the  season  that 

^ico cane  fields  may 

E.  Philippines 410,000  ...  . 

F.  ' United  States 270,000  stretch  as  tar  as 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  305.  Negro  women  going  to  market  in  Jamaica.  The  donkey  has  a load 
of  tropic  candy — sugar  cane.  What  signs  of  white  man’s  rule  does  this 

picture  show? 

one  can  see.  (Fig.  623.)  At  harvest-time  the 
cane  is  hauled  to  the  factory  on  little  tempor- 
ary railroads  or  on  carts  drawn  by  oxen.  These 
oxen  are  fed  on  the  leaves  that  fall  from  the 
cane.  The  sugar-fields  cover  only  about  one- 
twentieth  of  the  surface  of  Cuba,  but  the 
yield  of  this  small  area  is  so  great  that  it  needs 
a year  to  take  all  of  the  sugar  to  market,  even 
with  two  ships  carrying  away  a load  of  five 
thousand  tons  each  on  every  work  day. 
Cuba  also  sends  us  pineapples  and  tobacco. 

384.  Porto  Rico. — Porto  Rico  is  the  largest 
of  the  American  possessions  in  the  West 
Indies.  It  is  a densely  populated  island, 
about  twice  the  size  of  Delaware,  but  it  has 
six  times  as  many  people.  Most  of  the  land 
of  Porto  Rico  is  hilly  or  mountainous.  For 
this  reason  it  is  well  drained  and,  therefore, 
much  more  healthful  than  many  tropic  coun- 
tries. The  greater  part  of  the  people  are 
white,  and  of  the  Spanish  race,  because  this  is- 
land was  for  a long  time  a Spanish  possession. 

Most  of  the  people  make  their  living  on 
small  farms,  where  they  grow  bananas,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  many  garden  vegetables  for 
their  own  use. 


196  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


© Brown  & Dawson 

Fig.  306.  Women  working  in  a sugar  cane  field  in 
Barbados.  The  windmill  is  of  Dutch  type  with  sails 
on  its  wings.  Who  rules  this  island? 

The  trade  is  largely  with  the  United  States, 
the  chief  export  being  sugar,  which  is  grown 
on  the  level  land  near  the  sea.  Next  in 
importance  is  tobacco;  then  come  coconuts 
and  fruit.  Some  delicious  coffee  is  grown 
on  the  highlands.  There  is  an  agricultural 
experiment  station  in  Porto  Rico.  We  can 
see  the  importance  of  this  station,  and  of 
good  steamship  lines,  from  the  fact  that  the 
trade  in  grapefruit  grew  from  $7,000  in  1907, 
to  $700,000  in  1919. 

The  Porto  Rico  women  make  by  hand 
beautiful  embroidery,  which  they  sell  to 
people  of  other  countries. 

385.  Jamaica  and  Haiti. — Jamaica  and 
Haiti  export  excellent  coffee  from  their  hills, 
and  Jamaica  also  exports  many  bananas 
from  her  lowlands.  The  black  men  of  Haiti 
cut  mahogany  from  their  forests  to  be  made 
into  furniture. 

386.  The  Bahamas. — To  the  north  of  the 
four  mountainous  Greater  Antilles  are  the 
low,  flat  Bahama  Islands,  which  lie  close  to 
southern  Florida.  These  limestone  islands, 
which,  combined,  are  about  the  size  of  Con- 
necticut, were  made  by  coral  animals  that 
live  in  the  warm  sea.  Such  islands  have  a 
shallow,  dry  soil  (Sec.  21),  not  so  good  for 
agriculture  as  the  deeper,  moister  lands  of 
the  more  mountainous  islands.  The  chief 
export  of  the  Bahamas  is  sisal,  like  that  which 


grows  on  the  dry  limestone  soils  of  Yucatan. 
The  people  of  the  Bahamas,  like  the  people 
of  Key  West,  Florida  (Sec.  23),  gather  sponges 
in  the  shallow  water  near  their  islands. 

387.  Trinidad. — The  British  Island  of 
Trinidad  sends  us  cacao  beans,  from  which 
chocolate  is  made,  and  of  which  we  shall 
learn  more  in  another  part  of  the  book.  (Figs. 
575,  576.)  From  a wonderful  lake  of  asphalt 
on  this  island  come  shiploads  of  this  black 
substance  to  pave  our  city  streets.  In  the 
lake,  asphalt  flows  slowly  like  a huge  lump 
of  dough,  but  it  is  so  thick  and  so  tough 
that  it  has  to  be  dug  out  of  the  lake  with  a 
shovel.  The  morning  after  the  holes  have 
been  dug,  they  are  again  full  of  asphalt. 

388.  Cities  and  trade. — Trading  is  much 
easier  for  the  people  of  the  West  Indies  than 
for  the  people  of  Mexico  or  Central  America. 
There  are  few  swamps,  and  ships  can  come 
close  to  the  well-drained  plains  where  the 
people  live  and  have  their  plantations.  The 
largest  West  Indian  city,  Havana,  is  the 
capital  of  the  largest  island.  Other  impor- 
tant cities  are  San  Juan,  Kingston,  and  Port 
au  Prince.  Locate  them.  At  these  ports 
many  steamships  from  the  United  States  and 
Europe  call  to  leave  and  take  on  freight. 

389.  Coaling  stations. — The  town  of  Char- 
lotte Amalie  on  St.  Thomas,  .one  of  the  Virgin 
Islands,  which  the  United  States  bought  from 
Denmark  in  1917,  is  visited  by  many  steamers 
that  stop  for  coal  en  route  to  or  from  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  island  of  Barbados  is 
also  an  important  coaling  station  for  vessels 
on  the  trip  between  New  York  and  South 
America.  Port  of  Spain,  in  Trinidad,  has  an 
important  trade,  because  steamers  leave 
goods  there  to  be  sent  on  to  the  little  towns 
along  the  coast  of  Venezuela. 

390.  Food  and  trade. — The  West  Indian 
shops  are  filled  with  clothes  from  Europe; 
tools  and  hardware,  corn  meal,  wheat  flour, 
and  salt  pork  from  the  United  States;  and 
dried  codfish  from  Newfoundland. 

Salt  pork  and  dried  fish  are  important 
foods  in  such  places,  because  they  will  keep 
in  hot,  moist  weather  when  fresh  meat  would 
spoil  over  night.  If  the  people  do  not  choose 


THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


197 


to  buy  American  food,  they  can  live  com- 
fortably on  bananas,  sweet  potatoes,  cassava, 
beans,  and  other  vegetables  and  fruits  grown 
in  their  own  gardens. 

391.  A winter  vacation  land. — From  our 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  the  journey  to  these 
beautiful  islands  is  not  a long  one.  After 
four  or  five  days  at  sea,  the  steamer  comes 
in  sight  of  the  beautiful  green  hills,  waving 
palms,  and  friendly,  laughing  people  of  the 
West  Indies.  It  makes  a pleasant  winter 
vacation  to  leave  the  December  snows  of 
New  York  or  St.  Louis  and  go  to  this  land 
that  knows  no  frost. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Have  you  recently  eaten  anything  which  proba- 
bly came  from  the  West  Indies?  2.  Gather  together 
into  the  following  outline  the  facts  you  have  learned 
about  these  islands: 


Greater  Antilles. 

Lesser  Antilles. 

Name. 

Colony 

of. 

Chief 

Town. 

Impor- 

tant 

Products. 

Name. 

Colony 

of. 

Products. 

3.  Locate  the  Virgin  Islands.  How  were  they 
acquired  by  the  United  States?  What  is  the  chief 
value  of  these  tiny  isles  to  our  large  country? 

4.  Which  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  would  you  pre- 
fer to  visit?  Why?  5.  What  has  the  United  States 
Government  done  to  guarantee  good  government  in 
Cuba?  6.  What  is  the  distance  from  Havana  to 
New  York?  to  New  Orleans?  to  Galveston?  Name 
the  products  exported  from  Havana  to  each  of  these 
cities;  the  products  imported  from  these  cities. 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  308.  The  steamship  Paris , a great  French  ocean 
liner.  Tugs  are  pushing  her  into  the  dock  in  New  York 
harbor.  The  size  of  people  on  deck  help  you  to  see 
that  a ship  is  the  greatest  moving  thing  man  has  made. 

7.  Arrange  with  your  classmates  a West  Indian 
exposition.  Have  a boy  and  girl  come  as  natives 
from  each  island.  Let  them  bring  products  and  tell 
about  their  home  lands.  Perhaps  you  can  get  help 
from  an  encyclopedia. 

THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

392.  The  new  world  of  lands. — Christopher 
Columbus  and  the  other  brave  explorers 
found  a new  world  of  lands.  A new  world  of 
trade  came  later.  The  explorers  showed  the 
people  of  Europe  a new  sea  route  to  India, 
and  they  proved  that  there  were  such  lands 
as  North  America,  South  America,  South 
Africa,  and  Australia.  But  these  discoveries 
did  not  make  much  difference  in  the  lives  of 


Photo.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  307.  Where  is  the  Mississippi  River  steamer  pushing  these  grain  barges? 


men  because  machines,  rail- 
ways, and  steamships  were 
lacking. 

Even  in  George  Washing- 
ton’s time,  men  were  still 
getting  the  six  classes  of 
goods  (Sec.  1)  in  the  same 
way  as  they  had  a thousand 
years  before.  Man  still  had 
to  depend  upon  his  own 
muscles,  his  beasts  of 
burden,  the  wagon,  the  sail- 
boat, the  flatboat,  the  wind- 
mill, and  small  waterwheels. 
They  were  all  the  help  he 
had.  Livingundersuch  con- 
ditions, men  could  noteasily 
ii 


Fig.  309 


Fig.  309 


200  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  310.  A dirigible  balloon  anchored  to  its  mooring 
mast.  How  many  engines  and  propellers  does  it  have? 
Is  the  weather  clear  or  stormy?  What  advantages  has 
the  dirigible  over  the  airplane?  (Fig.  312.) 


travel  far  from  home,  so  there  was  not  one 
white  settlement  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
until  several  generations  after  the  discovery 
of  America.  For  the  same  reason,  almost  all 
of  the  white  people  in  America  still  lived  east 
of  the  Appalachians  for  the  first  three  hundred 
years  after  Columbus’s  time.  Men  had  to 
live  in  places  from  which  the  farmer’s  wagon 
could  take  loads  of  wheat  and  pork  down  to 
some  river  such  as  the  Mohawk,  the  Con- 
necticut, the  Susquehanna,  or  the  James. 
There  the  produce  could  be  put  on  a flatboat 
so  that  it  might  float  over  the  riffles  and  low 
rapids  down  to  the  fall  line,  where  sailing 
vessels  waited  to  take  the  produce  to  Europe 
or  the  West  Indies. 

In  that  time  the  chief  exports  of  North 
America  were  wheat,  flour,  pork,  codfish,  and 
a little  lumber.  The  foreign  trade  was  very 
small  indeed,  and  the  trade  among  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  was  even  smaller. 

393.  The  great  inventions. — During  the 
hundred  years  after  George  Washington’s 
time  many  great  inventions  were  made.  In 
that  century  America  saw  its  first  steamboat, 
canal,  railroad,  telegraph, 
telephone,  electric  motor,  gas 
engine,  and  automobile. 
Many,  many  different  kinds 
of  machines  gave  man  power 

Fig.  311.  Wheat  Production  1919- 
20:  Bushels 

A.  United  States 861,000,000 

B.  Canada 242,000,000 


Courtesy  U . S.  Air  Service 

Fig.  312.  An  airplane  mail  station  near  New  York  City. 
Name  three  common  means  by  which  mail  is  trans- 
ported. What  are  the  advantages  of  airplane  transpor- 
tation over  each  of  these  methods?  The  disadvantages? 


to  conquer  nature.  Most  important  of  all 
was  the  general  use  of  the  steam  engine  to 
drive  factory  machinery. 

394.  The  rush  for  new  lands. — As  one 
invention  after  another  gave  new  power,  the 
white  men,  who  had  lingered  for  two  hun- 
dred years  close  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  be- 
came more  and  more  able  to  transport  goods 
over  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and  plains, 
and  to  make  new  homes  where  wilderness 
had  been.  Then,  instead  of  living  as  Dave 
Douglas  lives,  they  could  send  produce  to 
market.  When  men  could  send  much  prod- 
uce instead  of  having  to  go  and  take  a little, 
they  could  live  in  distant  places.  Then  the 
rush  for  the  west  began.  The  heart  of  North 
America  was  settled  with  great  speed.  Ohio 
became  a state  in  1803;  Iowa  in  1846; 
Colorado  in  1876;  North  Dakota  in  1889; 
and  the  farmers  are  still  settling  the  new 
prairie  in  western  Canada.  (Sec.  92.) 

395.  The  new  world  of  trade. — Now  that 

man  can  ship  almost  anything  anywhere, 
nearly  all  the  people  of  North  America  live 
by  producing  a few  things  suited  to  their 
own  region  and  sending  them  in  trade  to 
other  regions.  This  ist  ( 


Fig.  313.  Wheat  exports,  yearly 
average  (million  bushels) : 

A.  United  States  (1918-20)  150 

B.  Canada  (1917-18) 100 

Compare  with  Fig.  311.  Why 
does  Canada  export  a greater 1 B 
share  of  her  wheat  than  the 

United  States? 


THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


201 


Fig.  314.  This  map  shows  the  location  of  all  cities  of  over  5000  population.  Can  you  name  the  central  city  of  each  group  of  cities?  Compare  this 
map  with  the  rainfall  map  of  the  U.  S.,  Fig.  158;  with  the  railroad  map,  Fig.  494;  and  with  the  occupation  map,  Fig.  467. 


202  THE  SOUTH  LANDS  AND  THE  TRADE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  315.  A passenger  steamer  on  the  American  Great 
Lakes.  Name  the  cities  at  which  this  great  ship  might 
call  on  a trip  westward  from  Buffalo  to  Duluth.  (Fig.  54.) 

really  a division  of  industries  or  a division 
of  labor  among  the  different  regions.  Each 
region  tends  more  and  more  to  produce  the 
few  things  that  it  can  best  produce,  and 
to  buy  from  other  regions  in  this  or  other 
countries  the  many,  many  things  which 
other  places  can  better  produce. 

396.  The  manufacturing  areas  and  the 
raw  material  areas. — Since  the  great  inven- 
tions have  been  made  we  have  built  up 
in  North  America  one  large  area  where 
manufactures  are  more  important  than  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  continent,  which  produce 
raw  material.  This  manufacturing  area  lies 
between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  and  between  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers. 

397.  Foreign  trade. — North  America  has 
many  regions,  with  all  ranges  of  climate, 
from  the  tropic  fields  of  cane  and  bananas 
to  the  tundra  pastures  on  the  Arctic  shores. 
Yet  we  have  need  for  many  of  the  products  of 
other  lands.  If  you  do  not  remember  them, 
look  up  the  places  (Fig.  9)  from  which  come 
silk,  tea,  coffee,  wool,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
palm  oil,  fine  wool  cloth,  and  laces. 

398.  Thousands  of  helpers. — If  we  could 
see  assembled  in  one  place  all  the  people  who 
have  helped  in  some  way  to  make  the  things 
for  sale  in  one  little  country  store,  we  should 
see  thousands  of  people.  And  other  thou- 
sands have  helped  in  the  transportation. 

By  day  and  by  night,  thousands  of  loco- 


motives never  cease  from  chugging  as  they 
pull  across  mountain,  plain,  and  river  train- 
loads of  goods  that  keep  alive  the  trade  of 
our  inland  regions.  On  the  rivers  and  lakes 
big  steamboats  with  clouds  of  black  smoke 
pouring  out  of  their  stacks  are  helping  to 
carry  the  materials  of  trade.  Ships  are  on 
every  sea.  They  pass  from  the  Pacific  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
through  the  great  gates  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Each  day  ocean  steamers  glide  into  the 
ports  of  our  country,  bringing  the  produce  of 
other  lands.  If  the  people  of  the  world 
would  all  work  and  treat  each  other  fairly, 
present  trade  possibilities  are  such  that  every 
one  might  live  very  comfortably. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Review  briefly  your  North  American  regions  aa 
follows:  (Figs.  21,  91,  and  210  will  aid.) 


Name  of 
Region. 

Three 

Products 

Exported. 

Where 

Sent. 

Three 

Products 

Imported. 

Origin  of 
Imports. 

2.  Why  were  the  owners  of  the  great  transcontinental 
railways  unfriendly  to  the  building  of  the  Panama 
Canal?  3.  How  did  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio 
rivers  aid  in  the  early  exploration  and  settlement  of 
our  country?  Which  would  be  of  more  value  to  our 
country  to-day — the  dredging  of  the  Ohio-Mississippi 
waterway,  or  the  building  of  another  railroad  along 
the  banks  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi?  Give  reasons 
for  your  answer.  4.  How  have  the  railroads  helped 
to  knit  our  country  into  one  nation? 

5.  Will  the  airplane  (Fig.  312)  and  the  dirigible 
(Fig.  310)  ever  be  the  efficient  servants  of  trade  that 
the  railroad  and  steamboat  (Figs.  122,  308)  have 
been?  Explain  fully. 

6.  From  Fig.  9 complete  the  following  outline: 


North 

American 

Seaports. 

Articles 

Exported. 

Destina- 
tion of 
Exports. 

Articles 

Imported. 

Origin  of 
Imports. 

7.  Europe  is  older  than  the  United  States.  Why  are 
her  people  poorer  than  those  of  this  country?  - • 

In  which  region  or  regions  would  you  advise 
an  immigrant  to  settle?  Why? 

Fig.  316.  Population  per  sq.  mile: 

A.  Europe 117 

B.  United  States  (1920) 35 

Does  this  explain  anything  about  wealth  and 
about  the  trade  between  the  two  continents? 


Courtesy  “The  World’s  Markets’ 

Fig.  317.  A view  of  the  harbor  of  Glasgow,  on  the  River 
Clyde.  The  river  here  was  so  shallow  a hundred  years  ago 
that  horses  could  wade  across.  Much  hard  work  was  neces- 
sary to  dig  out  a good  harbor  for  Glasgow.  Would  you  say 
that  the  Scotch  are  good  workers? 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN 

REGIONS 

THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE 


399.  The  mother  of  nations. — Europe  is  the 
smallest  of  the  inhabited  continents,  except 
Australia,  but  the  people  of  Europe  and  the 
people  who  have  recently  gone  from  Europe 
rule  most  of  the  world.  (Fig.  10.)  Euro- 
peans have  settled  North  and  South 
America  and  Australia. 

400.  A very  good 
continent. — European 
races  have  gained  this 
great  leadership  in  the 
world,  because  Europe, 
for  its  size,  is  the  best 
continent  for  making 
energetic  civilized 
men.  No  other  conti- 
nent has, on  the  whole,  a 
climate  that  is  as  good 
for  man.  In  no  other 
continent  is  such  a 
large  part  of  the  land 

n 


good  for  farming  and  manufacturing,  and 
so  suitable  for  easy  transportation. 

401.  Good  climate  and  surface. — Much  of 
North  America  is  too  cold  to  support  many 
people.  In  Europe,  the  cold  region  is  small. 
North  America  has  a large  dry  region.  The 
European  dry  region 
is  less  than  one-tenth 
of  the  continent. 
Europe  has  a larger 
wheat  belt  than  Amer- 
ica, a larger  potato 
belt,  and  a larger  ter- 
ritory where  the  fruits 
like  those  of  Califor- 
nia can  grow.  North 
America  has  a much 
greater  corn  belt  than 
Europe,  and  it  has  two 
things  that  Europe 
lacks  entirely,  (1)  a 


Fig.  318.  A map  showing  the  annual  rainfall  of  Europe. 
Compare  with  Fig.  144,  and  suggest  the  character  of 
rainfall  in  Europe  if  there  were  a mountain  range  along 
its  western  coast. 

(203) 


Fig.  319. 


0'ne(la 


Tallinn  1 

(Revol)!P«ii 


PHYSICAL  and  REGIONAL 

MAP  OF 

EUROPE 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


cypBUj 

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206 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  320.  Public  square  in  the  city  of  Riga.  Note  the  old  town  hall  with  its 
many  bits  of  statuary;  the  guild  hall  where  associations  of  business  men 
meet;  the  great  statue  of  a local  hero.  The  buildings  about  the  square  have 
stood  unchanged  for  hundreds  of  years.  Why  do  the  roofs  slope  so  steeply? 


large  cotton  belt,  and  (2)  a great  section 
with  moist,  tropic  climate.  While  Europe 
lacks  a tropic  section,  we  must  remember 
that  it  is  in  the  tropic  part  of  North  America 
that  white  men  are  few.  Europe  is  the  only 
continent  whose  climate  nearly  everywhere 
suits  the  white  man. 


Fig.  321.  Europe’s  wheat  acreage.  Compare  the  size 
of  wheat  areas  in  North  America  (Fig.  88)  and  Europe. 
Name  the  countries  which  export  wheat  to  western 
Europe. 

In  addition  to  having  a climate  good  for 
crops  and  for  men,  the  shape  of  Europe  and 
the  character  of  its  surface  help  to  make  it  a 
good  place  in  which  to  live.  Through  the 
center  of  the  continent,  reaching  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  boundary  of  Asia,  lies 

it 


a low  plain.  Throughout 
its  great  extent  the  plain 
has  rain  enough  to  reward 
the  farmers  who  till  the 
soil,  and  grass  enough  to 
feed  the  flocks  and  herds. 
It  is  only  near  the  Caspian 
Sea  that  the  grassland,  like 
some  of  our  own  great 
plains,  is  too  dry  for  grain 
crops.  Crop failureand fam- 
ine sometimes  happen  here. 

402.  Europe  has  more 
people  than  any  other  con- 
tinent except  Asia. — Europe 
has  about  three  times  as 
many  people  as  all  of  North 
America.  As  Europe  is  only 
about  half  as  large  as  North 
America,  it  is  plain  that  it 
has  much  less  land  per  person,  so  we  say  that 
Europe  is  densely  populated.  The  average 
size  of  farms  in  the  United  States  is  about 
130  acres,  while  in  France  it  is  only 
about  14  acres,  and  in  Italy  still  less.  The 
size  of  the  farms  in  Europe  tells  why  the 
people  are  not  so  rich  as  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  and  it  also  tells  why  so  many 


Photo.  J.  Russell  Smith 


Fig.  322.  The  work  dog  and  peasant  woman,  pulling 
side  by  side,  brought  this  wagon  load  of  produce 
from  the  country  districts  to  the  Leipzig  markets. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE 


207 


Fig.  324.  Slovak  embroidery  workers,  Czechoslovakia.  The  women  draw 
their  own  designs  freehand,  and  then  make  them  in  embroidery. 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


people  from  every  coun- 
try in  Europe  have  come 
to  America  seeking  homes. 

403.  Many  nations. — -In 
the  days  before  steamships 
and  railroads,  sheltered 
places,  like  mountain 
valleys,  peninsulas,  and 
islands,  helped  the  inhab- 
itants to  defend  their  land 
and  to  protect  themselves 
while  they  tilled  the  fields, 
educated  their  children, 
built  cities,  and  developed 
a civilization.  In  Europe, 
countries  like  Greece,  Italy, 

Switzerland,  and  England 
were  thus  protected  for  a 
long  time.  Their  peoples 
have  developed  languages 
of  their  own  and  a strong 
national  spirit.  Because  Europe  has  so 
many  of  these  naturally  protected  pieces  of 
land,  many  different  nations  have  grown  up. 

We  are  very  fortunate  indeed  that  most  of 
the  United  States  was  settled  after  the  rail- 
road and  the  steamboat  made  it  possible  for 
a wide  area  to  become  one  country  with  one 
language,  rather  than  fifteen  or  twenty 
countries  and  languages,  as  in  Europe. 


404.  A continent  of  interesting  sights  and 
sad  wars. — The  peoples  of  Europe  are  proud 
of  their  cities,  their  buildings,  their  statues, 
their  books,  and  their  traditions.  Most  of 
the  world’s  greatest  paintings,  sculpture, 
and  music  have  been  produced  somewhere  in 
Europe.  The  peoples  of  Europe  have  been 
settled  where  they  now  are  for  a period  of  time 
long  enough  to  allow  many  things  to  happen. 

That  is  one  reason  why 
Europe  has  so  many  places 
we  want  to  visit.  Travelers 
there  may  visit  cities  that 
are  one  or  two  thousand 
years  old.  They  may  see 
interesting  buildings  that 
were  built  before  the  time 
of  Columbus,  great  walls 
and  mined  forts  that  tell 
stories  of  many  wars  fought 
in  times  long  past.  Indeed, 
the  people  of  Europe  suf- 
fered untold  miseries  and 


Fig.  323.  This  map  illustrates  for  you  the  density  of  population  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Each  dot  represents  500,000  persons.  Give  two  good 
reasons  why  Europe,  the  smaller  continent,  has  a larger  population  than  North 
America.  From  Figs.  144,  328,  and  329  suggest  causes  for  the  sparse  popula- 
tion in  Canada  and  western  United  States.  As  you  study  Asia,  Africa,  South 
America,  and  Australia,  recall  this  chart  and  tell  why  few  people  live  in  certain 
areas,  and  why  many  people  live  in  other  areas. 


died  by  millions,  because 
of  the  hundreds  of  wars 
that  the  different  nations 
and  kings  of  Europe  have 
had  among  themselves. 


Fig,  325 


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Fig.  325 


210 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


405.  Studying  Europe. — Europe  has  many 
regions  that  are  much  like  the  regions  in 
North  America.  As  in  North  America,  so  also 
in  Europe  v/e  find  an  area  of  manufacturing 
and  other  areas  producing  food  and  raw 
materials.  Can  you  tell  from  the  popula- 
tion map  (Fig.  323)  where  the  manufacturing 
area  is  located? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  we  call  the  language  of  America  the 
English  language?  Make  a list  of  the  countries  in 
which  the  ancestors  of  members  of  your  class  or  people 
you  know  were  born.  Where  are  these  countries 
located?  Which  countries  are  peopled  by  the  Latin 
races?  Which  are  peopled  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  races? 
How  is  it  that  the  ancestors  of  so  many  Americans 
came  from  Europe?  Why  is  Europe  called  “The 
Mother  of  Nations”?  Watch  the  newspapers  to  see 
from  what  countries  new  immigrants  are  constantly 
coming.  2.  Compare  the  physical  map  of  Europe 
with  that  of  North  America.  In  what  direction  do  the 
principal  mountains  run?  Where  are  the  highest 
mountains?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  great  lowland 
region?  3.  If  you  were  planning  to  visit  Europe,  by 
what  route  would  you  go?  From  what  Atlantic  ports 
do  the  great  liners  sail?  How  far  is  it  from  New  York 
to  Liverpool?  How  long  would  the  trip  take?  4.  Is 
there  any  necessity  of  life  which  is  wholly  lacking  in 
Europe?  5.  What  grain  in  Europe  do  you  think 
would  be  ised  for  food  for  hogs  and  cattle  in  the  way 
corn  is  used  in  the  United  States? 

6.  Why  are  there  so  many  countries  in  Europe? 
What  countries  are  separated  by  the  Pyrenees?  by 
the  Alps?  by  the  Caucasus?  Where  is  Europe’s  cold 
region?  Where  is  her  dry  region?  Compare  her  wheat 


belt  with  that  of  North  America;  her  potato  belt. 

7.  In  which  continent,  Europe  or  America,  are  there 
more  people  living?  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you 
can  for  this  difference.  Why  do  European  people 
come  to  the  United  States? 

8.  What  can  we  learn  from  Europe  in  the  matter 
of  transportation?  As  you  study  paragraph  401, 
print  the  names  of  the  canals  and  the  rivers  that  help 
you  to  travel  by  water  across  inland  Europe.  9.  Why 
are  Americans  very  much  interested  in  studying 
about  Europe? 

THE  GREEN  NORTHLANDS 
406.  Scattered  lands  of  green  grass,  flocks, 
and  fish. — What  islands  lie  between  Scot- 
land, Norway,  and  Iceland?  (Fig.  319.)  These 
islands  together  with  Iceland,  west  Norway, 
and  the  northern  part  of  Scotland  are  cov- 
ered, where  there  is  any  soil,  with  green  grass, 
bushes,  or  trees.  The  summers  are  so  cool 
and  wet  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  plow 
the  ground  and  grow  grain.  But  all  this 
moisture  is  good  for  grass,  and  there  is 
scarcely  another  place  in  the  whole  world 
where  grass  is  so  very  green.  Flocks  of 
sheep  and  herds  of  shaggy  cattle  and  short- 
legged, thick-coated  ponies  are  a source  of 
wealth.  Animals  in  this  region  can  run  at 
pasture  for  more  months  in  the  year  than 
is  possible  in  New  York  State.  When 
snow  covers  the  ground,  they  are  fed  on  hay 
that  is  made  with  great  labor  (Fig.  330). 

The  inhabitants  of  the 
Northlands  are  brave  and 
hardy  sailors  whose  chief 
industry  is  fishing.  They 
catch  quantities  of  cod  and 
herring,  which  they  dry  or 
salt  for  export. 

Most  of  the  people  live 
in  stone  houses  roofed  with 
thatch  or  sod  and  heated 
with  peat  fires  (Fig.  333). 

407.  Sailing  in  northern 
seas. — Every  summer, 
steamers  carrying  tourists 
sail  from  New  York  to  Ice- 
land. After  sailing  around 
that  island,  the  boats  go  on 
to  the  northernmost  tip  of 
Europe.  What  cape  forms 
the  tip?  (Fig.  325.)  In  the 


Fig.  326.  Pulling  in  the  net  in  a Norwegian  fiord.  Where  may  the  salt 


herrings  be  eaten?  Did  you  ever  hear  of  Norwegian  cod  liver  oil? 
II 


THE  GREEN  NORTHLANDS 


211 


Fig.  327.  The  courses  of  the  ocean  currents.  What  two  kinds  of  currents  are  illustrated  on  the  map?  Name 
the  kind  which  washes  the  shores  of  western  Europe;  of  Labrador;  of  Chile;  of  western  North  America.  Trace 

the  path  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 


same  latitude  the  seas  of  North  America  are 
so  full  of  floating  ice  that  in  three  centuries 
of  trying,  only  one  explorer  has  sailed  his 
boat  across  from  the  Bering  Strait  to  Davis 
Strait,  and  the  voyage  took  three  years  of 
hard  work.  (Sec.  359.) 

What  makes  such  a difference?  The  an- 
swer is  ocean,  and  currents.  The  Gulf  Stream 
is  a great  current  of  warm  water  that  flows 
from  the  tropic  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
(Fig.  327).  The  trade  winds  of  the  Atlantic 
blow  a current  of  warm  water  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  This  current  forces  its  way  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and,  like  a great  river 
within  the  ocean,  flows  out  between  Florida 
and  Cuba  as  fast  as  a man  can  walk,  and 
carries  eighteen  hundred  times  as  much 
water  as  the  Mississippi  river.  This  ocean 
river  or  stream  can  be  traced  northward  as 
far  as  Newfoundland.  The  prevailing  west- 
erly winds  carry  some  of  this  warm  water 
on  past  England,  past  Norway,  and  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  When  it  reaches  northwest 
Europe  it  is  still  warm  enough  to  cause  the 
winter  temperature  to  be  much  less  severe. 


Labrador,  in  the  same  latitude,  is  very,  very 
cold.  Why?  (Fig.  327,  Sec.  251.) 

Examine  the  winter-temperature  map  (Fig. 
329),  and  then  pick  out  a city  in  Iceland, 
three  cities  in  North  America,  and  three  in 
Europe  that  are  near  the  January  isotherm 
(equal  temperature  line)  of  32°. 

How  many  degrees  of  latitude^and  how 
many  miles  lie  between  the  northernmost 
place  and  the  southernmost  place  having 
a January  temperature  of  30  °? 

408.  A warm  north  coast. — In  winter  the 
bays  along  the  Labrador  coast  and  the  har- 
bor of  Vladivostok  are  frozen  shut,  but  the 
harbors  along  the  entire  Norwegian  coast  are 
open  because  the  warm  water  of  the  eastern 
Atlantic  Ocean  keeps  them  from;  freezing. 
During  the  World  War  it  was“  found  that 
when  Archangel  was  closed  by  ice,  the  little 
Russian  port  of  Murmansk  on  Kola  Bay  in 
Lapland  was  open.  (Fig.  325.)  A little  of 
the  warm  Gulf  Stream  water  slips  around 
the  North  Cape  and  keeps  the  ice  away. 

409.  A cool,  damp  summer,  and  a raw,  mild 
winter. — Look  at  Figs.  328  and  329;  you 


212 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


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Aires 


Auckland 


Hobart 


Fig.  328.  A world  chart  showing  the  average  temperatures  for  July.  The  wave-like  east-west  lines  are  called 
isotherms.  Those  on  this  map  connect  places  having  the  same  average  temperature  for  the  whole  month.  Com- 
pare the  location  of  the  hot  areas  on  this  map  and  on  Fig.  329. 


will  see  that  the  summer  is  warmer  and  the 
winter  is  colder  in  the  great  forests  of  the 
Mackenzie  Valley  and  central  Siberia  'than 
it  is  in  Iceland,  west  Norway,  or  the  north 
of  Scotland.  The  long  hours  of  sunshine 
heat  the  land  surface  quickly,  but  the  sea 
is  heated  very  slowly.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this,  one  of  which  is  that  the  stir- 
ring of  the  water  by  the  wind  causes  the  sea 
to  be  warmed  to  a greater  depth  than  the 
land.  Another  reason  is  that  more  heat  is 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a given 
amount  of  water  than  is  needed  for  the  same 
amount  of  earth.  Water  holds  its  heat 
longer,  and  therefore  oceans  and  other  large 
bodies  of  water  are  warmer  in  winter  and 
cooler  in  summer  than  is  the  land.  The 
west  wind,  warmed  by  the  ocean  in  winter, 
gives  the  green  Northland  region  a winter 
that  is  cool  but  not  cold.  In  summer  this 
same  ocean  cools  the  wind  and  gives  the 
green  Northland  a summer  that  is  almost 
as  cool  as  the  winter  (Figs.  328,  329), 
besides  having  much  dampness  and  rain. 


Those  countries  which  have  a cool  summer 
and  a warm  winter  because  they  are  near  the 
ocean  from  which  the  prevailing  wind  blows, 
are  said  to  have  an  oceanic  climate.  What 
is  the  difference  between  the  average  tem- 
peratures in  July  and  January  in  west  Nor- 
way? in  east  coast  Siberia?  in  central  Siberia? 

410.  The  Icelanders. — The  Icelanders,  who 
are  of  Norwegian  stock,  have  been  on  their 
island  for  over  a thousand  years.  For  a long 
time  Iceland  was  a colony  of  Denmark,  but 
now  it  is  independent.  The  people  are  highly 
educated.  It  is  said  that  people  in  Iceland 
buy,  read,  and  write  more  thoughtful  books 
than  the  same  number  of  people  anywhere  else. 

411.  The  Norwegian  coast. — The  coast  of 
Norway  resembles  the  coast  of  British  Colum- 
bia and  Alaska  in  latitude,  climate,  and  rough- 
ness. The  greater  part  of  this  coast  once 
sank  deep  into  the  sea,  and  only  the  tops  of 
the  mountains  remain  above  water.  As 
the  coast  sank,  the  sea  came  in  and  filled 
up  the  valleys  between  the  mountaintops, 
making  deep  bays,  called  fiords.  Some  of 


THE  GREEN  NORTHLANDS  213 


these  fiords  reach  back  a hundred  miles  from 
the  seacoast.  The  shores  rise  steeply  from 
the  water’s  edge,  leaving  scarcely  room 
enough  for  a house.  Where  there  is  a little 
flat  place,  you  may  see  fishermen’s  houses, 
or  here  and  there  the  home  of  a man  who  has 
a tiny  farm.  All  the  people  of  western  Nor- 
way live  along  this  shore.  In  summer,  many 
of  them  fish  for  herring  or  cod,  or  pasture 
animals  on  the  mountain  grasslands.  In 
winter  they  cut  timber  on  the  forested  hills. 
The  Atlantic  waters  make  Norway  warm 
enough  for  forests  on  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  mountains,  but  Iceland,  being  nearer 
a cold  current  that  creeps  down  the  Green- 
land coast,  is  so  cool  in  summer  that  only 
dwarf  trees  will  grow  there. 

412.  The  tip  of  Scotland  and  the  islands 
near  it  were  once  forest  covered,  but  long 
ago  the  forest  was  cut  away  to  make  room 
for  pasture  (Sec.  406). 

413.  Unused  resources  and  shipowning. — 
The  people  on  these  scattered  isles  and 
shores  have  little  room  to  raise  more  sheep 


and  cattle  unless  they  buy  the  feed  for 
them,  but  they  can  catch  more  fish  if  the 
demand  for  sea  food  should  increase. 

This  Northland  is  a poor  place  in  which 
to  start  a new  business,  but  since  the  Nor- 
wegians are  a nation  of  fishermen,  and  often 
buy  ships  with  money  they  wish  to  invest, 
many  thousand  Norwegians  are  sailing  on 
distant  seas,  carrying  freight  of  foreign 
countries.  Our  bananas  are  often  brought 
to  the  United  States  from  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indies  in  Norwegian  ships, 
manned  by  Norwegian  sailors.  With  the 
money  that  her  ships  earn,  Norway  pays 
for  many  things  she  buys  in  other  lands. 

The  American  Consul  at  Kristiansund, 
Norway,  said  of  his  consular  district:  “These 
counties  constitute  the  extreme  southwestern 
corner  of  Norway  and  have  a coast  line  more 
than  200  miles  long.  The  land  surface  is  a 
mass  of  solid  rock.  Small  patches  of  soil 
have  accumulated  in  narrow  valleys  and 
along  the  rivers,  but  only  about  one-half 
of  one  per  cent  of  the  total  area  is  actually 


214 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Fig.  330.  Putting  hay  on  the  fence  to  dry  in  a damp  Norwegian  mountain 
field,  because  it  will  not  dry  on  the  ground.  Compare  the  amount  of  hay 
per  day’s  work  here  and  in  Fig.  73. 

under  cultivation,  and  the  farm  land,  includ- 
ing hay  and  meadow  lands,  constitutes  only 
slightly  more  than  two  per  cent  of  the  total 
land  area.  The  people  live  from  the  sea,  as 
fishermen  and  sailors,  and  large  shipping 
concerns  have  grown  up  in  the  coast  towns, 
whose  fleets  trade  on  all  the  seven  seas  and 
whose  vessels  rarely  see  their  home  port.” 

Iceland  and  west  Norway  have  another 
resource.  Much  water  power  is  furnished 
by  the  streams  that  tumble  down  from  the 
snowfields  on  the  highlands.  Already  there 
are  many  power  plants  in  Norway  (Fig. 

405).  Norwegian  capitalists  are  planning 
to  build  a series  of  six  water-power  plants  in 
Iceland,  to  yield  more  power  per  person 
for  Iceland  than  we  have  developed  per 
person  in  the  United  States  in  all  our 
factories.  It  is  possible  that  the  Icelanders 
may  use  the  electric  current  to  make  fer- 
tilizer (nitrates),  or  to  smelt  ores,  as  the 
people  of  Norway  do;  or  to  run  factories 
and  live  much  as  the  people  of  New 
England  do. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  these  scattered  lands  studied  as  one 


group?  2.  Compare  the  climate  of  this  region  with 
the  climate  of  the  west  shores  of  the  Atlantic  in  the 


same  latitude.  Why  is  the  pasture 
season  longer  here  than  in  the 
state  of  New  York?  What  coast 
in  North  America  has  climate 
similar  to  west  Norway?  3.  What 
other  coast  that  you  have  studied 
is  somewhat  like  the  coast  of 
Norway  in  formation?  (Fig.  165.) 
4.  Why  do  the  people  of  Norway 
have  more  ships  than  the  same 
number  of  people  in  the  United 
States?  5.  Why  are  the  people  of 
the  Northlands  fishermen?  Of 
what  people  in  North  America 
do  they  remind  you?  Why  are 
they  hardy  seamen? 

6.  If  you  should  go  to  Iceland 
to  live,  in  what  business  would 
you  like  to  engage?  7.  Do  the 
people  of  Iceland  have  much 
commerce?  If  so,  with  which 
countries?  What  have  they  to 
trade?  (Fig.  9.) 

8.  Locate  a place  in  this  region 
where  daylight  lasts  24  hours  on 
June  21st.  9.  Give  two  reasons 

why  people  like  to  visit  this 
region.  10.  Read  stories  of  Odin, 
Thor,  and  others  that  the  old 
Norsemen  have  given  to  us.  Try  to  find  out  who  some 
of  the  writers  of  Iceland  are. 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 

414.  The  region. — England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales  make  up  the  island  called  Great 
Britain.  These  countries,  together  with 
Ireland  and  about  five  thousand  smaller 
islands  near  by  are  popularly  spoken  of  as 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  In  1922,  however,  Ireland  was 
politically  divided  into  the  Irish  Free  State, 
with  Dublin  its  capital;  and  Northern 
Ireland,  with  Belfast  its  capital.  These 
islands,  with  India,  the  British  dominions 
and  colonies,  comprise  the  British  Common- 
wealth of  Nations,  or  British  Empire. 
(Fig.  10.) 

415.  The  surface. — The  British  Isles  were 
once  almost  entirely  covered  by  a great 
glacier,  just  as  were  parts  of  North  America. 
This  ice-sheet  caused  many  lakes  in  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  the  north  of  England. 

Most  of  Scotland  is  made  up  of  two  high- 
lands. The  southern  highlands  of  Scotland 
extend  on  into  England  as  a low  range  that 
reaches  to  the  center  of  the  country.  Nearly 
all  of  Wales  is  mountainous.  How  high  are 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


215 


Fig.  331.  Wheat  yield  per  acre 
in  bushels 

A.  Belgium 38.0 

B.  Germany 34.3 

C.  United  Kingdom 3 1 .3 

D.  France 20.4 

E.  United  States 15.5 

the  mountains  of  Wales? 
of  Scotland?  What  moun- 
tains in  the  United  States 
are  of  about  the  same 
height?  (Fig.  309.) 

The  south  and  east 
(parts  of  England  are  a level  or  gently  rolling 
plain.  Much  of  it  was  once  swampy  and 
was  called  the  fen,  but  it  has  been  drained 
by  ditches  and  is  now  farmed. 

I Most  of  Ireland  is  a plain  with  many  peat 
bogs  (grassy  swamps)  near  the  lakes,  and 
low  ranges  of  hills  along  the  coasts. 

416.  Climate  and  energy. — The  United 
Kingdom  lies  in  the  path  of  cyclonic  storms 
(Sec.  59),  such  as  we  have  in  the  United 
States.  Indeed,  many  of  our  storms  travel 
across  the  Atlantic  and  over  Britain  before 
their  long  journeys  are  completed.  A geog- 
rapher, Dr.  Huntington  of  Yale  University, 
says  that  the  changes  in  the  weather  which 
occur  with  the  passing  of  these  storms  are 
very  important  indeed  for  the  health  and 
energy  of  men.  The  changes  from  cool  to 
warm,  from  rain  to  clear,  make  people  feel 
like  doing  things.  Perhaps  this  changing 
weather  helps  to  explain  the  energy  of  the 
British.  Certain  it  is  that 
the  people  are  energetic  in 
work,  in  trade,  in  explora- 
tion, and  in  play.  From  them 
we  got  football,  cricket,  ten- 
nis, polo,  golf,  and  the  mus- 
cle-building rowing  race. 

417.  Climate  and  crops. 

— If  we  compare  the  climate 
of  the  British  Isles  with 
that  of  eastern  North 
America,  we  shall  see  how 
different  the  two  sides  of  an 
ocean  can  be  (Fig.  329).  All 
England  lies  farther  north 
than  does  the  island  of 
Anticosti  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Fig.  332. 


Lawrence  (Fig.  210).  We  found  in  Section 
251  that  Anticosti  is  too  cold  for  farming, 
yet  England,  still  farther  north,  is  one  of  the 
best  agricultural  countries  of  the  world.  In 
the  cold  waste  of  the  interior  of  Labrador 
there  is  not  one  fanner  or  one  flock  of 
cheep  or  one  herd  of  cows.  Yet  directly 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  Scotland,  flocks 
of  sheep  graze  in  rich  pasture  in  summer;  in 
winter  there  is  so  little  snow  that  they  some- 
times live  without  shelter,  pasturing  on  the 
damp  Scotch  hills. 

This  oceanic  climate  (Sec.  409)  gives 
western  Europe  surprisingly  warm  winters 
and  cool  summers.  England  cannot  grow 
corn  in  these  cool  summers;  but,  in  all  parts 
of  the  islands  where  it  is  not  too  damp 
(Sec.  406),  the  small  grains — wheat,  oats, 
barley,  and  rye — flourish,  as  do  potatoes, 
peas,  and  most  garden  vegetables. 

418.  Agriculture.  — Wheat  and  milk. — 
What  is  the  rainfall  of  Wales?  of  the  East- 
ern Plain  of  England?  (Fig.  318.)  Why 
the  difference?  (Figs.  340,  157.)  Eastern 
England  is  one  of  the  finest  wheat  countries 
in  the  world.  The  English  wheat  yield 
per  acre  is  over  30  bushels,  while  in  the 
United  States  it  is  about  15  bushels.  De- 
spite her  fine  yield,  England  is  not  growing 
as  much  wheat  as  she  did  a hundred  years 
ago,  because  her  people  are  now  busy  with 
manufacture.  The  United  Kingdom  has  so 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

A country  home  m beautiful  rural  England. 


n-11 


216 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  333.  An  Irish  peasant’s  cottage  and  barn  with  strong  stone  walls  and 
thatched  roofs.  Name  some  product  the  farmer  will  sell. 


many  people  that  much  of  her  agricultural 
land  is  in  dairy  farms  producing  milk  for 
her  many  city  people  (Sec.  425).  Why? 
(Sec.  95.) 

Wales,  northwestern  England,  and  the 
southern  lowland  of  Scotland  are  lying  much 
of  the  time  under  clouds,  mist,  and  showers. 
The  land  is  too  wet  for  the  plow,  but  good 
for  grass.  Here,  on  the  treeless  green  hills,  is 
the  shepherd  with  his  big  woolen  coat,  his 
staff,  his  flock  of  sheep,  and  his  collie  dog. 
Even  some  dairy  farms  on  the  level  clay  lands 
near  Liverpool  are  not  plowed  at  all,  because 
one  rain  follows  another  before  the  sticky 
soil  can  dry  enough  for  planting.  In  addi- 
tion to  grass,  the  cows  eat 
hay  and  grain,  which  are 
brought  by  ship  to  Liver- 
pool. 

419.  Irish  agriculture. — 

Clouds,  fog,  and  showers 
furnish  so  much  moisture 
that  Ireland  is  rightly  called 
the  Emerald  Isle,  because 
its  fields  are  so  very  green. 

The  island  is  too  wet  to 
suit  wheat,  but  grass,  pota- 
toes, and  oats  (Figs.  354, 

378)  grow  well.  Most  of  the 
Irish  people  are  farmers, 
busy  with  herds  of  sheep, 
cattle,  and  swine,  and  flocks 
of  chickens.  From  the 
farms  of  Ireland,  milk,  but- 


ter, bacon,  and  eggs  go  to 
the  cities  of  England.  The 
houses  in  the  country  are 
often  built  of  stone,  and 
have  roofs  of  thatch  (Fig. 
333).  The  household  fires 
burn  dried  peat,  of  which 
the  many  bogs  of  Ireland 
furnish  plenty.  (Fig.  336.) 

420.  When  England  was 
an  agricultural  country. — 
At  the  time  of  Columbus, 
the  Low  Countries,  now 
called  Holland  and  Belgium, 
were  greater  manufacturers 
than  was  England,  and 
were  very  famous  for  their  woolen  cloth, 
much  of  which  was  made  from  English 
wool.  At  that  time  England  was  still 
an  agricultural  country,  and  wool  from 
her  flocks  was  the  chief  article  of  export. 
Then  the  southeastern  plain  (Fig.  340) 
was  the  richest,  most  populous,  and  most 
important  part  of  England.  For  centuries 
southeastern  England  was  the  home  of  the 
rich  gentlemen  of  England.  They  owned 
large  estates,  and  there  are  still  many 
old  mansions  (Fig.  332)  with  beautiful 
grounds  scattered  about  this  farming  region J 
The  novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  will  show  you 
that  in  1750  the  western  and  northern  parts 


© E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  334.  Muck  Ross  Abbey,  Killamey,  Ireland,  one  of  the  many  ruins 
that  date  back  to  the  time  of  Columbus. 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


217 


Fig.  335.  Five  leading  countries  in 
the  production  of  iron  ore  (1913): 

Tons 

A.  United  States 61,000,000 

B.  Germany 26,000,000 

C.  France 21,000,000 

D.  United  Kingdom. . 15,000,000 

E.  Spain 9,000,000 


of  Great  Britain  were  thought 


421.  The  age  of  coal. — In  1740,  an  Eng- 
lishman succeeded  in  making  a steam 
engine  that  would  burn  coal  and  pump 
water  out  of  a coal  mine.  In  the  next  sixty 
years  other  inventions  were  made,  and  spin- 
ning and  weaving  machines  could  then  be 
driven  by  a steam  engine  or  water  wheel. 
In  a short  time  these  new  machines  entirely 
changed  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
country.  Cloth  was  no  longer  made  by  hand 
in  the  roadside  cottages  of  the  farming 
regions,  where  food  was  grown  close  by. 
It  was  made  instead  in  big  buildings  near  the 
coal  mines  or  waterfalls.  A few  loads  of 
coal  could  furnish  power  to  run  a hundred 
machines  at  once.  Mines  were  dug,  facto- 
ries were  built,  and  towns  grew.  To-day 


© E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  336.  The  chunks  of  peat  cut  from  the  Irish 
bog  are  being  dried  for  winter  fuel.  What  might 
happen  to  turn  the  peat  bog  into  coal?  (Sec.  286.) 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  337.  A loom  weaving  woolen  cloth  for  export. 
The  weaver  has  in  her  hand  one  of  the  bobbins  on 
which  yam  for  the  cloth  is  wound.  Name  the 

countries  from  which  this  wool  may  have  come. 

the  coal  fields,  not  the  grain  fields,  have 
the  denser  population,  and  the  wild  country 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott’s  time  is  now  dotted  with 
manufacturing  cities. 

No  other  country  in  the  world  was  so  well 
adapted  as  England  to  use  coal  and  to  build 
up  factories  in  the  days  before  the  railroad 
came.  In  the  United  States  the  coal  field 
nearest  to  the  sea  is  a hundred  miles  inland. 
Britain  has  coal  fields  beside  the  sea:  at 
Newcastle  on  the  northeast  coast,  at  Cardiff 
in  south  Wales,  near  Glasgow  in  west 
Scotland,  and  also  in  northwest  England. 
These  coalfields  are  now  busy  centers  of  min- 
ing and  manufacturing.  Before  men  had 
steamships  or  railroads,  England  could  import 
cotton  and  wool  in  sailing  vessels,  and  land 
these  raw  materials  close  beside  her  coal 
mines  and  her  factories,  to  be  made  into 
cloth.  Ships  could  then  easily  take  the 
cloth  to  markets  over  the  sea.  When 
the  locomotive  was  invented,  British  man- 
ufacturers had  already  made  a good  start, 
and  for  a hundred  years  England  was  the 
greatest  manufacturing  country  in  the  world. 


218 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Courtesy  American  Woolen  Co. 

Fig.  338.  Spinning  cotton  yam  by  the  mile.  How  many  threads  do  you  think 
this  row  of  machines  makes?  Compare  with  Fig.  3. 

422.  The  cotton  industry.  — The  little 
county  of  Lancashire,  with  its  capital  at 
Manchester,  is  no  larger  than  the  state  of 
Delaware,  but  it  is  the  world’s  greatest 
cotton-manufacturing  center.  Its  damp 
climate  helped  the  industry  to  start,  because  in 
damp  air  fibers  may  be  twisted  into  thread 
without  being  broken.  In  Manchester  and 
in  the  many  towns  near  it  one  can  now  hear 
almost  all  day  long  the  clack,  clack,  clack  of 
looms,  and  the  whir  of  spinning  machines. 

The  phrase  “Manchester  goods”  means 
cotton  cloth  to  millions  of  black  men  in  Africa, 
brown  men  in  India,  yellow  men  in  China, 
dark-skinned  Indians  in  South  America,  and 
negroes  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1919,  the 
total  British  export  of  cotton  cloth  would 
have  provided  thirty  yards  for  every  person 
in  the  United  States.  Ocean  steamships  load 
and  unload  at  Manchester,  using  the  35- 
mile  ship  canal  from  Liverpool. 

The  coal  from  southern  Scotland  and  the 
raw  materials  brought  by  ships  to  the  port  of 
Leith  have  made  a factory  town  of  Edin- 
burgh, the  capital  of  Scotland,  home  of 
Scotch  kings  for  centuries. 

423.  Other  textiles. — East  of  Lancashire 
is  Yorkshire.  It  is  as  famous  for  its  woolens 


as  Lancashire  is  for  its 
cottons.  Leeds,  Bradford, 
Huddersfield,  and  York  are 
full  of  mills  making  woolen 
cloth  which  tailors  will  tell 
you  is  as  fine  as  any  in  the 
world. 

Each  year  the  town  of 
Dundee,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Scotland,  imports  ship- 
loads of  jute  fiber  from 
India  (Sec.  693)  and  weaves 
from  it  millions  of  yards  of 
gunny  sacking  or  burlap. 

In  the  northeastern  part 
of  Ireland  is  a great  linen- 
manufacturing  center. 
Damp  climate  has  helped 
to  make  Irish  linen  famous. 
If  the  air  is  dry  the  linen 
thread  may  break,  but  Irish 
climate  is  damp  and  the  thread  does  not 
break;  so  the  weaving  can  be  smooth  and 
even.  A hundred  years  ago  linen  was  made 
by  hand  in  almost  every  Irish  home,  but 
when  the  power-loom  came,  weaving  was 
done  in  factories.  The  city  of  Belfast  then 
became  the  leader,  and  now  much  fine 
linen  is  made  there.  Most  of  the  flax  fiber, 
the  raw  material  for  linen,  is  imported  from 
Poland. 

424.  Iron,  machinery,  and  ships. — Bir- 
mingham and  surrounding  towns  stand  near 
the  central  coal  fields  of  England.  This 
region,  like  that  between  Pittsburgh  and 
Detroit,  makes  iron  and  steel.  From  these 
are  manufactured  automobiles  and  many 
other  kinds  of 
heavy  goods.  t-<a  n b 
Sheffield,  farther  ' 
north,  is  the  great 
center  for  the 

manufacture  of  w ^ ; u ( ( 

cutlery  and  fine  Fl8.339.EelaUveamollllt,)fwool 

imported  (1909-13  average)  by: 
Million 
pounds 
601 


steel  articles. 

England  is  the 
greatest  ship- 
building country 
in  the  world.  As 


A.  France 

B.  United  Kingdom . . . 500 

C.  Germany 481 

D.  United  States 203 


219 


Fig.  340 


220 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


ships  must  be  built  where  they  can  slide 
into  the  water,  England,  having  many 
bays,  rivers,  and  harbors,  as  well  as  coal 
and  iron,  is  an  excellent  place  for  this 
industry.  On  her  northeastern  coast,  the 
towns  of  Newcastle,  Tynemouth,  Sunder- 
land, Hartlepool,  and  Middlesbrough  have 
coal  at  their  very  doors,  and  docks  where 
ships  can  unload  iron  ore  from  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Spain.  Thus  these  towns  can 
supply  the  iron  for  ships,  and  dig  coal  to 
run  the  machinery  of  the  shipyard.  When  a 
ship  is  built,  it  can  slide  into  the  water,  take 
a load  of  coal,  and  sail  away  to  a foreign  land. 
Glasgow  and  the  other  towns  on  the  Clyde 
have  the  same  advantage.  The  Clyde  is 
the  greatest  shipbuilding  river  in  the  world. 
Another  great  shipbuilding  center  is  Belfast, 
in  northwest  Ireland,  to  which  coal  can 
easily  be  brought  across  the  narrow  waters 
from  Glasgow. 

British  coal  also  feeds  the  smelting  in- 
dustry, for  many  ores  of  copper  and  silver 
are  shipped  from  other  lands  to  places  like 
Cardiff  for  final  smelting. 

425.  Living  in  cities. — In  England  and 
Scotland  there  is  so  much  manufacturing, 
and  so  many  people  are  living  by  trade,  that 
most  of  the  people  live  in  cities.  No  other 
place,  except  parts  of  our  own  New  England 
(Sec.  238),  has  so  large  a part  of  its  popula- 
tion living  in  cities.  Many  of  these  factory 


Fig.  342.  Bushels  of  grain  produced 
per  person  (1911-13): 

A.  United  States 50.8 

B.  Canada 47.7 

C.  United  Kingdom 6.7 

Does  this  explain  anything  about 

trade? 

towns  are  so  crowded  and  un- 
wholesome that  many  young 
men  have  been  found  to  be 
unfit  when  examined  for 
army  service.  Helpful  people 
are  now  trying  to  change  these  conditions, 
and  already  one  small  English  factory 
town  called  Garden  City  (Letchworth),  near 
London,  is  the  best-planned  town  in  the 
world.  (Fig.  347.)  It  was  started  by  a stenog- 
rapher, who  had  a vision  of  a city  that 
for  living  might  be  like  the  country 
and  for  business  like  the  city.  His  dream 
came  to  pass,  because  he  worked  and  per- 
suaded others  to  help  him.  Every  house 
in  this  town  is  near  to  the  factories,  near  to 
the  playgrounds,  and  near  to  the  fields  where 
food  is  grown.  The  men  who  work  in  the 
factories  can  all  have  gardens,  can  play  out- 
door games  if  they  want  to,  and  can  walk 
about  in  the  country.  There  should  be  more 
such  towns ; then  factory  workers  would  have 
better  health  and  more  recreation  and 
pleasure  in  their  lives. 

426.  Recreation. — Football  is  played  all 
winter  in  Great  Britain,  for  their  oceanic 
climate  (Sec.  409)  does  not  have  frost  enough 
to  stop  it.  A hundred 
thousand  people  sometimes 
go  to  see  a football  game, 
and  teams  from  neighboring 
factories  often  play  matches 
on  Saturday  afternoons. 
The  summer  is  cool  enough 
for  active  games  in  the 
warmest  months.  Many 
athletic  sports  are  played 
all  the  year,  and  you  may 
see  people  of  all  ages  cheer- 
fully tramping  about  the 
country,  even  on  rainy  days. 
The  English  love  to  take 
walks  and  to  row  boats, 
and  when,  on  holidays,  the 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  341.  Trafalgar  Square  in  the  heart  of  London,  named  to  commemorate 
a famous  naval  battle. 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


221 


© Wm.  H.  Rau,  Inc. 

Fig.  343.  The  Thames  River,  and  Windsor  Castle,  for  many  centuries  the  home  of  English  kings  and  queens. 


j. 


, 


crews  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  two 
oldest  English  universities,  meet  for  their 
annual  boat  race  on  the  Thames  above 
London,  the  river  is  so  full  of  boats  that 
they  can  hardly  pass  each  other. 

The  British  business  man  often  has  a side 
job,  or  hobby.  Thus,  a banker  or  a merchant 
may  have  a collection  of  butterflies  or  roses, 
and  he  may  know  more  about  these  things 
than  anybody  else  in  his  town.  If  they  can 
afford  it,  British  people  often  have  attractive 
flower  gardens.  English  country  districts 
have  many  beautiful,  green,  smooth-clipped 
lawns,  well-trimmed  hedges,  and  stately 
shade  trees.  (Fig.  332.) 

427.  World  location. — Look  at  a globe, 
or  map  of  the  world  (Fig.  10),  and  find  the 
place  that  is  exactly  on  the  other  side  of 
the  world  from  London  (longitude  180°  E., 
latitude  5134°  S.).  Then  look  at  England. 
Which  location  is  the  better  for  trading  with 
all  the  countries  of  the 
world?  Why? 

England  is  close  to 

the  mainland  of  

Europe,  but  her  sea  , f 

boundary  has  enabled  cb=a> 
her  to  keep  out  of  S 
many  wars  that  £3 


have  injured  the  countries  of  the  main- 
land. 

428.  Coasts  and  harbors. — Like  New  York 
and  New  England  the  British  Isles  have 
many  drowned  valleys  (Sec.  216).  These 
arms  of  the  sea  make  the  best  kind  of 
harbor,  and  because  the  British  Isles  have 
so  many  of  them  it  has  been  easy  for  the 
people  to  go  to  sea  in  ships  and  develop 
sea  fisheries  and  trade. 

429.  Trade  and  shipping. — British  fac- 
tories produce  goods  not  only  for  England 
but  for  many  other  countries.  Thus  Eng- 
land makes  much  of  her  living  by  ocean 
trade.  Steamships  from  the  leading  British 
ports, — London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Hull, 
and  Bristol, — take  manufactured  goods  to 
every  continent,  and  to  almost  every  country 
in  the  world.  These  ships  return  with  raw 
materials  and  food.  Indeed,  British  trade 
has  prospered  so  much  that  England  has 

come  to  live  almost 
as  New  England  lives 
(Sec.  238).  In  1919, 
England  imported 
from  the  United  States 
alone  three  million  dol- 
lars’ worth  of  food 
each  day  in  the  year. 


, . Fig.  344.  The  five  leading  coun- 

) tries  in  the  production  of  pig  iron 
(1913): 

Tons 

A.  United  States.  .30,000,000 

B.  Germany 19,000,000 

C.  Great  Britain  . . 10,000,000 

D.  France 5,000,000 

E.  Russia 4,000,000 


222 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Fig.  345.  A map  showing  the  distribution  of  cattle.  What  countries  import 
cattle  products?  export  cattle  products  ? 


430.  The  coal  trade. — Shiploads  of  grain, 
meat,  butter,  cheese,  wood,  cotton,  wool, 
jute,  skins,  lumber,  rubber,  and  other  goods 
are  paid  for  with  cotton  cloth,  woolen  cloth, 
knives,  machinery,  and  other  valuable  manu- 
factures. But  these  do  not  fill  up  one-tenth 
part  of  the  ships  that  come  in  loaded  with 
bulky  raw  materials.  The  rest  of  the  space 
is  not  used  unless  it  is  filled  with  coal,  so 
the  shipowner  who  receives  $20  a ton  for 
bringing  wheat  from  Argentina  is  glad  to 
accept  $4  a ton  to  carry  coal  back.  For  this 
reason  England  is  the  greatest  coal  exporter 
in  the  world,  and  sends  millions  of  tons  of 
this  black  necessity  from  Cardiff  and  New- 
castle to  Argentina,  Brazil,  France,  and  to 
all  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean, 
which  unfortunately  have  very  little  coal. 

431.  A British  harbor. — British  water- 
fronts are  busy  places.  The  puffing  tug- 
boats labor  to  pull  the  big  ships  up  to  the 
solid  stone  walls  of  the  docks.  On  the  decks 
of  the  ships  the  rattling  donkey  engines 
wind  and  unwind  drums,  pulling  ropes  that 
lift  bales  and  bundles  from  the  hold  to  the 
wharf,  lighter  (Fig.  317),  wagon,  truck,  or 
car  alongside.  Wagons,  locomotives,  and 
trucks  wind  in  and  out.  Sailors  of  every 
color  remind  us  of  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

432.  A world  trade  center. — You  can  now 
begin  to  see  how  it  is  that  England  has  built 
up  a kind  of  trade  called  entrepot  (ahn-tray- 
po),  which  means  the  shipment  of  goods  to 
one  foreign  country  after  importing  them  from 


another  foreign  country. 
Thus,  if  a wool  manufac- 
turer in  Philadelphia  wants 
ome  Australian  wool,  he 
can  find  it  in  the  London 
warehouses.  If  a rubber 
manufacturer  in  jNova 
Scotia  or  Ohio  wants  some 
Ceylon  or  African  rubber 
of  a particular  kind,  he  can 
find  it  in  the  London  ware- 
houses. If  a Boston  or 
Philadelphia  tanner  wishes 
to  examine  goatskins  from 
Mongolia,  he  can  find 
them  all  sorted  out  by  sizes  and  kinds 
in  London  or  Liverpool  warehouses.  If  a 
Swiss  or  Norwegian  cotton-spinner  wants  a 
few  bales  of  Texas  or  Egyptian  cotton,  he 
can  find  it  in  the  Liverpool  cotton  ware- 
houses. Thousands  of  workmen  in  London 
or  Liverpool  are  busy  loading  and  unloading, 
sorting  and  grading,  and  storing  goods  that 
came  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  and  will  go 
out  again  to  the  manufacturers  and  users  in 
many  countries.  England  is  really  a kind 
of  middleman,  like  a storekeeper  who  keeps 
on  hand  the  goods  that  come  from  a hun- 
dred different  factories  in  a dozen  foreign 
countries. 

433.  London,  a center  of  world  trade. — 

London  is  the  greatest  entrepot  in  the  world. 
In  no  other  city  do  we  see  so  many  evidences 
of  relations  with  all  the  world.  The  signs 
on  the  doors,  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  the 
great  warehouses  for  storage  purposes,  the 
bundles  on 
the  docks, 
the  people  in 
the  streets, 
and  the 
news  in  the 
papers,  all 
show  that 
London  is  a 
great  center 
of  trade. 

434  The  Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  346.  Acreage  of  root  forage  (Sec. 
carrying  442)  in  west  Europe. 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


223 


trade.  — England  owns  so  many  steamship 
lines  having  agents  in  foreign  countries,  that 
it  is  easy  for  her  to  carry  freight  for  other 
peoples.  For  example,  an  English  line  from 
London  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  has  an  agent  in 
Brazil.  He  may  load  a ship  and  start  it  off 
to  New  York,  where  another  representative 
of  thesame  firm  may  pay  off  the  crew,  unload 
the  goods,  and  send  the  ship  on  her  next  voy- 
age. Thus  Britain  carries  the  world’s  goods. 

435.  A travel  center.— England’s  location 
has  made  her  the  greatest  center  of  travel 
as  well  as  the  greatest  center  of  trade.  If 
an  American  wants  to  go  quickly  from 
Florida  or  Iowa  to  Scandinavia,  he  hastens  to 
New  York,  takes  a fast  steamer  to  Liverpool 
or  Southampton,  and  crosses  England  by 
train  to  London,  Hull,  or  Newcastle,  where  he 
can  get  a small  steamer  to  Norway,  Den- 
mark, or  any  Baltic  port.  By  way  of  England 
he  can  go  most  quickly  to  Italy  or  to  Russia. 

436.  Energy  and  the  empire. — No  other 
people  have  explored  so  many  foreign  coun- 
tries; or  climbed  so  many  high  mountains 


Fig.  347.  Plan  of  Letchworth  (Garden  City),  England, 
the  best-planned  city  in  the  world.  One-third  of  it  is 
to  be  city  and  two-thirds  are  to  stay  in  playgrounds 
and  parks  and  farms.  S 10  means  school  with  10  acres 
playground.  F 14  means  football  field  with  14  acres. 
How  many  acres  of  playground  have  you?  How  far  is 
it  in  Letchworth  from  factories  to  farms? 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Fig.  348.  Barley  acreage  of  Europe  and  North  Africa. 
This  grain  is  used  for  human  food  and  for  stock 
feeding. 

in  South  America,  Asia,  and  other  parts  of 
the  world;  or  hunted  so  many  elephants  in 
India  or  lions  in  Africa;  or  sent  out  so  many 
men  to  run  mines,  ranches,  and  railroads  in 
other  countries.  No  other  people  have  ex- 
ported so  many  manufactured  goods,  or 
built  up  such  a large  empire. 

437.  Foreign  investments. — As  England 
has  prospered  in  trade,  and  has  her  steamship 
agents  in  foreign  ports  and  her  salesmen 
in  foreign  countries,  it  is  easy  for  her  people  to 
learn  of  business  opportunities  in  foreign  lands. 
Consequently  Englishmen  with  money  now 
own  ranches  in  Australia  and  Texas,  railroads 
in  Argentina  and  Alabama,  oil  wells  in  Mex- 
ico, gold  and  diamond  mines  in  Africa,  and 
many  kinds  of  property  in  many  lands. 
Thus  England  has  become  a rich  country, 
and  she  can  pay  for  some  of  her  imports  with 
the  earnings  of  her  ships  and  with  the  profits 
from  the  property  her  citizens  own  in  for- 
eign lands. 

With  all  this  foreign  business,  London 
was  for  many  years  the  world’s  greatest 
banking  center,  a position  which  it  lost 
during  the  World  War  but  which  it  is 
rapidly  regaining.  In  addition  to  being  a 
financial  center  and  a trade  center,  London 
has  great  manufacturing  industries  much 
like  those  of  New  York.  (Sec.  341.) 

438.  Building  the  empire. — The  British 
explorers,  traders,  settlers,  shipowners,  and 
investors  in  foreign  countries  have  all  helped 
to  build  up  the  empire.  Sometimes  British 


224 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


and  told  him  about  it. 
Raffles’  prophecy  was  right. 
Singapore  is  to-day  a great 
center  of  trade  between  Eu- 
rope and  Asia.  In  the  central 
square  of  the  city  stands  a 
statue  of  Sir  Stamford  Raf- 
fles, for  the  king  made  him 
a knight  in  return  for  having 
made  a colony.  Name  the 
British  ports  on  the  way 
from  England  to  Japan 
(Fig.  10). 

439.  Future. — The  Brit- 
ish people  can  extend  their 
agriculture.  They  have 
Photo.  Brown  Broa„  n.  y.  been  so  busy  at  work  in 
Fig.  349.  Fishermen  examining  their  nets  at  a fishing  port  on  the  east  factories  and  building  ships 

that  they  have  used  much 


coast  of  England.  In  what  sea  do  they  fish? 


good  land  for  sheep  pasture,  when  with 
more  labor  it  might  yield  great  crops 
of  grain,  potatoes,  and  vegetables.  Even 
if  fully  used,  the  land  could  scarcely 
feed  the  fifty  million  people  who  live  in 
this  little  country  that  is  not  quite  so 
large  as  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio. 
But  so  long  as  the  coal  lasts,  the  British  fac- 
tories can  run,  and,  in  times  of  peace,  when 
the  sea  is  free,  the  ships  can  come  and  go 
with  food,  raw  material,  and  finished  prod- 
ucts. When  the  coal  is  all  used,  the  climate 
will  still  remain.  It  is  the  most  important 
thing  of  all.  It  helps  make  energetic  men, 


colonists  have  settled  almost  empty  lands, 
as  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Canada. 

Sometimes  the  trader  and  the  investor  have 
gotten  into  difficulties  with  the  natives,  and 
the  British  Government  has  taken  pos- 
session of  the  foreign  country.  Often  Eng- 
land has  made  treaties  with  some  native 
chief  or  king.  After  the  treaty,  the  chief 
is  usually  left  in  power  at  home,  but  the 
British  attend  to  all  foreign  affairs  of  the 
country,  and  usually  take  over  more  and 
more  of  the  actual  rule  of  the  country. 

Such  a country  is  sometimes  called  a British 
Protectorate.  (Secs.  742,  705,  706.) 

Sometimes  adventurous  Eng- 
lishmen have  gone  out  like  the 
explorers  of  old  and  taken  pos- 
session of  land.  One  of  these 
men,  Stamford  Raffles,  was  a 
naval  officer  in  the  East  Indies. 

When  he  heard  that  a steamship 
had  crossed  the  Atlantic,  he  sail- 
ed over  and  hoisted  the  British 
flag  on  the  uninhabited  island  of 
Singapore  (Sec.  706),  at  the  very 
corner  of  Asia,  and  took  possession 
of  it  in  the  name  of  the  King  of 
England,  because  he  thought  it 
would  some  day  be  a steamship  -350-  Home  of  the  British  Parliament,  whose  laws  influence  more 
„ , J 1 territory  than  the  laws  of  ariy  other  governing  body  that  ever  existed, 

center.  lie  then  wrote  to  the  king  Can  you  name  a continent  or  an  ocean  where  its  laws  do  not  reach? 


THE  LOW  COUNTRIES  AND  THE  LOWER  RHINE  VALLEY  225 


£ E 

□ □ □ 


Fig.  351.  Areas  of  the  five  largest 
nations  and  empires  (1914): 

Square 

miles 

A.  British  Empire  . 13,100,000 


B.  Russia 8,200,000 

C.  China 3,900,000 

D.  United  States.. . 3,500,000 

E.  Brazil 3,200,000 


Fig.  352.  Area  (sq.  miles) : a 

A.  California..  . 158,297 

Oregon 96,699  — 

Washington.  69,127 

324,123 

B.  Belgium ...  . 11,373 

Where  has  the  young  man  the  better  opportunity  to 
advance  himself? 


How  much  of  one  of  these  squares  would  the  area  of 
the  United  Kingdom  make? 

and  we  may  expect  man’s  brains  to  find  some 
other  source  of  power  to  serve  his  needs. 
We  may,  therefore,  expect  this  healthful, 
pleasant  region  to  keep  right  on  increasing 
in  wealth  and  in  population. 


River  at  Glasgow  with  that  on  the  Delaware  at 
Philadelphia.  What  advantages  has  the  Delaware 
to-day  over  the  Clyde?  15.  Describe  a shipping  port 
(Fig.  317)  in  the  British  Isles. 

16.  Name  two  lakes  of  Scotland;  two  of  England. 
What  poet  wrote  about  Windermere  and  Grasmere? 
17.  With  what  region  in  the  British  Isles  are  the 
King  Arthur  stories  connected?  Why  did  these 
legends  grow  up  around  this  region? 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  character  of  the  British  coast  aid 
trade?  2.  Why  have  the  British  Isles  developed  a 
greater  trade  than  Norway?  3.  Give  the  latitude 
of  the  British  Isles?  of  Labrador?  Compare  the 
climates.  Account  for  the  differences  which  exist. 
4.  Explain  the  fact  that  Ireland  is  called  the  Emerald 
Isle,  and  that  Wales  is  a pasture  land.  5.  Why 
has  England  changed  from  a land  of  fishing  and 
of  farming  to  a land  of  factories?  What  problems 
have  arisen  as  a result  of  factory  life?  Can  you  sug- 
gest possible  ways  to  improve  living  in  manufacturing 
towns?  6.  Why  is  oatmeal  a favorite  dish  for  the 
Scotch?  7.  Why  is  London  a world  center?  Why 
should  this  enormous  city  be  located  in  the  south- 
east and  not  the  southwest  corner  of  England?  8. 
Give  three  reasons  for  the  large  entrepot  trade  (Sec. 
432)  of  Great  Britain?  9.  Name  the  foreign  posses- 
sions (Fig.  10)  of  the  United  States.  Compare  their 
total  size  with  that  of  the  United  States  proper. 
Name  some  foreign  possessions  of  Great  Britain.  Com- 
pare their  total  size  with  that  of  the  British  Isles. 
How  can  you  account  for  the  difference?  Why  does 
Great  Britain  need  so  many  ships?  Upon  what 
country  did  the  United  States  depend  for  carrying 
much  of  her  freight  and  soldiers  during  the  World 
War?  Why? 

10.  Give  reasons  why  England  should  be  a rich 
nation.  11.  How  does  the  Manchester  Canal  help 
to  lower  the  price  of  cotton  goods?  Follow  on  the 
map  a ship  carrying  cotton  goods  from  Manchester 
to  New  York;  to  San  Francisco;  to  China;  to  India; 
to  Egypt;  to  Algeria.  Through  what  waters  does  it 
pass?  What  may  that  ship  bring  back  to  England? 

12.  Fill  in  the  following  chart: 


Manufactures  of  Great  Britain. 


City. 

Manu- 

factured 

Products. 

Source 
of  Raw 
Material. 

Source  of 
Power. 

Countries 
To  Which 
Exported. 

13.  Why  do  the  English  think  it  strange  for  people 
to  eat  green  corn,  or  “roasting  ears”?  14.  Why 
has  the  Delaware  River  been  called  the  “Clyde  of 
America”?  Compare  shipbuilding  on  the  Clyde 


THE  LOW  COUNTRIES  AND  THE 
LOWER  RHINE  VALLEY 
440.  The  region. — If  you  sail  up  the  river 
Scheldt  toward  Antwerp,  or  up  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhine  toward  Rotterdam, 
you  will  look  down  on  the  fields  and  farms, 
for  they  are  lower  than  the  river,  and  all  of 
the  land  is  very  flat  indeed. 

Why  do  the  people  who  live 
here  call  their  country  the 
Netherlands,  or  the  Low 

Fig.  353.  Population  total: 

A.  Belgium  (1918). . . . 7,555,576 

B.  California,  Oregon, 

Washington  (1920)  5,566,251 

Country?  Most  of  the  land  of  Holland  and  a 
part  of  Belgium  are  just  the  delta  of  the  river 
Rhine.  This  lower  Rhine  valley,  together 
with  the  near-by  parts  of  France  and  Ger- 
many, which  are  almost  as  level  as  the 
delta,  make  up  the  greatest  manufacturing 


226 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Courtesy  The  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

Fig.  355.  A field  of  hyacinths  at  Haarlem,  near  The  Hague,  Holland.  Why 
do  the  Dutch  grow  hyacinths  rather  than  wheat  as  the  Dakotans  do? 


region  on  the  mainland  of  Europe.  This 
region  is  also  more  carefully  farmed  than  any 
other  European  region. 

What  four  countries  own  parts  of  this 
region?  (Fig.  319.) 

441.  Making  more  land. — This  region 
has  few  resources  except  location  and  good 
soil.  Even  land  is  scarce.  But  in  Holland  the 
thrifty  Dutch  not  only  use  all  that  Nature 
has  made,  but  by  their  own  labor  they  have 
taken  a quarter  of  their  country  from  the 
sea.  Because  the  sea  waters  near  the  Rhine 
delta  are  very  shallow,  the  Dutch  and  Belgians 
have  built  dikes,  thus  cutting  off  areas  of 
water.  Then  pumps,  driven  by  windmills, 
pump  the  water  out  from  behind  the  dikes. 
The  sea  bottom  is  then  used  for  farms. 
But  the  windmills  and  engines  must  keep 
the  pumps  forever  pumping,  pumping, 
pumping,  or  the  rain  water  would  soon 
again  turn  the  land  into  an  arm  of  the  sea. 
In  the  Zuyder  Zee,  a shallow  bay  in  Holland, 
a large  area  is  now  being  pumped  out.  Sea- 
bottom  farms  made  of  the  rich  mud  from 
the  Rhine  Valley  produce  splendid  pasture. 

442.  Intensive  agriculture. — All  of  the 
land  of  this  region  is  carefully  used.  Often 
the  flagmen  at  the  railroad  crossings  tend 
little  gardens  beside  the  tracks.  Because 


rabbits  will  eat  weeds  from 
the  gardens,  many  people 
keep  rabbits  in  hutches  and 
use  them  for  food.  Even 
the  dog  works.  German, 
Dutch,  Belgian,  and  French 
milkcarts  are  pulled  by  big, 
strong  work-dogs. 

The  farms  are  small,  and 
the  people  must,  therefore, 
put  much  work  and  much 
fertilizer  on  a little  land, 
and  thereby  grow  crops  that 
yield  much  food  per  acre. 
A man  in  the  United  States 
can  make  more  money  grow- 
ing a smaller  yield  per  acre 
on  a larger  farm,  with  less 
work  and  less  fertilizer. 
The  wheatfields  of  Belgium 
yield  38  bushe  Is  per  acre,  while  those 
of  the  United  States  yield  only  about 
15  bushels.  In  the  United  States  the 
potato  yields  on  the  average  90  bushels 
per  acre,  but  in  Holland  it  is  made  to  yield 
290  bushels;  in  Belgium  300  bushels;  in 
Germany  190  bushels.  The  climate  is  too  cool 
f or  corn,  but  the  plentiful  rain  and  cool  sum- 
mer suit  the  potato  perfectly.  It  is  the  great- 
est food  crop  of  the  region.  (Fig.  354.)  The 
sugar  beet  is  another  important  crop,  and 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  356.  Catching  shrimps  on  the  Belgian  shore. 


THE  LOW  COUNTRIES  AND  THE  LOWER  RHINE  VALLEY  227 


Photo.  Elmendorf.  © Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  357.  The  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Dutch  town  of  Helder,  and  the  dike  that  keeps  them  apart.  What  has  been 
done  to  keep  storm  waves  from  breaking  the  surface  of  this  dike,  and  shore  currents  from  washing  it  away? 


forage  beets  are  grown  for  animal  food. 
(Fig.  346.) 

To  support  a family,  crops  that  are  worth 
much  money  must  be  grown  here  on  little 
land.  In  Holland  one  sees  fields  gay  with 
the  beautiful  red,  white,  and  yellow  blossoms 
of  tulips  and  other  flowering  bulbs.  It  costs 
$2000  an  acre  to  grow  a crop  of  these  precious 
bulbs,  which  are  sent  to  bloom  in  America, 
England,  and  many  foreign  countries. 

Where  the  moist  lowlands  are  too  wet  to 
plow,  they  make  rich  pasture  lands  which 
support  great  herds  of  dairy  cows.  From 
the  milk  of  the  black  and  white  Holstein 
cows,  the  Dutch  farmers  make  very  good 
cheese  and  butter  which  they  send  to  Eng- 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Signal  Corps 

Fig.  358.  A public  square,  the  city  hall,  and  houses  at 
Audenarde,  Belgium.  In  such  squares  in  western 
Europe  people  bold  great  markets  once  a week  or 
oftener. 


land  and  even  to  the  United  States.  The 
people  who  make  expensive  Dutch  butter 
and  cheese  often  sell  it  and  buy  cheaper 
cheese  from  Canada,  and  margarine  made  of 
coconut  and  peanut  oil.  Why? 

443.  The  factory  farmers. — The  English 
people  have  let  much  of  their  land  lie  un- 
cultivated, because  they  could  make  their 
living  by  manufacturing.  But  in  the  Low 
Countries  across  the  channel  there  is  not  so 
much  coal  as  in  England,  so  the  people  there 
have  improved  their  farming  at  the  same  time 
they  were  building  up  their  manufacturing. 

The  governments  of  the  four  nations 
owning  parts  of  the  Low  Countries  have  done 
a great  deal  to  help  and  encourage  farmers. 
In  Germany  the  government  conducts  many 
more  agricultural  experiment  stations  than 
we  have  in  any  part  of  the  United  States 
that  is  the  size  of  Germany.  The  Belgian 
Government  sells  tickets  on  the  state  railways 
at  special  low  rates  to  encourage  workmen  in 
city  factories  to  live  in  country  villages  where 
they  can  raise  most  of  their  own  food  on  small 
farms  and  in  gardens.  In  fact,  the  people 
who  founded  Garden  City,  England  (Sec. 
425),  were  trying  to  introduce  into  England 
the  good  method  of  using  land  and  factories 
that  had  succeeded  in  Belgium. 

444.  A meeting  place  and  a thoroughfare. 
— This  lowland  region  is  one  of  the  great 
crossroads  of  world  trade.  Look  at  the  map 


228 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


(Fig.  9)  and  see  how  many  countries  send 
their  ships  through  the  English  Channel 
to  France,  Spain,  and  the  Mediterranean, 
and  to  North  and  South  America.  Do  you  see 
also  (Fig.  319)  that  the  Rhine  Valley  lies  open 
from  the  North  Sea,  a great  trade  route 
through  South  Germany  to  the  very  base  of 
the  Alps  in  Switzerland?  Thus  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhine  is  a crossroad  of  travel  and  a cen- 
ter of  trade.  Routes  radiate  from  this  center 
over  both  land  and  sea.  We  have  seen 
another  such  gateway  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson.  The  Rhine  Valley  has  been  an 
important  trade  route  for  many  centuries. 

Because  this  region  is  a natural  thorough- 
fare and  easy  of  access,  many  wars  have  been 
fought  here  in  the  past,  and  many  battles 
of  the  World  War  were  fought  in  Belgium 
and  in  the  north  of  France. 

445.  Harbors  and  waterways  by  hard 
labor. — By  building  deltas,  the  Rhine  and 
other  near  by  rivers  have  made  much  of  the 
surface  soil  of  the  Low  Countries.  As  the 
rivers  fill  up  their  beds,  men  must  work  to 
dig  the  mud  from  ship-channels  and  harbors. 
Big  power-driven  dredges  take  the  mud 
from  the  channels  and  pile  it  along  the  river 
banks  to  make  dikes.  These  mud  dikes  keep 
the  rivers  from  overflowing  the  lowlands  of 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Germany.  All  along 
the  Rhine,  from  its  mouth  to  Switzerland, 
an  immense  amount  of  work  has  been  done 
to  make  the  river  a better  waterway.  Rocks 


have  been  blasted  out  of  the  river  bed,  and 
wing  dams  have  been  built  to  make  the 
water  deeper.  Much  labor  has  been  spent 
to  straighten  the  course  of  the  river  in 
Germany  below  Cologne. 

Improvements  of  harbors  and  waterways 
still  go  on.  Antwerp  and  Rotterdam  are 
turning  big  meadows  into  docks  where  ships 
may  load  and  unload.  A tunnel  wide  enough 
for  six  vehicles  is  being  built  under  the 
river  Scheldt  at  Antwerp,  so  that  the  city 
may  grow  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 

Large  canals  connect  the  River  Rhine  with 
Antwerp  and  nearly  all  the  Dutch  towns. 
Canals  extend  from  Antwerp  to  Ghent, 
Bruges,  and  other  Belgian  cities,  and  to 
Paris  and  other  cities  of  northern  France. 
In  fact,  canals  run  in  all  directions  across  the 
lowlands  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  No  other 
part  of  the  world,  except  China,  has  so  many 
of  them.  In  some  districts  they  replace 
roads,  and  one  may  see  a farmer  hauling  hay 
in  a canal  boat  from  his  field  to  his  barn. 

446.  A gateway  region. — The  harbors  of 
Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  Amsterdam  are 
busy  places.  Like  New  York  and  the  British 
ports,  they  are  the  gateways  through  which 
there  flow  streams  of  imports  and  streams 
of  exports.  Every  day  ocean  steamers  from 
other  continents  lie  at  the  docks  unloading 
goods  into  the  long  Rhine  boats,  or  the  short, 
stubby  canal  boats.  As  Belgium  has  a 
large  colony  in  Central  Africa  (Fig.  531), 
Antwerp  is  the  world  market  for  ivory 


export  of  sugar.  Name  one  customer  for  this  sugar. 


THE  LOW  COUNTRIES  AND  THE  LOWER  RHINE  VALLEY  229 


Fig.  361.  A map  showing  the  distribution  of  swine  in 
Europe.  How  does  the  American  Com  Belt  farmer  help 

the  European  farmer  to  raise  good  fat  porkers? 

and  other  African  goods.  Four  hundred  years 
ago  (Sec.  420)  Antwerp  was  a greater  entre- 
pot (Sec.  432)  than  London,  and  she  still  has  a 
large  entrepot  trade.  Rotterdam  (Fig.  362), 
the  chief  port  of  Holland,  is  a market  for 
tobacco,  coffee,  cinchona  bark,  cinnamon, 
sugar,  and  other  products  from  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  The  heaviest  trade  of  these 
ports  is  in  grain  and  other  foods,  cotton, 
lumber,  and  other  raw  materials  from  the 
United  States,  South  America,  and  all  those 
countries  that  help  to  feed  the  millions  of 
factory  workers  of  Holland,  Belgium,  western 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  northern  France. 
A wide  region  trades  through  these  ports; 
goods  from  everywhere  are  assembled  here. 
Much  of  the  merchandise  is  carried  by  the 
Rhine  boats,  which  go  as  far  as  Switzerland, 
and  bring  down  the  bales  and  boxes  from 
hundreds  of  factories. 

Many  lines  of  British  steamers  call  at 
Antwerp  and  Rotterdam,  and  help  the 
Dutch,  Belgian,  and  German  lines  carry  the 
exports  of  this  region  to  almost  as  many 
places  as  those  to  which  Great  Britain  sends 
her  exports. 

Besides  exporting  manufactures,  Belgium, 
like  England,  sells  coal.  Thousands  of  tons 
of  it  go  each  month  to  Holland,  France, 
Switzerland,  Argentina,  and  even  to  Rumania. 

447.  Reasons  for  growth  of  manufacturing 
industries. — Four  advantages  fit  this  region 
for  manufacturing:  (1)  Good,  healthful 

climate,  much  like  that  of  England  (Sec. 


416).  (2)  The  coal  field  that  stretches  across 
northern  France,  Belgium,  and  into  the 
Rhine  Valley  of  Germany.  (3)  The  much- 
used  Rhine  River  and  its  valley.  (4)  Splen- 
did agriculture. 

It  is  a great  advantage  to  a manufacturing 
region  when  food  for  the  workers  is  produced 
near  the  factory  districts.  (Sec.  443.) 

Because  of  these  four  advantages,  the  Low 
Countries  became  a great  manufacturing 
region  when  England  was  still  a farming 
country.  Three  hundred  years  ago  there  was 
much  more  machinery  in  the  Low  Countries 
than  there  was  in  England,  for  in  the  Low 
Countries,  in  addition  to  hand  machines, 
windmills  were  used  to  grind  grain  and 
pump  water. 

448.  Manufacturing  and  cities. — Across  the 
neat  fields  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  one  often 
sees  the  high  smokestacks  of  some  manufac- 
turing town  in  the  distance.  From  the  deck 
of  a steamboat  on  the  Rhine,  one  may  see  a 
kind  of  procession  of  smokestacks  as  the  boat 
passes  town  after  town  and  city  after  city. 


i 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  362.  Ships  and  boats  b e side  a quay  at  Rotterdam. 
Where  may  these  boats  go?  What  will  they  carry? 


230 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  363.  Terraced  vineyards  held  up  by  stone  walls,  near  Coblenz,  Germany. 
Are  they  on  the  north  or  south  bank  of  the  winding  River  Rhine? 


The  factories,  like  those  of  England, 
import  many  of  their  raw  materials.  Iron 
ore  from  the  French  province  of  Lorraine 
is  carried  by  boat  and  train  to  supply  the 
manufacturing  districts  of  France,  Belgium, 
and  the  lower  Rhine.  These  rich  ore  fields 
are  near  this  region  but  not  in  it. 

The  greatest  iron  production  of  this  dis- 
trict (the  Pittsburgh  of  the  continent)  is 
near  Cologne,  at  Essen  and  neighboring 
towns.  These  cities  are  on  or  near  the 
Ruhr,  a navigable  branch  of  the  Rhine. 
Thus  boats  can  come  close  to  the  great  fac- 
tories. The  famous  Krupp  gun  works,  one 
of  the  world’s  greatest  manufacturing  plants, 
is  at  Essen.  Since  the  World  War  this  factory 
makes  locomotives  and  many  other  kinds  of 
machinery.  This  region  with  its  steel  industry 
resembles  Pennsylvania.  It  also  resembles 
New  England,  because  there  are  many  textile 
factories  at  Cologne  and  other  Rhine  cities. 
In  Belgium,  the  cities  of  Ghent  and  Brussels 
are  textile  centers,  while  Lille  in  the  north  of 
France  is  famous  for  woolens  and  cottons. 

One  coal  field  lies  under  three  of  the 
countries  in  this  region.  Reaching  from 
Lille,  France,  to  the  Rhine,  it  feeds 
many  factories  that  make  iron, 
cement,  and  glass.  Belgium  is  one  of 

Fig.  364.  Population  per  sq.  mi.: 


the  great  glass  manufac- 
turing countries  of  Europe. 
Much  of  the  glass,  cement, 
and  iron  are  exported. 

The  chief  manufacturing 
cities  of  Belgium  are  Ghent, 
Liege,  and  Brussels.  Brus- 
sels and  Cologne  are  the 
largest  cities  of  the  region. 
Both  are  larger  than  San 
Francisco.  Like  Amster- 
dam, Rotterdam,  and  many 
smaller  towns,  they  are  neat, 
well-kept  cities,  with  many 
beautiful  buildings,  some  of 
them  several  hundred  years 
old.  One  such  is  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne. 

449.  Intensive  manufacturing. — The  wom- 
en, especially  the  Belgian  women  who  live 
on  the  farms,  often  make  lace  by  hand. 
A few  cents’  worth  of  thread  is  turned,  by 
much  labor,  into  dollars’  worth  of  beautiful 
handmade  lace.  (Fig.  369.) 

Holland  is  so  poor  in  raw  materials  that 
she  has  to  buy  even  stone  and  logs  from 
Norway  and  Switzerland,  with  which  to 
build  the  dikes  that  keep  the  sea  from  over- 
flowing her  land.  Nevertheless,  her  people 
are  such  skilful  and  industrious  workers  that 
the  little  country  has  prospered. 

Amsterdam  is  the  great  center  of  the 
world’s  diamond  trade.  It  has  a diamond 
exchange  with  hundreds  of  members. 
Diamonds  are  bought  and  sold  every  day. 
In  their  shops  near  by,  skilled  diamond- 
cutters  change  the  rough-looking  pebbles 
that  come  from  Africa  into  flashing  jewels, 
which  are  sent  to  every  part  of  the  world. 

450.  People  and  government. — Four  dif- 
ferent peoples,  speaking  four  different  lan- 
guages, living  in  four  different  countries, 
inhabit  this  one  small  district.  The  a 
German  and  Dutch  languages  and  peo- 
ples are  somewhat  alike.  The  Flemings 

— the  people  of  Flanders,  a part  of  Bel- 
gium— resemble  the  Dutch.  French  is 


I 


fl 


A.  Netherlands  (1918) 539 

B.  Denmark  (1916) 180 

C.  Iowa  (1920) 43.2 


Compare  these  figures  with  Fig.  365. 


Fig.  365.  Population  per  sq.  mi. : 

A.  Belgium  (1910) 

B.  United  States  (1920) 

What  does  this  mean  for  the  people? 


652 

35 


. .EE 


THE  LOW  COUNTRIES  AND  THE  LOWER  RHINE  VALLEY  231 


the  language  of  Brussels, 
and  the  official  language  of 
Belgium.  Because  these 
four  peoples  live  so  close 
together,  well-educated 
people  speak  more  than 
one  language.  Most 
traders  of  Holland  or  Bel- 
gium doing  business  with 
the  people  of  other  coun- 
tries speak  German,  Eng- 
lish, and  French. 

The  people  of  this  whole 
region  are  industrious, 
thrifty,  and  saving.  Their 
houses,  gardens,  and  vil- 
lages are  neat,  and  the 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  366.  Interior  of  the  Krupp  Gun  Works,  Essen,  Germany,  taken  before 
the  World  War.  It  now  makes  machinery.  Give  two  good  reasons  for  the 
location  of  this  factory  in  the  lower  Rhine  Valley. 


fields  are  free  from  weeds.  In  many  sections 
of  Holland  and  Belgium  the  people  still  wear 
native  costumes  of  ancient  and  picturesque 
styles. 

Holland  and  Belgium  are  each  about  the 
size  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  com- 
bined. In  the  two  countries  there  are 
14,000,000  people,  a number  twice  as  large 
as  all  the  population  of  New  England.  If 
we  should  add  the  population  of  the  German 
and  French  parts  of  this  small  region,  there 
would  be  as  many  people  as  in  all  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  west  of  the  Missouri 
and  the  lower  Mississippi  rivers. 

Holland  and  Belgium  are  small  countries, 
but  their  people  are  very  patriotic.  The 
Dutch  love  their  queen,  and  the  Belgians  love 
their  king  very  much,  although  as  a matter 
of  fact  the  people  really  rule  themselves, 
through  their  parliaments,  which  pass  all 
the  laws,  and  even  give  the  king  and  queen 
the  money  they  spend.  Both  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium have  colonies  many  times  as  large  as  the 
mother  country,  and  with  more  people  than 
the  mother  country.  Name  them.  (Fig.  10.) 

451.  Future.— England  farms  so 
little  of  its  land  that  it  can  increase 

b ' Fig.  367.  The  number  of  cattle  and  horses 
per  square  mile  (1912-13): 


A.  Netherlands 199 

B.  Denmark  150 

C.  Iowa 102 


Does  this  mean  that  Denmark  is  a better 
country  for  farm  animals  than  Iowa? 


its  food  production,  but  the  Low  Countries 
and  the  Lower  Rhine  Valley  use  their  land  so 
fully  that  there  can  not  be  much  increase  in 
food  production.  The  population,  however, 
has  long  been  steadily  increasing  because  of 
the  growth  of  cities  and  trade.  The  people 
here,  like  those  in  the  United  Kingdom  and 
in  New  England,  buy  much  of  the  food 
they  eat,  and  also  have  raw  materials 
brought  from  distant  lands.  (Sec.  446.)  As 
long  as  this  great  trade  continues,  the 
number  of  cities  that  can  grow  up  in  the 
manufacturing  places  is  almost  without  limit. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  On  a trip  from  London  through  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, what  cities  would  you  select  to  visit?  Describe 
the  scenes  as  you  go  from  city  to  city;  the  land,  the 
houses,  the  people,  and  the  industries  along  the  route. 
Questions  to  ask  yourself  as  you  go  along:  Why  has 
Holland  been  able  to  depend  upon  the  wind  to  run 
her  mills?  There  are  two  geographical  reasons.  Why 
is  Holland  engaged  in  the  dairy  industry  rather  than 
the  meat  industry?  What  business  factor  makes  bulb 
raising  a profitable  occupation  in 
this  region?  What  is  an  important 
reason  for  visiting  the  following 
places:  Leyden,  Delft,  The  Hague, 

Amsterdam,  Brussels,  Antwerp, 

Liege?  What  would  you  buy  as 

Fig.  368.  Bushels  of  grain  per  per- 
son (1911-13): 

A.  United  States 50.8 

B.  Canada 47.7 

C.  Belgium 11.5 

What  can  you  say  about  the  amount 
per  acre  in  Belgium  and  in  the 
United  States  and  the  United  King- 
dom? (Fig.  331.) 


232 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  369.  Lace-making  in  a Brussels  back  yard. 
Why  is  lace-making  important  in  Belgium?  What  kind 
of  shoes  does  the  old  man  wear? 

souvenirs  of  this  region?  2.  Trace  the  journey  of  a 
diamond  from  its  start  at  Kimberley,  South  Africa,  to 
your  nearest  jewelry  store.  3.  As  you  study  this 
chapter,  answer  these  two  questions  about  the  Low 
Countries  and  Lower  Rhine  Valley:  (a)  How  its  geo- 
graphic position  and  surface  make  it  a great  trade 
center.  (6)  What  influences  make  it  the  greatest 
manufacturing  section  on  the  mainland  of  Europe? 
Write  the  answers  only  after  careful  study.  4.  If 
possible,  find  out  about  the  new  library  which  Amer- 
ican citizens  are  building  in  Louvain  to  take  the  place 
of  the  one  destroyed  by  the  Germans  in  the  World 
War. 

5.  Describe  the  method  by  which  land  is  reclaimed 
in  Holland.  Compare  it  with  the  methods  used  along 
the  Mississippi  River.  6.  Do  you  think  that  a worker 
in  a mill  or  a factory  would  be  any  better  worker 
because  he  was  also  a farmer  and  owned  his  own  farm? 
Why?  7.  Compare  the  life  of  a Dutch  boy  or  girl 
with  your  own.  8.  Take  a trip  from  Rotterdam 
to  Coblenz.  Describe  scenes  along  the  journey. 
(Fig.  363).  At  which  cities  would  you  want  to  stop? 
Why?  How  is  Rotterdam  a gateway  similar  to 
New  York?  For  how  many  countries  is  the  Rhine  a 
great  highway  of  trade  and  travel?  9.  Choose  one 
of  the  following  pieces  of  work:  Build  a small  Dutch 
windmill  that  will  run,  showing  place  for  machinery, 
storeroom,  living  apartments.  Construct  a dike  on 
the  playground.  Dress  dolls  in  Dutch  costumes. 
Write  a story  about  one  of  the  following:  Hans  of 
the  Windmill:  Jan,  the  Boatman’s  Boy;  Gretchen, 
the  Goose  Girl.  10.  What  are  some  of  the  sports 
which  the  people  are  able  to  enjoy  in  winter?  Describe 
one  of  these. 

11.  Describe  a scene  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine 
(Fig.  362),  naming  the  flags  of  all  the  countries 
you  might  see.  Look  up  the  flags  in  the  dictionary. 

12.  Examine  the  physical  map  of  Europe.  Can  you 
tell  why  the  Germans  took  the  route  through  Belgium 
instead  of  crossing  directly  over  their  own  border? 

13.  Why  did  both  sides  watch  Holland  so  closely 
during  the  World  War?  Why  was  Germany  so  anx- 


ious to  get  control  of  Antwerp  during  the  World  War? 

14.  Fill  out  the  chart: 


City. 

Country. 

Noted  For. 

Essen 

The  Hague. . . . 
Ghent 

Brussels 

Lille 

15.  How  is  it  that  ivory  and  rubber  from  the  tropics 
are  marketed  in  Antwerp?  Account  for  coffee  and 
spices  in  Rotterdam.  16.  What  are  the  chief  imports 
brought  into  the  Rhine  Valley?  From  what  countries 
are  they  brought? 

THE  ATLANTIC  PLAIN  OF  FRANCE 

452.  An  agricultural  nation. — France  is 
made  up  of  parts  of  six  of  the  regions  of  Eu- 
rope. What  are  they?  (Fig.  319.)  The  most  im- 
portant part  is  the  great  low  plain  that  slopes 
west  and  northwest  toward  the  sea.  The 
climate  is  good,  like  that  of  England,  but 
somewhat  warmer  because  it  is  farther  south. 
It  is  an  agricultural  region  in  which  there 
are  a few  cities.  The  region  does  not  have 
as  many  manufactures  as  does  England, 
partly  because  it  has  so  little  coal.  Instead 
of  building  factories  and  big  cities,  this  region 
has  remained  a land  of  farms,  supporting 
itself  chiefly  from  its  own  fields  rather  than 
by  buying  food  from  other  countries,  as 
England  and  the  Low  Countries  do. 

453.  The  farmers  on  the  plain. — In  France, 
each  peasant  farmer  owns  his  few  acres, 
instead  of  renting  them  as  English  farmers 
do.  The  Frenchman  loves  his  little  farm 
and  will  not  leave  it.  This  kind  of  own- 
ership of  land  has  helped  to  make  France 
an  agricultural  country. 

The  farmers  live  in  villages  of  ten  to  fifty 
houses,  and  go  out  each  day  to  their  farms 
near  by.  One  sees  a patchwork  of  little  fields 
with  crops  of  various  colors — wheat,  hay, 
potatoes,  beets  for  the  cattle  to  eat,  or  beets 
to  go  to  the  sugar  factory.  It  is  warm 
enough  for  a little  corn  to  be  grown  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

Many  of  the  farmers  in  this  part  of  France 
have  herds  of  cows  and  send  butter  to  Eng- 
land. The  French  farmers  here  raise  a breed 
of  splendid,  big,  strong  horses,  called  Perche- 


THE  ATLANTIC  PLAIN  OF  FRANCE 


233 


Fig.  370.  European  grape  districts.  Name  the  two  chief 
wine  districts.  Give  a reason  for  their  locations. 


ron,  which  may  be  seen  on  almost  every 
farm,  and  also  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  5). 

There  are  important  wine  districts  in  the 
Atlantic  Plain.  The  largest  is  near  Bordeaux, 
and  a second  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Seine 
Valley,  near  the  beautiful  city  of  Rheims. 
Figure  375  shows  how  the  French  farmers 
live  in  villages  and  go  out  each  day  to  work 
in  the  neighboring  fields. 

454.  Brittany  and  Normandy. — The  west- 
ern peninsula  of  France  is  called  Brittany. 
It  is  rather  hilly  and  damp,  like  Wales,  and 
like  Wales  has  many  sheep  and  cattle  pas- 
turing upon  it.  The  people  who  live  on  the 
coast  are  fishermen.  They  catch  sardines 
off  the  shore,  and  sometimes  sail  to  New- 
foundland to  catch  cod. 

Normandy,  the  famous  province  in  the 
peninsula  east  of  Brittany,  is  one  of  the 
sections  of  France  where  fruit  is  grown. 
Apples  from  Normandy  are  sent  to  Paris  and 
London  markets. 


455.  French 
thrifty  people. 


Fig.  371.  Rainfall  of 
Brest,  France,  32.5 
inches  per  year.  In 
autumn  the  ocean  is 
much  warmer  than 
the  land.  Why  does 
this  make  heavy 
autumn  rainfall? 


thrift.  — The  French  are 
We  see  this  in  the  fact  that 
nearly  every  French  per- 
son, man,  woman,  boy,  or 
girl,  saves  some  money. 
No  matter  how  much  or 
little  he  or  she  may  hap- 
pen to  have,  a part  is 
saved.  Then  when  money 
is  needed  there  is  some  in 
the  bank. 

The  French  are  noted 
for  their  good  cooking  and 
for  their  skill  in  making 
good  dishes  out  of  things 
which  we  Americans  often 


throw  away.  In  America,  vegetables  go  to 
market  in  barrels  and  boxes  made  of  boards 
sawed  from  the  trunks  of  trees,  a process 
by  which  much  wood  is  wasted.  As  soon 
as  the  American  box  or  barrel  is  emptied  it 
is  usually  thrown  away  or  broken  up.  In 
France,  food  goes  to  market  in  big  baskets 
woven  by  hand  from  the  long,  limber 
branches  of  willow  trees  which  are  grown 
for  that  purpose  along  roadways  and  stream 
banks.  When  a crop  of  twigs  is  cut  off, 
another  grows  again  in  a year  or  two,  so  that 
one  tree  will  give  many  crops  of  willow  twigs 
and  will  furnish  many  baskets,  most  of  which 
are  used  over  and  over  again,  instead  of  being 
thrown  away. 

The  French  farms  are  well  tilled,  and  the 
farmers  often  get  two  crops  from  the  same 
land  by  planting  English  walnut  trees  in 
the  midst  of  their  fields.  The  fine  nuts 
obtained  from  one  of  these  trees  causes  the 
tree  to  increase  the  value  of  the  farm  as 
much  as  another  acre  of  land  would  do;  so 
the  income  of  a farm  is  often  doubled  by 
a few  trees. 


Photo,  ffm.  H.  Rau,  Inc. 

Fig.  372.  One  of  the  glories  of  France,  the  Cathedral 
at  Rheims,  as  it  appeared  before  the  World  War. 


11-12 


234 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  373.  Peasant  men  and  women  threshing  wheat 
in  Brittany.  Horse-power  machine  near  stack. 

Along  the  southern  part  of  the  east  coast 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  stretches  a hundred  and 
fifty  miles  of  sand.  For  a long  time  the 
west  wind  blew  it  into  dunes  which  traveled 
inland,  and  buried  the  forests.  The 
French  laboriously  planted  pine  trees  on 
the  dunes;  this  stopped  the  dunes  from 
moving,  and  now  the  trees  have  grown  into 
forests.  They  are  bled  to  death  to  make 
turpentine,  and  the  small  trunks  are  sent 
to  England,  and  used  to  prop  up  the  roofs 
in  coal  mines.  By  cutting  a small  part  of 
his  trees  each  year,  the  forest  owner  has  a 
regular  business.  How  have  we  done  it  in 
the  United  States?  (Secs.  121,  333.) 

456.  French  art  and  Paris. — The  French 
are  an  artistic  and  gifted  people.  They  love 
to  make  and  to  have  beautiful  things. 
Nearly  every  city  of  France  has  a public 
square  in  the  center,  and  usually  a great 
church  or  cathedral.  The  people  of  the 
cities  of  France  are  very  proud  of  their 
beautiful  cathedrals  and  of  the  masterpieces 
of  painting  and  sculpture  with  which  they 
are  adorned.  These  buildings,  like  the 
cathedrals  of  other  European  countries,  have 


often  been  the  work  of  many  generations. 
When  times  were  peaceful  and  prosperous, 
the  masons,  the  stone  cutters,  and  the 
sculptors  worked  to  build  another  part  of  the 
great  building.  (Fig.  372.)  Sometimes  work 
was  interrupted  for  five  years,  or  fifty  years, 
or  a hundred  years.  It  is  hard  for  people 
bom  in  America  to  understand  how  people 
can  love  buildings  as  much  as  the  people  of 
France  love  their  cathedrals. 

Wonderful  collections  of  pictures  and  stat- 
ues are  to  be  seen  in  France.  French 
builders,  with  their  love  of  the  beautiful, 
have  made  Paris,  the  French  capital,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  world,  a city 
to  which  travelers  go  each  year  by  hundreds 
of  thousands.  The  Louvre,  in  Paris,  is  one 
of  the  world’s  most  famous  art  galleries. 
Some  of  the  pictures  and  statues  have  been 
brought  from  other  countries.  Hundreds 
of  people  from  many  foreign  countries  are 
in  Paris  all  the  time  studying  to  be  painters 
and  sculptors. 

We  see  French  art  in  the  trade  of  Paris. 
As  Manchester  means  cotton,  and  Birming- 
ham means  iron  and  steel,  so  Paris  means 
artistic  and  beautiful  clothing  and  furnish- 
ings. Gloves,  dresses,  hats,  perfumery, 
and  jewelry  are  made  in  Paris  in  great 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Air  Service 

Fig.  374.  Place  de  la  Concorde,  one  of  the  beautiful 
public  squares  of  Paris.  What  river  do  we  see? 


THE  ATLANTIC  PLAIN  OF  FRANCE 


235 


Photo.  “The  World’s  Agriculture” 

Fig.  375.  Farm  village  surrounded  by  tiny  unfenced  fields,  in  the  Atlantic 
Plain  of  France.  Who  owns  the  fields?  Why  are  they  of  different  colors? 


quantity,  and  sent  to  the 
United  States,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  many  foreign  coun- 
tries. 

Paris  lies  in  the  center  of 
a rich  plain  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

It  is  five  times  as  large  as 
Marseille,  the  second  city  of 
France,  and  is  one  of  the 
greatest  railroad  centers  in 
Europe.  Every  day  trains 
enter  from  Portugal,  Spain, 

Switzerland,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  Bel- 
gium, and  from  the  channel 
ports  to  which  people  come 
from  London. 

The  city  of  Limoges  is 
almost  as  famous  in  pottery  as  Paris  is  in 
clothing.  Haviland  china,  made  in  France, 
is  widely  known. 

Rheims,  in  the  midst  of  limestone  hills 
where  sheep  are  pastured  on  land  too  rough 
for  farming,  is  a wool-manufacturing  center. 

457.  Trade. — The  chief  ports  of  this  dis- 
trict are  Bordeaux,  the  port  of  the  west, 
exporter  of  wine,  and  Havre,  port  of  the 
north,  through  which  most  of  the  trade  of 
Paris  goes.  Havre  is  especially  famous  as 
a market  for  Brazilian  coffee  and  American 
cotton.  A ship  from  Galveston  once  un- 
loaded at  Havre  28,000  bales  of  cotton  of 
500  pounds  each.  What  would  that  be 
worth  now?  River  boats  go  up  the  Seine 
from  Havre  to  Paris.  There  are  canals  to 
Antwerp  and  the  coal  fields  of  the  north  near 
Lille,  as  well  as  to  the  rivers  Rhone  and 
Loire.  Altogether,  this  plain  is  well  equipped 
for  trade.  It  is  all  near  to  the  sea;  it  has  sev- 
eral seaports,  several  navigable  rivers,  and  a 
good  system  of  canals  connecting  the  rivers. 

There  is  a lively  traffic  between  Paris  and 
London.  By  the  fastest  trains,  one  can 
make  the  journey  in  less  than  eight  hours. 
Of  this  time,  a little  more  than  one  hour  is 
spent  in  the  twenty-mile  boat-ride  from 
Calais  to  Dover.  Other  routes  of  travel 
between  London  and  Paris  are  by  way  of 


the  channel  ports  of  Boulogne  and  Dieppe, 
and  by  airplanes,  which  now  maintain  a 
regular  service  between  the  two  capitals. 

St.  Nazaire  and  Brest  are  two  smaller 
ports  in  the  west.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
of  American  soldiers  were  landed  at  Brest 
during  the  World  War. 

458.  Government  and  colonies. — France 
is  a republic  with  a congress  (or  parliament) 
much  like  the  American  Congress,  and  a 
president,  who  has  much  less  power  than  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  France  does 
many  things  in  Paris  which  we  do  in  our 
county  seats,  city  halls,  or  state  capitals. 
For  this  reason  we  say  that  the  French 
government  is  very  much  centralized.  This 
custom  brings  many  people  to  Paris  and 
helps  to  make  it  the  largest  city  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Compare  it  with 
some  American  cities  in  population. 

We  have  already  seen  that  France  owns 
some  small  colonies  in  America  (Sec.  254), 
but  she  has  very  large  colonies  across  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  northern  Africa.  She 
owns  most  of  the  African  shore  opposite 
France  and  Spain,  most  of  the  Sahara,  and 
some  land  south  of  the  Sahara.  French  posses- 
sions in  Central  Africa  extend  even  to  the 
equator  and  beyond  it.  France  also  has 
some  colonies  in  southeastern  Asia.  Name 


236 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Air  Service 

Fig.  376.  Old  fortress  on  the  waterfront  at  Brest,  France.  Would  it  be  effect- 
ive nowadays?  Explain.  Find  a drawbridge  and  a tiny  artificial  harbor. 


the  French  possessions  (Fig.  10).  Among 
all  the  large  French  possessions,  only  Africa 
north  of  the  Sahara  is  suitable  for  white 
men.  In  the  others  the  people  are  nearly  all 
black  or  brown,  and  even  in  North  Africa 
there  are  six  Arabs  to  one  white  settler. 

459.  Future.— While  the  Atlantic  Plain 
of  France  has  almost  the  same  good  climate 
that  England  has,  it  does  not  promise  to 
become  a land  of  factory  towns,  such  as 
England  is.  English  coal,  which  is  used 
there,  must  cost  more  in  France  than  it 
does  in  England. 

More  food  can  be  produced  because  French 
agriculture  is  not  so  intensive  as  that  of 
Holland,  Belgium,  or  Germany.  France 
might  also  produce  more  manufactures,  for 
Holland  has  shown  that  a country  with  few 
raw  materials  and  little  fuel  can  manufacture 
extensively,  but  the  fact  seems  to  be  that 
France  is  not  increasing  in  population  and 
that  her  industries  show  but  little  change. 
Since  the  World  War,  there  have  been  many 
plans  for  improvements  in  industry.  One 
of  these  plans  is  to  build  large  water-power 
plants  which  shall  be  run  by  tidal  water 
caught  by  dams  across  arms  of  the  sea. 
Another  is  to  build  a canal  from  Paris  to  the 
coal  and  iron-ore  district  of  Lorraine  near 
Luxembourg.  (Sec.  518.)  This  plan  would 
give  France  a chance  to  get  iron  and  steel  at 


less  cost,  and  in  this  way 
build  up  her  manufactures. 
If  manufactures  increase,  it 
will  be  by  making  light,  fine 
things,  which  employ  the 
artistic  and  skilful  work  of 
the  people,  and  which  do 
not  require  heavy  raw  mate- 
rials or  much  fuel.  Why? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  eight  foreign  countries 
from  which  trains  enter  Paris 
daily.  What  languages  must  the 
Bureau  of  Information  official 
know?  2.  A trip  from  London  to 
Paris,  via  Dover  and  Calais: 
What  is  the  shortest  distance 
across  the  channel?  How  long 
does  it  take  to  cross  in  a boat? 
in  an  airplane?  As  you  leave  the 
English  shore  look  at  the  Dover  cliffs  of  chalk,  a very 
soft  white  rock.  Explain  their  formation.  (Sec.  21.) 
Compare  the  scenes  as  you  go  through  the  country 
from  Calais  to  Paris  with  those  of  the  Low  Countries 
as  to  windmills:  canals;  crops;  smokestacks.  How 
long  does  it  take  from  London  to  Paris  by  rail? 
How  long  by  airplane?  3.  Locate  the  Seine,  Loire, 
and  Garonne  rivers.  What  does  their  direction  tell 
us  about  the  slope  of  this  region?  4.  Which  coast  of 
the  United  States  does  the  coast  of  France  resemble? 
5.  Sum  up  the  agricultural  advantages  of  western 
France  under  the  following  headings: 


Climate. 

Soil. 

Surface. 

Agriculture. 

6.  Sketch  an 

outline  map  of  France. 

Mark  off  the 

Atlantic  Plain  Region.  Indicate  the  important  rivers, 
the  chief  cities,  a region  producing  wine;  sheep; 
apples;  pine  lumber  and  turpentine;  pottery;  cotton 
manufactures. 

7.  How  would  the  climate  of  this  region  be  affected 
if  the  Pyrenees  extended  north  along  the  shores  of 
the  Bay  of  Biscay?  What  great  harbor  would  lose 
its  importance?  8.  Write  an  essay  on  some  lessons 
in  thrift  learned  from  the  French.  9.  Why  is  it  that 
Great  Britain,  with  resources  for  agriculture  as  good 
as  those  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  of  France,  does  not 
feed  herself,  as  does  France?  10.  Sum  up  France’s 
advantages  for  trade  under  the  following  headings: 


Haw 

Materials. 

Transportation 

Facilities. 

Manufactured 

Articles. 

Coast 

Line. 

1 1 . N ame  the  French  colonies.  (Use  the  world  map.) 
How  do  they  compare  with  England’s?  What  new 
foreign  possessions  did  France  acquire  by  the  World 
War?  12.  Prepare  an  exhibit  in  your  school  room  of 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE  237 


French  pictures,  maps,  products.  If  you  have  a good 
library  in  the  school,  or  in  the  town,  try  to  borrow 
some  books  which  will  show  pictures  of  the  most 
famous  French  cathedrals;  of  Joan  of  Arc’s  birth- 
place; of  the  historic  columns  and  statuary  in  Paris; 
of  the  small  villages  in  which  the  farmers  live;  of 
one  of  the  old  castles,  and  of  one  of  the  walled  towns. 
13.  How  many  French  things  have  you  seen?  Trace 
each  one  back  to  France,  and  see  how  it  is  particu- 
larly connected  with  the  kind  of  country  France  is, 
or  with  the  French  people. 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND 
EASTERN  EUROPE 

460.  Appearance. — Europe  is  the  only  con- 
tinent that  has  a low,  level  plain  stretching 
entirely  across  it  from  west  to  east.  One  can 
cross  this  plain  by  train  from  Amsterdam 
to  Berlin,  Warsaw,  and  Moscow.  The  rail- 
road crosses  the  Volga 
River  at  Samara,  and 
the  Ural  River  at  Oren- 
burg. So  vast  is  the 
extent  of  this  plain  that 
one  could  journey  1000 
miles  farther  to  Tash- 
kend  in  Asia,  and  still 
not  cross  a mountain. 
What  regions  does  this 
Plain  of  Central  and 
Eastern  Europe  touch? 
What  countries  lie 
within  it? 

The  lover  of  hills  and  mountains  does  not 
like  this  plain.  Wherever  one  looks  all  is 
flat — everywhere  flat,  level  land.  Here  and 
there  are  villages,  sheltered  by  shade-trees, 
then  miles  of  flat,  fenceless  fields  reaching 
away  to  the  next  village,  and  the  next,  and 
the  next.  For  hundreds  and  even  thousands 
of  miles  one  sees  nothing  that  stands  higher 
than  the  church  spires.  This  monotonous 
scene  is  varied  only  by  an  occasional  forest, 
or  a marsh  at  some  place  where  the  land  is  so 
very  flat  that  the  water  will  not  drain  away 
after  rains. 

The  plain  is  fenceless  because  the  land  is 
rarely  pastured.  Why?  (Sec.  462.)  Where 
animals  are  pastured,  some  one  watches  them 
to  keep  them  away  from  the  crops. 

461.  Ease  of  travel. — It  is  easy  to  travel 
and  to  trade  in  a region  like  this.  It  is  easy 


Fig.  377.  Potato  pro- 
duction in  bushels 
(1912-13): 

A.  Germany 

1,916,727,000 

B.  United  States 

376,086,000 

C.  United  Kingdom 

248,847,500 


Fig.  378.  Europe’s  acreage  of  oats,  another  grain  of 
the  Northland.  W hat  do  nitrate  and  phosphate  rock 
have  to  do  with  grain  crops?  (Secs.  30,  859.) 


for  railroads  to  cross  level  land,  and  where 
the  land  is  level,  boats  can  go  on  the  rivers. 
The  arms  of  the  sea  also  help.  What  fraction 
of  the  way  across  Europe  can  ocean  steamers 
sail  in  going  to  Leningrad  (Petrograd);  to 
the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean ; to  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Black  Sea?  Both  of  these 
far-reaching  arms  of  the  sea  touch  the  Cen- 
tral Plain  and  receive  navigable  rivers  that 
come  from  its  very  center.  Navigable  riv- 
ers also  provide  waterways  all  the  way  across 
the  western  part  of  the  plain  from  the  cen- 
tral highlands  to  the  North  and  Baltic  seas. 
The  greatest  river  of  all  Europe,  the  muddy 
Volga,  the  Mississippi  of  Europe,  enables 
steamers  to  travel  for  hundreds  of  miles 
across  central  Russia  and  on  to  the  Caspian 
Sea  where  they  touch  the  shores  of  interior 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  379.  Europe’s  rye  acreage.  Compare  this  with 
Figs.  378  and  321,  and  tell  why  rye  is  called  a crop  of 
the  Northland. 


238 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  V. 


Fig.  380.  A Russian  carriage  on  a public  square  in  front 
of  a Russian  church.  Some  of  the  Russian  people  are 
very  artistic. 

Asia.  The  land  near  the  sources  of  these 
streams  is  so  level  that  canals  have  been  built 
to  connect  the  Baltic  rivers  with  the  Volga, 
and  with  those  flowing  to  the  Black  Sea. 

The  snows  of  winter  give  one  more  aid  to 
travel.  The  sled,  or  sleigh,  is  easier  to  draw 
than  a wagon,  and  it  has  been  used  for  cen- 
turies in  this  region  for  most  of  the  heavy 
hauling  from  farm  to  town  or  river  bank. 
In  few  other  regions  in  the  entire  world  are 
the  natural  means  of  transportation  so  easy. 

462.  Climate  and  crops. — This  plain  is  a 
land  of  the  north.  The  climate  of  its  western 
part  is  somewhat  like  that  of  England,  or  of 
western  Washington  State.  In  the  center  it 
is  like  the  climate  of  our  own  Lake  District, 
and  in  the  east  it  is  like  that  of  our  Northern 
Wheat  Region.  Everywhere  the  winter  is 
cold  and  snowy.  Eastward,  away  from  the 
mild  climate  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the 
winters  become  colder,  and  the  summers 
hotter.  (Figs.  328,  329.)  The  streams  of 
Holland  are  frozen  for  only  a short  time 
each  winter.  Those  of  eastern  Germany  are 
frozen  for  a month  longer,  and  those  of 


eastern  Russia  for  a month  longer  than  those 
of  Germany.  The  rainfall  also  becomes  less 
as  we  go  east.  The  western  boundary  of 
Holland  has  27  inches  of  rain,  Berlin  has 
23,  and  Orenburg,  on  the  Ural,  has  only  14 
inches  a year.  Compare  this  with  the  rainfall 
of  our  Northern  Wheat  Region  (Fig.  158). 

The  crops  show  that  it  is  a land  of  the 
north.  Rye,  oats,  beets,  and  the  potato  are 
especially  important  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  plain,  where  the  climate  is  cool  and 
damp.  The  potato  is  to  the  Germans, 
Danes,  and  Swedes  what  corn  is  to  the  people 
of  Iowa  and  Kansas. 

In  the  drier  southeast  enough  summer  rain 
falls  for  spring  wheat  (Sec.  89)  and  barley, 
which  are  here  the  main  crops.  In  the  lower 
Volga  Basin  the  rainfall  is  uncertain;  some 
years  the  crops  are  good  and  sometimes 
they  fail,  causing  famine. 

Near  the  Caspian  Sea  there  is  not  enough 
rain  for  wheat;  so  this  locality,  like  our  own 
Great  Plains,  is  a region  where  herdsmen 
tend  their  flocks.  (Sec.  102.) 

463.  History  and  peoples. — This  plain,  so 
level  from  end  to  end,  and  blessed  with 
enough  rainfall  to  make  crops  or  pastures, 
was  a place  where  ancient  tribes  wandered 
with  flocks  and  herds  and  made  an  easy 
living.  At  the  time  when  Greece  and  Rome 
were  great  nations,  this  whole  plain  was  occu- 
pied by  roving  bands  of  savages  who  fought 
for  possession  of  the  land,  much  as  the 
Indians  did  in  America.  On  this  account, 
the  level  plain  is  to  this  day  the  home  of 
many  different  peoples  who  occupy  the  land 
that  their  ancestors  managed  to  hold  in 
the  ancient  struggles  for  home  space.  Let  us 
see  who  these  peoples  are  and  how  they  live. 

464.  The  Scandinavians. — The  northwest- 
ern part  of  the  region  is  the  home  of  the 
Scandinavian  peoples  — the  Norwegians, 
Swedes,  and  Danes.  The  peoples  of  these 
three  countries  resemble  one  another  in 
several  ways.  They  are  usually  large,  tall, 
blonde  people.  These  peoples  are  alike 
in  being  well-educated  and  in  having  given 
to  the  world  many  explorers,  scientists,  and 
learned  men.  It  is  easy  for  these  three 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE  239 


Photo.  Williams,  Brown  & Earle 

Fig.  381.  View  of  Stockholm  and  a part  of  its  harbor.  Locate  Stockholm. 


peoples  to  understand  one 
another’s  language. 

What  parts  of  the  Scandina- 
vian countries  are  included  in 
the  plain?  (Fig.  319.) 

The  Scandinavian  lowlands 
are  much  alike  in  industries, 
which  are  chiefly  agricultural, 
with  a few  manufacturing  cities, 
such  as,  Oslo  (Christiania)  and 
Stockholm. 

465.  Denmark  is  a coastal 
plain,  mostly  sandy  and  much 
like  Long  Island,  or  the  southern 
part  of  New  Jersey.  Most  of  the 
soil  is  poor,  and  the  climate  is 
damp  and  cool.  It  is  not  a place 
in  which  to  make  an  easy  living, 
but  by  hard  work  the  Danes 
have  made  their  country  pros- 
perous and  full  of  pleasant 
neighborhoods  in  which  people  like  to  live. 
These  people  have  shown  the  world  how  to 
practice  cooperation  in  agriculture.  If  you 
buy  an  egg  from  Denmark,  you  will  see 
a number  printed  on  its  shell.  The  number 
shows  which  member  of  the  Danish  Co- 
operative Association  sent  the  egg  to  market. 
If  it  is  a bad  egg,  the  man  who  sold  it 
must  pay  a fine.  If  he  should  sell  a second 
bad  egg,  he  must  pay  a bigger  fine.  For  a 
third  bad  egg,  he  will  be  expelled  from  the 
egg  association,  and  then,  because  he  can 
no  longer  sell  through  the  association,  he 
must  take  a lower  price  for  his  eggs.  In 
the  same  way  the  Danish  dairy  farmers 
have  joined  together.  They  jointly  own 
factories  where  excellent  butter  is  made. 
Often  it  is  put  into  tin  cans,  and  sent  to  places 
as  far  away  as  Central  America,  Africa,  or 
even  Alaska.  The  Danish  farmers  raise 
many  hogs,  which  are  prepared  for  market 
in  cooperative  packing  plants, 
t In  a short  time  Denmark  has  risen  from  a 
poor  country  to  a very  prosperous  one, 
largely  through  the  industry  of  her  people, 
who  make  their  butter,  eggs,  and  bacon  so 
good  that  other  countries  want  them,  es- 
pecially England. 


Denmark  has  good  country  roads  and 
very  good  country  schools. 

466.  Southern  Sweden  and  southern  Nor- 
way.— Nearly  all  the  farmers  of  Sweden  who 
live  in  this  plain  have  followed  the  example 
of  their  neighbors  across  the  straits  in  Den- 
mark, and  are  producing  good  butter.  The 
Swedes,  Danes,  and  Norwegians  import  much 
feed  for  cows,  because  they  find  it  profitable 
to  keep  many  cows.  They  buy  cottonseed 
meal  and  corn  from  the  United  States.  Their 
own  lands  produce  barley,  oats,  hay,  and 
beets  for  the  cows.  There  is  not  room  for 
much  wheat.  That  is  imported;  but  many 
potatoes  and  vegetables  are  grown. 

The  glaciers  once  covered  all  of  Scandina- 
via, and  made  even  the  lowland  of  Norway 
and  Sweden  a land  of  stones,  marshes,  and 
lakes,  resembling  parts  of  New  England. 
So  small  a part  of  the  land  has  been  left  fit 
for  farms  that  Norway  has  very  little  farm- 
land indeed.  She  pays  for  most  of  her 
imported  food  with  lumber,  paper,  and  fish. 
(Sec.  413.) 

In  Sweden,  dairy  machinery  is  manufac- 
tured, and  other  fine  machinery,  much  of 
which  is  exported  in  steamships  of  the  Dan- 
ish companies  which  sail  from  Copenhagen, 


240 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


used.  Much  of  the  German 
plain  was  originally  poor, 
sandy,  and  often  swampy; 
but  by  the  application  of 
skill,  fertilizer,  and  hard 
work  it  has  been  made  to 
produce  large  crops  of  rye, 
potatoes,  barley,  and  oats. 
These  are  the  crops  that 
both  men  and  cattle  eat, 
and  before  the  World  War 
there  were  more  cattle  and 
hogs  on  this  plain  than  in 
any  area  of  the  same  size 
in  the  United  States. 
(Fig.  361.)  Some  wheat  is 

©Publishers- Photo  Service.  N.Y.  alS0  The  Pe°Ple 

Fig.  382.  The  German  branch  of  the  General  Electric  Company,  an  Ameri-  Gat  some  wheat  bread,  but 

much  more  rye  bread  (Figs. 


can  corporation.  (Fig.  283.) 
and  call  at  Goteborg,  Sweden,  en  route 
to  all  the  leading  countries  of  Europe,  North 
and  South  America,  and  Asia.  Some  Swed- 
ish factories  make  steel  products,  such  as 
watch  springs  and  delicate  machinery,  that 
are  worth  more  than  their  weight  in  gold. 
Electric  power  from  the  Scandinavian  moun- 
tains (Sec.  509)  may  help  the  lowland  cities 
of  these  three  countries. 

The  Scandinavian  capitals  are  clean,  well- 
kept  cities,  with  some  manufacturing.  Com- 
pare them  in  size  with  Washington;  with 
Montreal.  In  each  Scandi- 
navian capital  is  a king, 
who  has  but  little  power, 
and  a parliament  which  is 
elected  by  the  people  to  rule 
the  country. 

467.  The  German  part  of 
the  plain. — About  half  the 
people  of  Germany  live  in 
the  German  part  of  the 
Central  Plain.  Where  is  the 
capital  of  Germany?  The 
Germans  are  a well-educated 
people,  and  they  have  ap- 
plied their  knowledge  to 
agriculture,  manufacture, 
and  trade,  as  well  as  to  war. 

The  German  land  is  well 


321,  379).  The  German  people  eat  more 
potatoes,  and  therefore  less  of  some  other 
things,  than  we  do.  Potatoes  are  much 
used  to  make  flour  and  alcohol,  and  as 
food  for  pigs  and  cows. 

468.  German  education. — Wishing  to  make 
Germany  a manufacturing  nation,  the  govern- 
ment has  done  much  to  help  education.  Ger- 
man universities  were  among  the  first  in  the 
world  in  teaching  chemistry  and  physics,  so 
that  there  have  been  many  trained  chemists, 
machinists,  and  engineers  to  go  into  fac- 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  383.  Some  of  the  buildings  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  What  subjects 
helpful  to  industry  were  German  universities  among  the  first  to  teach? 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE  241 


© Publishers’  Photo.  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  384.  Cranes  for  heavy  freight  and  putting  machinery  into  unfinished 
ships,  Hamburg,  Germany.  This  harbor  has  a very  large  basin,  in  which  many 
ocean  liners  may  anchor  before  and  after  loading  or  unloading  their  cargoes. 


tories.  Thus  Germany  be- 
came the  leading  nation  of 
the  world  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  chemical  dyes,  and 
for  many  other  articles 
requiring  knowledge,  skill, 
and  patience. 

Germans  have  written 
many  scientific  books,  and 
some  of  the  world’s  most 
famous  music  was  composed 
by  German  musicians. 

469.  German  manufac- 
ture.— Coal  is  found  near 
the  southern  edge  of  the 
German  Plain  near  Leipzig 
in  the  state  of  Saxony,  and 
also  farther  to  the  southeast 
in  Silesia,  near  the  Polish 
boundary.  (Fig.  385.)  Here  at  the  southern 
edge  of  the  plain  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
peopled  parts  of  Europe.  Ancient  towns 
such  as  Muenster,  Hanover,  Leipzig,  Dres- 
den, and  Breslau  have  long  been  trading 
centers,  because,  like  Denver,  they  stood 
as  gateways  to  the  highlands.  Now  that 
coal  drives  the  machinery,  these  ancient 
towns  have  grown  to  be  large  manufacturing 
cities.  Leipzig  is  one  of  the  great  book 
manufacturing  cities  of  the  world.  The 
beautiful  city  of  Dresden,  capital  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  famous  for  its  manu- 
facture of  chinaware  and  porcelain.  Not 
far  away  are  Chemnitz,  with  many  textile 
industries,  and  Breslau,  with  iron  manu- 
factures. 

470.  Berlin. — Germany  is  now  a republic, 
but  it  was  an  empire  before  the  World  War. 
Berlin  towers  over  all  the  cities  of  Germany, 
as  Paris  and  London  tower  over  the  other 
cities  of  their  countries. 

Berlin  is  a great  center  for  canals  and 
railroads,  and  it  has  many  factories.  It  has  a 
famous  university  and  a famous  opera  house. 
Many  foreign  singers  have  gone  to  Berlin  for 
study.  Many  of  the  streets  are  wide  and 
ornamented  with  statues.  The  Zoo  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world.  As  in  all  capitals, 
many  people  in  Berlin  are  kept  busy  in 


the  offices  of  the  government.  Between  1880 
and  1910  the  city  grew  almost  as  fast  as 
Chicago.  As  in  New  York,  most  of  the 
people  live  in  apartments,  several  families 
sometimes  living  on  one  floor.  Many 
families  have  only  one  room.  There  are  no 
yards  around  the  houses,  but  many  public 
playgrounds  are  provided  for  children. 

471.  German  trade. — The  Germans  have 
studied  the  needs  of  other  peoples  carefully, 
and  have  worked  hard  to  build  up  a foreign 
trade  by  exporting  manufactured  goods,  so 
that  they  could  pay  for  food  and  raw  ma- 
terials. Before  the  World  War,  lines  of 
steamers  went  from  Hamburg  and  Bremen 
to  every  continent  and  to  most  of  the  coun- 
tries and  great  ports  of  the  world.  Many 
of  these  steamers  stopped  at  Rotterdam  and 
Antwerp  to  gather  up  Dutch,  Belgian,  and 
German  goods  from  the  Rhine  district. 
Splendid  harbors  have  been  dug  in  the 
meadows  beside  the  Elbe  at  Hamburg,  and 
beside  the  Weser  at  Bremen. 

The  Kiel  Canal  was  cut  to  make  a quicker 
outlet  from  the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea. 
The  rivers  were  deepened,  so  that  boats 
might  cross  the  German  plain  from  the 
North  Sea  to  the  southern  highlands.  A 
great  east  and  west  canal  was  dug  so  that 
grain  might  come  from  the  farms  of  ^ east 


Fig.  385. 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE  243 


Russian  stone  polishers.  How  is  the  power  furnished  in  this 
small  factory?  In  the  German  factory?  (Fig.  382.) 


Germany  to  Berlin  and 
Hamburg.  We  have  already 
seen  (Sec.  445)  how  the 
Germans  have  improved 
the  River  Rhine.  Germany 
is  rebuilding  her  foreign 
trade. 

472.  The  Poles,  Letts, 

Lithuanians  and  Esthonians. 

— The  peoples  of  these  new 
nations  (Fig.  385)  are  not  so 
well-educated  as  the  Ger- 
mans and  the  Scandina- 
vians. The  Poles  once  had 
a kingdom  of  their  own, 
but  about  the  time  of  our 
Revolutionary  War  it  was  Fls-  38<5- 
divided  up  between  the 
empires  of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the 
big  German  state  of  Prussia.  For  more 
than  a hundred  years  the  Poles  have 
been  a people  without  a country,  and  have 
been  oppressed  by  their  rulers.  They  have 
not  had  many  good  schools,  although  many 
Poles  are  well-educated,  and  some  of  them 
have  become  very  famous.  During  all  these 
generations  of  oppression  they  have  kept 
alive  the  Polish  spirit  and  the  hope  of  being 
independent.  Since  the  World  War  they 
have  ruled  their  own  country  once  more. 

The  countries  of  the  Letts  (Latvia),  the 
Lithuanians,  and  the  Esthonians  are  three 
small,  new  countries.  They  were  under  the 
oppressive  rule  of  Russia  until  their  indepen- 
dence was  restored  by  the  conference  at  the 
end  of  the  World  War. 

Poland  and  the  new  Baltic  States  are 
chiefly  agricultural  (Sec.  462) ; but  they  have 
not  grown  such  good  crops  as  the  Germans 
have,  because  their  farmers  have  not  had 
education  or  government  aid,  as  have  the 
German  farmers  (Sec.  443). 

473.  The  government  of  Russia. — The 
Russian  people  have  had  less  opportunity 
than  the  Poles.  For  several  hundred  years 
Russia  has  been  ruled  by  emperors,  or  czars, 
as  they  were  called,  and  by  a few  of  the  czar’s 
friends.  This  small  group  of  rulers  cared 
little  about  the  welfare  of  the  people.  They 


stole  most  of  the  tax  money,  and  squandered 
it  in  Leningrad  (Petrograd)  and  in  foreign 
lands.  They  thought  they  could  have  their 
own  way  more  easily  if  the  people  were  ig- 
norant. For  this  reason  there  were  few 
schools,  and  about  nine-tenths  of  the  Rus- 
sian people  cannot  read  or  write. 

During  the  World  War  the  Russians  drove 
out  the  Czar,  and  there  was  much  fighting 
among  the  Russians  themselves  to  see  who 
should  rule.  During  this  time  Russia  had 
little  trade  and  the  people  suffered  much. 
Many  of  them  starved  or  died  of  sickness. 

Before  the  World  War  many  of  the 
peasants  rented  their  farms  from  rich  land- 
lords who  took  too  much  rent.  One  of  the 
results  of  the  Russian  revolution  was  to 
give  land  to  the  peasants  who  before  had 
worked  it,  but  had  not  owned  it. 

If  we  compare  Denmark  with  Russia,  we 
can  see  what  a good  thing  it  is  for  a country 
to  have  a good  government  and  what  a bad 
thing  it  is  for  a country  to  have  a bad  govern- 
ment. The  Danish  village  is  well  governed. 
It  is  neat  and  tidy,  with  good  schools  and 
educated  people  who  live  in  clean,  painted 
houses.  The  Russian  village  is  poorly 
governed  and  often  has  no  school.  Many 
of  the  houses  have  dirt  floors  and  straw  roofs; 
most  of  them  are  unpainted,  and  often  they 
are  not  clean.  The  roads  are  fearful  mud- 


244 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Fig.  387. 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  H 

Polish  women  plowing.  Does  this  look  like  efficient  labor? 


holes,  and  the  crops  do  not  yield  half  as  much 
per  acre  as  crops  do  in  Denmark,  because 
the  people  have  not  been  taught  agriculture 
as  have  the  Danish  people.  The  contrast 
between  these  two  countries  makes  it  clear 
that  everyone  should  do  his  share  to  help 
make  the  government  honest  and  helpful. 

474.  The  Russian  people. — The  Russians 
are  much  better  than  their  governments  have 
been.  They  are  big,  strong  people.  Ameri- 
cans who  have  had  charge  of  work  in  Russia 
say  they  are  stronger  and  can  do  more  work 
than  can  Americans.  The  village  may  have 
houses  with  dirt  floors  and  straw  roofs,  but 
the  people  are  polite,  friendly,  and  musical. 
In  America  we  have  music  as  an  accomplish- 
ment; but  the  Russian  has  music  and  danc- 
ing as  ways  of  expressing  his  feelings,  just 
as  we  smile  or  frown  or  laugh  or  cry.  “ How 
can  we  work  if  we  do  not  sing?”  said  the 
boatmen  on  the  Volga  when  asked  why  they 
sang  as  they  worked.  In  traveling  through 
Russia  you  may  see  the  people  of  a peasant 
village  out  at  almost  any  time  of  day, 
dancing  on  the  board  floor  of  a bridge  or  on 
a smooth  place  in  the  road.  From  the  Rus- 
sians we  get  the  dances  known  as  the  polka, 
the  mazurka,  and  the  polonaise.  Besides 
folk-dances,  many  folk-songs  have  been 
passed  down  by  the  people  from  one  gen- 
eration to  the  next. 

475.  Manufacturing  in  countries  east  of 


Germany. — This  great  flat 
plain  is  nearly  half  of 
Europe  and  it  has  as  many 
people  as  the  United  States, 
but  as  yet  not  much  fac- 
tory manufacturing  has 
begun.  The  Russian  Gov- 
ernment and  the  roads  have 
been  so  bad  that  Russia  is 
a hundred  years  or  more 
behind  northwest  Europe 
and  the  United  States  in 
many  of  the  ways  of  doing 
things,  and  therefore  in  ways 
of  thinking  about  things. 
The  life  of  the  people  in 
many  parts  of  Russia  re- 
minds us  a little  of  the  life  of  the  Douglas 
family  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
(Sec.  3).  During  the  long  winter  months 
when  the  ground  is  snow-covered  and 
there  is  little  else  to  do,  the  people 
work  in  their  homes  at  weaving,  and  at 
making  baskets,  leather  goods,  brushes, 
and  many  other  small  articles.  It  is  only 
recently  that  factories  and  a few  manu- 
facturing cities  have  grown  up  in  this  part 
of  the  Great  Plain,  as  they  have  in  our  own 
central  farming  region.  Before  the  World 
War  most  of  the  Russian  factories  were 
owned  and  managed  by  foreigners — Ger- 
mans, English,  French,  Danes,  or  Americans, 
who  had  studied  engineering,  and  knew  how 
to  run  machinery  and  factories. 

Warsaw,  the  capital  of  Poland,  and  Lodz 
near  it,  are  cotton-  and  wool-manufacturing 
centers,  near  the  Polish  coal  fields.  Riga  and 
Reval  are  ports  with  less  manufacturing  than 
the  Polish  cities.  Moscow,  the  old  capital 
of  Russia,  is  near  the  central  coal  field  and 
manufactures  much  iron  and  leather.  In 
the  south,  near  the  Sea  of  Azof,  is  a large 
coal  field  yielding  most  of  Russia’s  coal. 

During  the  Russian  civil  wars  many  of 
these  factories  stopped  running.  That  was 
one  of  the  reasons  why  Russians  suffered 
so  much. 

476.  Polish  and  Russian  agriculture. — 
Most  of  the  people  of  the  whole  great  region 


THE  GREAT  PLAIN  OF  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE  245 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  388.  Russian  peasants  threshing  wheat  with  flails.  By  a slight  movement 
of  the  pole  the  club  falls  full  length  on  the  straw;  see  the  woman’s  flail. 


between  Germany  and  Asia, 
and  between  the  Baltic  Sea 
and  the  Black  Sea,  are 
fanners.  Among  these  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  people 
few  can  read  or  write,  and 
they  have  suffered  long 
from  cruel  and  thieving 
government,  and  from  war. 

Where  these  things  happen, 
the  people  are  ignorant  and 
have  poor  tools,  poor  crops, 
and  the  people  them- 
selves are  poor.  Such 
people  always  have  need- 
less sickness  and  suffering. 

Here  one  might  ride,  day 
after  day,  past  gray  villages 
from  which  the  peasants  go 
out  on  the  level  plain  near  by  to  work  in  their 
fields  of  rye,  potatoes,  barley,  oats,  wheat, 
or  sugar  beets.  At  noontime  they  eat  a 
simple  meal  of  black  rye  bread,  cabbage, 
potatoes,  and  perhaps  drink  a little  tea, 
but  rarely  have  a bit  of  meat  or  eggs— these 
being  the  things  they  must  sell  to  get  money 
to  pay  taxes  and  to  buy  the  few  things  they 
cannot  do  without. 

477.  The  Russian  wheat  region. — The 
southern  part  of  the  plain,  from  Rumania 
eastward,  is  one  of  the  two  greatest  inland 
wheat  regions  of  the  world.  (Fig.  321.)  Where 
is  the  other?  (Fig.  88.)  This  great  stretch 
of  flat,  treeless  land  has  a very  rich  black 
soil  and  is  known  as  the  “Black  Earth” 
country.  It  has  a climate  much  like  that 
in  the  central  part  of  North  America.  Near 
the  Black  Sea  it  joins  the  European  Com 
Belt,  and  here  the  wheat  is  sown  in  the 
fall,  as  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  where 
wheat  and  com  are  grown  near  each  other. 
Farther  east,  the  winters  are  colder,  and 
scanty  rain  falls  in  the  summer  season 
as  it  does  in  our  own  Northern  Wheat 
Region.  As  the  climate  is  like  that  of 
North  Dakota,  we  find  the  same  method  of 
growing  wheat  (Sec.  89),  namely,  sowing  in 
the  spring  and  harvesting  in  the  autumn. 
Everywhere  in  the  southern  part  of  the  great 


plain  there  is  wheat,  wheat,  wheat,  almost 
nothing  but  wheat,  for  fully  a thousand 
miles.  The  soil  is  rich,  but  the  rainfall  is 
uncertain,  and  the  ignorant  Russian  farmers, 
or  moujiks,  as  they  are  called,  cultivate  the 
crop  so  poorly  that  the  yield  is  only  a third 
of  that  on  German  fields. 

In  this  treeless  region  the  moujik’s  house 
has  a dirt  floor,  and  walls  made  of  sods  piled 
one  on  the  other,  plastered  with  mud,  and 
whitewashed.  The  roof  is  of  sod  or  straw 
thatch  held  up  on  poles.  Straw  is  burned 
in  the  stove.  Near  the  rivers  some  of  the 
richer  people  have  wooden  houses  that  have 
been  floated  down  on  rafts  from  the  forests 
to  the  northward. 

478.  Migrating  laborers. — Because  of  their 
poverty,  many  Poles  used  to  go  away  each 
year  to  work  in  the  harvest-fields  of  Ger- 
many, and  even  of  Switzerland  and  Sweden. 
Before  the  World  War  as  many  as  five  million 
harvesters  sometimes  made  a summer  jour- 
ney from  Central  Russia  southward  to  the 
Wheat  Belt  (Fig.  321),  and  then  worked  their 
way  northward  with  the  advancing  harvests. 

479.  The  trade  of  Russia  and  Poland. — 
In  times  of  peace,  this  great  agricultural  re- 
gion of  the  eastern  plain  sends  its  surplus 
crops  to  the  cities  of  western  Europe.  At 
the  south,  wheat  goes  from  the  port  of 


246 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Fig.  38Q.  A Russian  peasant  and  his  daughter  carving 
wooden  toys.  Is  this  highly-paid  work? 


Odessa,  and  from  Rostof  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Don.  In  the  north,  rye,  oats,  butter,  eggs, 
and  meat  animals  are  shipped  eastward  from 
Leningrad  (Petrograd),  Riga,  Koenigsberg, 
and  Danzig.  Much  trade  in  time  of  peace 
goes  overland  by  railroad  into  Germany. 

The  people  of  Russia  still  carry  on  much  of 
their  trade  by  fairs,  as  the  people  of  England 
and  of  all  Europe  did  before  the  coming  of  the 
steamship  and  the  train. 

Indeed,  many  of  the  cities  of  Europe  were 
started  by  the  fact  that  people  met  at  certain 
places  once  a year  to  trade.  Such  an  occasion 
they  called  a fair.  It  was  really  a market. 
In  Russia  to  this  day  many  such  fairs  are 
still  held.  After  working  all  winter  at  their 
crafts,  the  shoemaker,  the  saddler,  the  basket- 
maker,  and  the  weaver  go  off  to  the  nearest 
fair  and  sell  their  year’s  produce  to  traveling 
merchants,  or  to  people  who  are  buying  a 
year’s  supply. 

The  most  famous  of  these  fairs  is  at  Nizhni 
Novgorod.  The  more  regular  transport  of 
the  railroad  and  the  steamship  are  causing 
the  fairs  to  decline. 

Just  as  the  farms  of  our  own  Wheat  Belt 
receive  manufactures  from  our  own  factory 
region,  so  the  peasants  of  eastern  Europe 
buy  clothes,  shoes,  nails,  machinery,  and 
tools  from  the  factory  region  of  central 
Germany,  from  Norway  and  Sweden,  and 
from  the  other  factory  regions  on  both  sides 
of  the  English  Channel.  Before  the  World 
War  the  peasants  had  begun  to  use  American 


plows  and  reapers,  which  sometimes  went  by 
shiploads  from  America  to  Odessa. 

480.  Future  of  the  great  plain  of  central 
and  eastern  Europe. — In  the  western  part 
of  this  region, — Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  central  Germany, — there  cannot  be  very 
much  increase  in  food  production  because 
the  land  is  already  tilled  so  thoroughly  and 
so  well ; but  there  might  be  many  more  com- 
fortable manufacturing  towns,  if  markets  and 
supplies  can  be  found  in  foreign  countries. 

Poland  and  Russia  can  double  their  food 
supply  if  the  people  can  have  peace,  a chance 
to  own  land,  and  good  schools  where  the 
children  can  learn  better  ways  of  doing  things. 

Such  a great  region  should  also  have  many 
small  manufacturing  cities,  busy  supplying 
local  needs.  The  Russian  coal  fields  will 
give  the  power,  but  the  location  of  the  towns 
for  foreign  trade  is  not  so  good  as  in  the 
countries  near  the  English  channel.  Then, 
too,  the  winter  is  so  long  and  so  very  cold 
that  people  do  not  feel  as  much  like  working 
as  people  do  in  a climate  that  is  less  severe. 

The  Ural  Mountain  district  has  ores  of  iron 
and  platinum  which  have  been  worked  in  the 
past  and  should  be  worked  still  more  in  the 
future. 

Much,  very  much,  depends  upon  the  kind 
of  government  a country  has.  No  one 
knows  what  the  government  of  Russia  will 
be,  or  what  Russia’s  future  will  be. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  a railroad  trip  from  Hamburg  to 
Moscow  with  one  from  Columbus,  Ohio,  to  Omaha, 
Nebraska,  during  late  September,  in  length,  number 
of  cities,  canals  and  rivers  crossed,  changes  in  climate, 
and  crops  in  fields.  2.  Does  skating  continue  longer 
on  the  canals  of  Russia  than  in  Holland?  3.  In  which 
place  are  the  summers  hotter?  Why?  4.  Compare 
the  waterways  of  Germany  with  those  of  the  United 
States.  5.  Why  were  the  colors  of  many  manufac- 
tured materials  in  the  United  States  so  poor  during 
the  World  War?  6.  Compare  the  population  of 
Germany  and  Russia  per  square  mile.  Can  you  give 
two  good  reasons  for  the  difference?  7.  Compare 
their  education.  What  might  Russia  learn  from 
Germany?  8.  Compare  Europe’s  great  plain  with 
the  Great  Plains  of  the  United  States  in  as  many 
ways  as  you  can.  Are  the  trading  facilities  of  the 
European  plain  better  than  those  of  the  American 
plain?  Which  of  these  two  plains  has  a better  chance 
for  future  increase  of  population  and  industry? 

9.  Why  should  there  be  extensive  agriculture  in 


GREAT  NORTHERN  FORESTS  OF  EUROPE 


Russia  and  intensive  agriculture  in  Belgium?  Com- 
pare the  two  systems.  10.  Can  you  name  five  na- 
tions whose  people  have  owned  business  enterprises 
in  Russia?  in  Mexico?  Why  is  such  the  case? 
11.  What  waters  are  connected  by  the  Kiel  Canal? 
Prove  on  the  map  what  time  this  canal  saves  for  a 
boat  going  14  miles  per  hour.  12.  Name  all  the 
nations  of  this  region  established  after  the  World  War. 
Why  was  Danzig  made  a free  port?  13.  How  would 
you  give  a Christmas  entertainment  that  might  be 
enjoyed  in  Germany?  in  Russia?  in  Norway? 

14.  Describe  the  trade  between  Denmark  and  Eng- 
land. 15.  Compare  the  length  of  the  day  in  Oslo 
(Christiania)  and  Berlin.  Why  is  there  this  differ- 
ence? 16.  Why  did  the  interruption  of  Germany’s 
commerce  by  the  delay  in  the  peace  negotiations  in- 
terfere with  the  trade  of  the  United  States?  Why 
did  it  interfere  with  the  trade  of  Europe?  17.  Why 
do  manufacturers  in  the  United  States  want  a high 
tariff  on  toys?  What  difference  does  such  a tariff 
make  to  Germany?  How  does  it  affect  her  ability  to 
buy  cotton?  18.  If  you  would  like  to  hear  the  most 
widely  known  of  Russian  folk  songs,  “Down  Mother 
Volga,”  get  the  phonograph  record  “ Wniz  po  Matusz- 
kie,”  by  Tschaikowsky.  19.  What  city  is  the  birth- 
place of  Hans  Christian  Andersen?  Tell  some  of 
his  fairy  tales.  20.  How  do  the  oil  wells  of  Baku 
help  Russian  trade?  How  does  the  oil  reach  Moscow? 

GREAT  NORTHERN  FORESTS  OF 
EUROPE 

481.  European  regions  that  are  like  Ameri- 
can regions. — In  North  America,  as  we  go 
northward  from  the  St.  Lawrence  valley  and 
the  Northern  Wheat  Region,  we  find  a great 
belt  of  evergreen  forest,  and  beyond  it  a 
treeless  zone,  or  tundra,  that  reaches  to  the 
ice-bound  Arctic  Sea.  Europe  has  similar 
regions.  North  of  the  Central  European 
Plain  is  a belt  of  evergreen  forest  that 
reaches  continuously  from  the  Scandinavian 
mountains  to  the  Ural  Mountains  and  on 
across  Asia  to  the  Pacific.  Like  a part  of 
the  American  forest,  the  great  northern 
forest  of  Europe  stands  on  a low  plain  that 
was  once  covered  by  an  ice-sheet  which  has 
left  many  swamps  and  lakes,  both  large  and 
small.  As  in  America,  this  northern  forest 
is  a land  of  long  cold  winter  and  deep  snow. 
Evergreen  trees  extend  northward  to  the 
edge  of  the  tundra.  In  the  northern  forests 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  as  in  those  of  America, 
the  bear  and  the  fur-gatherer  roam  the 
woods.  The  wild  boar  is  still  to  be  found 
there,  and  wolves  sometimes  pursue  the 


247 

hunter  and  the  traveler,  as  they  do  in  all 
similar  regions. 

482.  Two  kinds  of  work. — This  forested 
country  of  Sweden,  Finland,  and  North 
Russia  differs  from  the  American  forest  by 
having  some  farmers  in  it.  Land  is  so  scarce 
in  Europe  that,  with  much  labor,  men  have 
cleared  away  rocks  and  drained  swamps  and 
have  made  little  farms  in  east  Sweden  and 
Finland.  Most  of  these  farmers  have  two 
kinds  of  work,  one  for  the  winter  and  another 
for  the  summer  season.  In  the  summer  men 
tend  their  little  farms,  grow  oats  and  pota- 
toes, and  make  hay.  When  winter  comes, 
they  leave  their  wives  and  children  to  take 
care  of  the  cows,  while  they  go  into  the 
forests,  where  they  camp  all  winter,  chopping 
wood  and  dragging  logs  to  the  stream  bank. 
In  spring  the  logs  are  floated  downstream, 
just  as  is  done  in  the  forests  of  New  England 
and  Canada.  In  some  of  the  Swedish  rivers 
special  channels  have  been  made  by  building 
canals  around  waterfalls.  Thus  the  logs 
can  rush  down  without  lodging  in  the  rocks. 

483.  The  lumber  ships. — When  spring  has 
melted  the  ice  of  winter  and  the  northern 
waters  are  again  open,  hundreds  of  British, 
German,  French,  and  Dutch  ships  hasten  to 
the  small  ports  along  the  Baltic  Sea,  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the 
White  Sea.  They  return  with  loads  of  lum- 
ber, poles  for  coal  mine  props,  and  wood 


Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  390.  A fisherman’s  house  on  the  stony  shore  of  a 
narrow  bay  near  the  steep  mountains  and  snowfields 
of  northern  Norway. 


248 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  391.  What  is  this  boat  doing  here  in  the  Swedish 
forest  country?  Compare  with  Fig.  259. 

pulp  for  the  paper  mills.  Sometimes  all 
the  parts  of  a wooden  house  are  loaded  on 
the  ship  and  carried  away,  to  be  put  up  in 
some  land  across  the  sea.  England  is  able 
to  get  along  with  only  one-thirtieth  of  her 
land  in  forests  because  she  uses  the  timber 
of  this  northern  forest  region,  where  nearly 
all  the  land  is  forest-covered. 

484.  The  rafting  trip.— The  southeastern 
part  of  this  forest  is  drained  by  the  branches 
of  the  Volga,  a splendid  waterway  for  rafts. 
Each  spring  the  timber-cutters  from  this 
part  of  the  forest  float  their  logs,  lumber, 
and  even  finished  houses  down  the  river  to 
market  in  the  treeless  wheat  region.  (Sec. 
477.) 

485.  Iron  ore  and  platinum. — About  Lulea 
and  Gellivare,  in  northern  Sweden,  are  two  of 
the  great  iron-mining  districts  of  the  Old 
World.  Most  of  the  ore  from  these  mines  is 
used  in  England  and  the  Rhine  district. 
In  summer,  ore  ships  go  down  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  In  winter,  they  sail  from  Narvik 
in  Norway,  to  which  a special  railroad  has 
been  built  to  carry  ore  across  the  mountains 


during  the  months  when  the  Baltic  is  frozen. 
Thus,  because  the  warm  Atlantic  reaches 
these  shores  (Secs.  407-408),  the  Swedish  iron 
mines  can  ship  ore  winter  and  summer,  while 
the  mines  of  the  Lake  Superior  district, 
much  farther  south,  must  close  in  winter, 
because  ice  shuts  the  water  highway  be- 
tween the  mines  and  the  furnaces. 

In  the  part  of  this  district  near  to  the  Ural 
Mountains  there  are  mines  that  before  the 
World  War  furnished  nine-tenths  of  the 
world’s  platinum.  This  metal  is  heavier 
than  gold  and  more  costly.  Most  of  it  is 
used  in  chemical  laboratories  and  in  jewelry. 

486.  People. — We  have  already  studied 
about  the  Russians  and  the  Swedes,  but  most 
of  the  people  of  this  region  are  Finns.  The 
Finns,  like  the  Swedes,  are  an  intelligent, 
well-educated,  liberty-loving  people,  but  they 
were  conquered  a long  time  ago  by  Russia. 
Like  the  Poles,  the  Finns  have  suffered  from 
the  bad  government  of  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
and  for  generations  they  have  longed  to 
be  independent.  After  the  World  War, 
Finland  once  more  became  a free  and 
separate  country. 

487.  Future. — This  is  not  one  of  the  re- 
gions where  a large  increase  of  population 
may  be  expected.  There  is  little  land 
suitable  for  farms.  For  manufactures  other 
than  those  of  wood,  it  is  not  so  well  equipped 
by  nature  as  regions  farther  west.  Never- 
theless, the  Finns,  being  an  industrious, 
thrifty  people,  will  make  the  best  of  their 
opportunities.  Since  most  of  their  land 
should  be  a well-preserved  forest,  let  us  hope 
that  they  will  be  able  to  prevent  forest 
fires.  Sweden  has  already  begun  to  take 
care  of  her  forests  in  a scientific  way. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  countries  or  parts  of  countries  in  this 
region.  2.  Name  three  rivers  that  drain  it,  and  state 
where  they  empty.  3.  If  you  lived  in  this  region, 
which  would  you  enjoy  the  more,  your  summer  or 
your  winter  work?  Why?  4.  Where  is  the  iron 
ore  of  this  region  sent?  Trace  on  the  map  the 
summer  journey  from  Lulea,  Sweden,  to  Newcastle, 
England;  to  Essen.  Trace  the  winter  journey. 
Which  is  the  more  expensive  route?  Why? 

5.  Did  you  ever  see  a box  of  safety  matches  with 
the  name  Sweden  on  the  box?  Why  does  Sweden 


ARCTIC  PASTURES 


249 


make  matches?  6.  What  laws  if  well  enforced  are 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  countries  in  this 
region? 

7.  Fill  in  the  following  chart: 


Topic. 

Iron  Mined 
in  Sweden. 

Iron  Mined 
around 

Lake  Superior. 

Amount  of  ore  mined . . 
Cities  to  which  shipped 
Transportation: 
in  winter 

in  summer 

ARCTIC  PASTURES 

488.  Another  Tundra  Region. — North  of 
the  evergreen  forests/  at  the  very  top  of 
the  continent,  is  the  treeless  tundra.  If 
you  were  dropped  down  upon  it  you  could 
not  tell  whether  you  were  in  North  Canada, 
North  Alaska  (Sec.  355),  or  North  Russia. 
Here,  on  the  wide  plain  that  reaches  from 
the  Atlantic  across  Europe  and  Asia  to 
Bering  Strait,  live  the  people  who  tamed 
the  reindeer  long  ago,  while  our  ancestors, 
who  lived  farther  south,  were  taming  the 
cow,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  pig. 

The  reindeer  is  the  animal  best  suited  to 
be  of  use  to  men  living  in  the  tundra.  It 
has  wide,  flat  hoofs  that  enable  it  to  walk 
on  the  wet  earth  or  the  snow  crust  without 
sinking  in.  Its  hoofs  are  also  long,  and  there- 
fore good  to  dig  under  the  snow  of  the  Arctic 
blizzard  to  get  grass  and  moss  that  serve 
as  food.  Having  a skin  covered  with  warm, 


thick  hair,  the  reindeer  is  as  much  at  home  in 

— 


Photo.  Frank  H.  Nowel 


Fig.  392.  Milking  time  in  Lapland.  What  would 
happen  to  the  Laplanders  if  they  lost  all  their  reindeer? 


Fig.  393.  A sod-covered  hut,  the  summer  home  of  a 
family  of  Lapps. 

the  cold  tundra  as  are  sheep  on  the  Scotch 
highlands,  or  cattle  on  the  ranches  of  Texas. 

489.  Lapland. — The  European  tundra  is  a 
land  where  yellowish  men  live.  No  one 
knows  when  they  first  came  there  with 
their  flocks  from  Asia.  These  tent-dwelling 
people  live  in  tribes.  Between  the  White 
Sea  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  their  country 
is  known  as  Lapland.  The  only  property 
the  Lapps  have  is  a herd  of  reindeer  and  such 
things  as  can  be  carried  by  men  aided  by 
reindeer.  The  useful  deer  carry  the  Lapps 
on  their  backs  in  summer,  drag  their  sleds 
across  the  snow  in  winter,  furnish  their 
owners  with  meat,  milk,  and  cheese  for  food, 
and  with  skins  for  clothes  and  tents.  Rein- 
deer skin  makes  the  warmest  kind  of  leather 
gloves,  so  the  skins  are  prized  by  people 
who  live  in  regions  where  the  winters  are 
cold.  Though  Lapland  is  a part  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Finland,  the  Lapps  may  be  said 
to  govern  themselves,  because  when  they 
move  about  with  their  flocks  and  herds  they 
are  far  away  from  the  seats  of  government. 

You  remember  (Sec.  357)  that  when  Mr. 
Jackson  wanted  someone  to  teach  the 
Eskimos  in  Alaska  how  to  become  reindeer 
farmers,  he  sent  to  Lapland  for  reindeer  and 
for  herders  to  teach  their  art. 


250 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


490.  Future. — For  ages  the  tundra  has 
had  as  many  reindeer  as  its  scanty  pastures 
could  feed  and  as  many  nomads  as  its  rein- 
deer could  support.  In  the  future  this 
region  will  probably  not  change,  unless 
minerals  should  be  found.  The  results  of 
finding  minerals  are  shown  by  what  is  hap- 
pening at  Spitzbergen. 

491.  Spitzbergen,  a group  of  Arctic  islands 
larger  in  total  area  than  West  Virginia,  and 
lying  about  500  miles  north  of  Norway, 
belongs  in  this  region.  Owing  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  warm  Atlantic  currents  the 
harbors  on  the  south- 
west are  open  to 
steamships  from  May 
to  October,  and  only 
the  northeastern  parts 
are  glacier  covered. 

Before  the  World  War, 
tourist  vessels  visited 
Spitzbergen  regularly, 
and  men  have  often 
stayed  to  hunt  walrus, 
seal,  polar  bear,  and 
fox;  but  in  those  days 
no  one  ever  really  made 
his  home  there.  The 
island  was  a no-man’s- 
land  until  it  was  given 
to  Norway  by  the 
Peace  Conference  at 
Paris,  in  1919. 

There  are  large  deposits  of  coal  that  may 
in  time  supply  Norway’s  needs.  When  the 
Vikings  discovered  Spitzbergen  in  the  twelfth 
century,  they  called  it  the  “land  of  coal 
coasts”.  Norwegian  and  Swedish  coal-miners 
now  work  there  all  the  year.  They  use 
electric  light  in  the  mines  and  all  through 
the  months  of  winter  darkness.  Thus 
Spitzbergen  may  become  a home  for  men 
during  the  long  period  while  they  are  digging 
out  the  minerals  which  nature  has  placed 
there.  It  would  seem  strange  to  live  in  a 
land  where  for  two  months  in  summer  there 
is  no  sunset  and  for  two  months  in  winter 
no  sunrise,  and  where  there  are  whole  days 
of  evening  twilight  and  whole  days  of  dawn. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  Lapps  and  the  American  Eskimo 
in  regard  to  houses,  means  of  travel,  and  method  of 
making  a living.  2.  What  determines  the  changes 
of  season  in  this  region?  (See  Appendix.)  3.  Compare 
Spitzbergen  with  Greenland  in  climate;  in  the  pos- 
sibilities of  mining. 

4.  How  has  nature  fitted  the  reindeer  to  live  in  the 
tundra?  5.  What  animals  do  for  us  some  of  the 
things  the  reindeer  does  for  the  Lapps? 

6.  How  would  you  like  to  live  in  Spitzbergen? 
What  would  you  eat,  wear,  play? 

THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS  OF  EUROPE 

492.  Well-placed  mountains. — Europe  is 
more  lucky  than  North  America  in  the  kinds 
of  high  mountains  it 
has. 

On  the  physical  map 
of  Europe  notice  that 
the  high  mountain 
wall  extending  from 
west  to  east  is  broken 
by  wide  openings  into 
four  sections.  Find 
these  sections:  1,  Can- 
tabrians and  Pyrenees; 
2,  Alps;  3,  Caucasus; 
4,  Carpathians.  On 
the  physical  map  of 
North  America  see  if 
you  can  find  a place 
in  the  western  moun- 
tains where  the  wall  is 
broken  by  wide  open- 
ings. 

We  shall  also  study  the  mountains  of 
Scandinavia  in  this  chapter,  because  they, 
too,  are  high  mountains  of  Europe. 

If  the  high  mountain  wall  of  Europe  had 
been  as  unbroken,  as  that  of  North  America, 
it  would  have  been  extremely  difficult  for 
ancient  peoples  to  have  crossed  from  one  side 
of  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  other  side.  But 
Europe  is  lucky  in 
that  the  wide  open- 
ings in  her  moun- 
tain wall  have 
always  allowed  the 
people  to  pass.  In 
recent  times  roads 
have  been  improved 


Fig.  394.  The  management  of  the  Swiss  National 
Railways  publishes  as  an  advertisement  in  New  York 
newspapers  a map  showing  Switzerland  black  like  this. 
What  does  it  show?  (Sec.  499.)  We  have  added  the 
leading  waterways  to  the  Swiss  railway  map.  Has 
America  such  a set  of  waterways? 


THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS  OF  EUROPE 


251 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y„ 

Fig.  396.  The  lake  and  city  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  the  meeting  place  of  the  League  of  Nations.  Why  may 
Geneva  be  called  the  world’s  capital?  See  rock  layers  in  the  face  of  the  great  cliff.  Mt.  Blanc  is  in  the  dim  distance. 


and  extended,  and  tunnels  have  been  dug 
through  the  mountains  themselves.  One  of 
the  Alpine  tunnels,  through  which  a railroad 
passes,  is  eleven  miles  long — the  Simplon, 
between  Switzerland  and  Italy,  more  than 
twice  as  long  as  any  tunnel  in  the  United 
States. 

In  their  highest  parts  all  of  these  five  high 
mountains  save  the  Carpathians  rise  to  the 
height  of  perpetual  snow.  Both  sides  of 
the  five  great  ranges  are  swept  by  rain-bear- 
ing winds.  This  abundant  moisture  gives 
the  mountains  a good  cover  of  trees  and 
grass  wherever  there  is  earth  to  feed  plants. 

Since  the  higher  parts  are  not  desirable 
places  in  which  to  live,  most  of  the  people 
live  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  mountains. 
Valleys  open  out  in  almost  every  direction, 
and  people  from  different  parts  of  Europe 
have  entered  the  valleys  and  settled  there. 
This  makes  a varied  and  interesting  moun- 
tain population.  We  shall  study  the  moun- 
tain groups  separately. 

I. — The  Alps 

493.  Switzerland. — The  Alps  mountain 
system  curves  like  an  arch  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, near  Nice,  around  the  north  of 
Italy,  to  the  Adriatic  Sea  at  Trieste.  The 
Alps  also  reach  eastward  nearly  to  Vienna. 


The  central  Alps  spread  out  into  several 
ranges  with  valleys  between,  making  room 
for  Switzerland  to  be  a real  mountain 
nation.  The  Swiss  people  show  the  world 
how  to  live  in  mountains,  how  to  care  for 
mountains,  and  how  to  enjoy  mountain  life. 

In  Switzerland,  some  of  the  valleys  open 
to  the  west  towards  France.  Most  of  the 
people  of  that  part  of  Switzerland  are 
French.  In  the  valleys  opening  north,  many 
of  the  people  are  German.  In  the  valleys 
opening  south,  they  are  Italian.  Thus  the 
people  who  live  in  Switzerland  speak  French, 
German,  and  Italian,  and  the  Swiss  Govern- 
ment has  to  publish  notices  in  the  three 
languages.  But  no  matter  what  language  a 
man  may  speak,  he  is  extremely  loyal  to 
Switzerland,  and  he  will  tell  you  that  he  is 
Swiss. 

The  Swiss  Government  is  a democracy. 
Its  people  have  attained  a high  state  of 
civilization.  In  few  countries,  if  in  any, 
are  people  more  nearly  equal  than  in  Switzer- 
land. Few  Swiss  are  very  rich,  and  few  are 
very  poor.  Nearly  everyone  can  read  and 
write,  and  most  of  the  people  are  well- 
educated  and  trained  to  do  things  requiring 
much  skill. 

494.  Agriculture. — The  Swiss  take  good 
care  of  their  beautiful,  rugged  little  country, 


11-13 


252 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  397.  A street  in  a Swiss  town.  What  is  white  coal? 


So  much  of  their  land  is  only  cold,  snowy 
mountaintops  that  they  must  make  the 
little  good  land  they  have  do  a great  deal  for 
them,  since  there  are  many  people  and  but 
few  resources.  The  valley  lands  are  in  well- 
tilled  fields  of  wheat,  potatoes,  oats,  and 
barley.  On  the  lower  slopes  are  many 
orchards,  which  make  large  yields.  Vine- 
yards, which  require  much  heat,  thrive  on 
some  of  the  hillsides  that  face  south  and 
overlook  lakes.  The  lakes  act  as  a mirror 
and  throw  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun  upon 
the  vineyards.  Hay  is  grown  on  many 
lower  mountain-slopes  that  are  too  steep  to 
be  used  for  fields  or  orchards.  The  people 
often  irrigate  these  steep  hayfields  by  turn- 
ing streams  of  melted  snow  upon  the  fields 
to  water  the  crops.  In  a place  like  this  a 
crop  of  hay  must  be  cut  with  a scythe. 

Above  the  orchards  and  fields  the  mountain- 
sides are  used  for  forest  and  pasture.  Valley 
farmers  follow  their  herds  of  cows  and  goats 
as  they  climb  higher  and  higher  to  get  the  rich 
pasture  that  quickly  springs  up  after  snow 
melts.  The  cowherd  lives  in  a rude  summer 
camp,  and  goes  from  camp  to  camp  until 
the  cows  are  back  again  to  spend  the  winter 
in  the  valley  bam. 

In  winter,  the  Swiss  farmer  takes  his  sled 
and  hauls  the  haystacks  from  the  lower 
slopes  to  the  barn.  He  also  hauls  firewood 
and  sawlogs  from  the  wooded  slopes. 


Dairying  is  one  of  the 
chief  industries  of  Switzer- 
land. In  one  year  during 
the  World  War  she  exported 
75,000,000  pounds  of  cheese. 
This  amounted  to  eleven 
dollars  for  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  Swit- 
zerland. We  have  no  ex- 
port in  the  United  States 
that  amounts  to  so  much  per 
person  as  do  dairy  products 
for  the  Swiss.  In  some 
Swiss  valleys  every  bride 
receives  a cow  for  a wedding 
present. 

495.  Forestry. — On  some 
of  the  Swiss  mountainsides,  trees  have  been 
carefully  tended  since  the  time  of  Columbus. 
Swiss  trees  receive  the  regular  and  skilful  care 
that  a farmer  would  give  to  a crop  of  corn. 
For  centuries  the  forests  have  been  protected 
from  fire,  and  the  trees  cut  as  they  were 
ready.  Many  a stone  wall  in  Holland  rests 
on  a foundation  of  piles  made  of  Swiss  tree- 
trunks.  The  logs  were  taken  down  the 
Rhine  in  boats  that  had  brought  up  wheat, 
com,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

In  bad  weather,  when  the  people  must  stay 
indoors,  they  often  do  wood-carving.  They 
carve  chairs,  wooden  spoons,  and  salad 
forks,  toy  animals,  and  many  other  things 
which  we  find  in  American  toy  stores. 

496.  The  avalanche.— The  avalanche  of 
sliding  snow  is  one  of  the  dangers  of  Swiss 
mountain  life.  At  times  travelers  or  even 
entire  villages  are  buried  in  this  sudden 
snowslide.  On  some  of  the  mountains,  ava- 
lanches occur  so  often  that  people  have  to 
be  very  careful  where  they  build  their  houses, 
and  in  certain  valleys  the  people  scarcely 
leave  their  villages  all  winter  long,  for  fear 
of  being  buried  by  a snowslide. 

The  Swiss  mountaineer  often  lives  in  a 
wooden  house  called  a chalet.  (Fig.  400.) 
It  has  a rather  flat  roof,  on  which  the  snow 
will  lie  and  serve  as  a blanket  to  keep  the 
house  warm. 

497.  Two  examples  of  Swiss  thrift. — In 


THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS  OF  EUROPE 


253 


many  parts  of  the  United 
States  we  have  lost  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  acres 
of  good  land,  which  might 
have  made  thousands  of 
farms,  because  rushing 
water  has  cut  gullies  and 
carried  the  good  soil  away 
(Fig.  82).  The  same  thing 
was  sure  to  happen  in 
mountainous  Switzerland, 
and  because  the  people  of 
that  little  country  could 
not  afford  to  have  land 
wasted,  they  prevented  that 
kind  of  trouble.  They  found 
that  in  some  locations  goats 
in  pasturing  clipped  the 
grass  so  close  that  the  soil  was  washed  away, 
but  that  cows  did  not  eat  grass  so  close. 
Laws  were  then  passed  reducing  the  number 
of  goats  and  increasing  the  number  of  cows 
that  might  feed  on  certain  pastures.  Thus 
the  grass  cover  was  protected  and  the  soil  was 
kept  from  washing  away  (Fig.  400).  This  is  a 
good  example  of  the  conservation^  resources. 

Swiss  thrift  and  care  are  also  shown  by  the 
bee  industry.  There  is  not  land  enough  to 
raise  many  sugar  beets,  but  a substitute  is 
found  in  honey,  which  bees  make  from  the 
fir  tree.  Many  thousands  of  hives  of  bees 
are  kept,  and  less  sugar  must  be  bought. 

498.  Manufactures. — Switzerland  has  no 
coal  of  her  own,  but  now  that  steamboats 
can  come  up  the  Rhine  to  Basel,  coal  is 


Fig.  398.  A tunnel  entrance  on  a double-track  Swiss 
railroad.  Is  there  a wagon  road  in  the  picture?  j 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  n.  X. 

Fig.  399.  English  teams  playing  a hockey  match  on  St.  Moritz  Lake,  Switzer- 
land. On  the  left  is  one  of  the  goals.  Other  Swiss  sports  are  tobogganing, 
sledding,  and  curling,  a game  played  by  sliding  stones  on  the  ice. 

brought  from  the  coal  fields  along  the 
Ruhr  and  the  Saar,  branches  of  the  Rhine. 
(Sec.  448.)  Little  coal  is  needed  in  Switzer- 
land except  for  heating  purposes,  because  the 
Swiss  have  harnessed  the  Alpine  waterfalls, 
turned  their  power  into  electricity,  and  car- 
ried the  electricity  to  most  of  the  towns  and 
cities.  In  many  localities  electric  power  is 
in  every  house,  and  much  manufacturing  is 
done  in  the  homes  of  the  people  with  the 
aid  of  motor-driven  machinery. 

Switzerland  is  not  a land  of  many  cities,  but 
Berne,  the  capital,  Geneva,  on  Lake  Geneva, 
Lucerne,  on  beautiful  Lake  Lucerne,  and 
Zurich,  the  largest  city,  are  all  neat  and  thriv- 
ing centers  of  manufacture,  trade,  and  travel. 

As  Switzerland  has  no  raw  materials  other 
than  milk,  stone,  salt  mines,  and  wood,  her 
industries  must  make  valuable  things  from 
small  amounts  of  raw  material.  This  is 
well  shown  in  the  heavy  export  of  ribbons 
made  from  Japanese  silk;  of  lace  made  from 
American  cotton;  of  fine  machinery  made 
of  imported  iron  and  copper;  and  of  milk 
chocolate  made  of  cocoa  beans  from  along 
the  equator  and  milk  from  herds  on  her  own 
mountain  pastures.  The  best  example  of 
all  is  found  in  the  Swiss  watch,  of  which 
Geneva  is  a great  manufacturing  center. 
A jeweler  can  establish  his  reputation  if  he 
can  say  that  he  was  trained  in  Switzerland. 


254 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


499.  The  tourist  industry. — Beautiful 
scenery  attracts  many  travelers  to  Switzer- 
land. People  like  to  see  quaint  villages  with 
trim  gardens  and  neat  fields,  and  cozy  chalets 
on  the  green  mountainsides.  They  like  to 
hear  the  musical  chimes  of  the  churches,  and 
the  tinkling  of  the  cowbells  on  the  distant 
pasture.  The  white  flash  of  the  waterfall 
pleases  the  eye,  and  the  murmur  of  the  waters 
lulls  to  sleep.  The  smooth  surface  of  clear 
lakes  reflects  the  mountains  like  a mirror. 
There  is  charm  in  the 
green  forest  and  in  the 
distant,  white  snow- 
field.  The  steep  and 
dangerous  snow-clad 
peak  dares  those  who 
like  to  do  hard  things. 

Expert  Swiss  guides 
will  show  the  way. 

Switzerland  has  the 
best  location  in  the 
world  to  tempt  many 
travelers.  It  is  near 
the  middle  of  Europe. 

(Fig.  394.)  It  is  on 
the  road  for  travelers 
going  from  densely- 
populated  northwest 
Europe  to  Italy,  to 
enjoy  the  charm  of 
warm  winter  sunshine. 

There  are  railway 
tickets  that  are  sold 
cheaply,  and  which 
will  permit  travelers 
to  ride  for  weeks,  as 
much  as  they  please,  on  any  railroad  in 
Switzerland.  The  Swiss  people  make  trav- 
elers comfortable  by  providing  good  food, 
good  beds,  good  roads,  and  delightful  foot- 
paths. 

The  climate  also  attracts.  The  summer  is 
cool,  pleasant,  and  refreshing.  Switzerland 
advertises  her  winter  sports  of  coasting, 
snowshoeing,  skiing,  skating,  and  ice  games. 
Swiss  weather  can  be  freezing  and  at  the 
same  time  comfortable,  for  the  surrounding 
mountain  walls  keep  off  the  cold  winds. 


Except  for  the  tiny  state  of  Monaco,  on 
the  Riviera  (Sec.  548),  no  other  country  in  the 
world  gets  so  much  of  its  living  from  the 
traveler  who  goes  seeking  pleasure  and 
vacation. 

500.  The  Austrian  Alps. — German-speak- 
ing Austria  owns  as  much  of  the  Alps  as 
does  Switzerland.  This  section  is  not  so 
high  as  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  does  not  have  so 
many  snowfields,  or  so  many  through  routes 
to  Italy,  and  it  has  not  succeeded  in  getting 
much  tourist  business. 
The  people  here  make 
their  living,  as  do  some 
of  the  Swiss,  by  a little 
mining,  farming,  and 
timber  cutting. 

501.  The  western 
Alps,  which  belong  to 
France  and  Italy,  are 
much  like  the  Austrian 
Alps  in  appearance, 
uses,  and  the  life  of 
the  people.  The  only 
important  difference  is 
that  more  manufactur- 
ing is  done  in  the 
French  Alps  than  in 
the  Austrian  Alps. 

502.  Belts  or  zones 
of  climate  on  moun- 
tains. — In  ascending 
the  Alps  and  many 
other  high  mountains,  a 
climber  crosses  several 
belts  or  zones  of  cli- 
mate. (Fig.l.)  Thefirst 

Alpine  zone  would  be  the  warm  valleys  at 
the  foot,  where  there  are  farms  and  orchards, 
with  groves  of  chestnut  and  walnut  trees. 
Next  comes  the  zone  where  beech  and  maple 
trees  grow,  and  fields  of  rye  and  potatoes. 
Then  comes  the  zone  of  the  pine  and  the 
fir,  with  dwarf  pine,  shrubs,  and  berry  bushes 
at  its  upper  edge.  Next,  on  the  slope  where 
it  is  too  cold  for  trees  or  bushes,  he  finds  a 
belt  of  grass  and  flowers  much  like  those  of 
the  Arctic  tundra.  This  belt  extends  to  the 
last  mountain  zone — the  zone  of  snow  and 


THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS  OF  EUROPE 


255 


ice,  which  covers  the  tops  of  all  very  high 
mountains. 

Thus  the  high  mountain  shows  us  in  a few 
miles  all  the  climate  belts  and  plant  belts 
that  we  would  find  in  a journey  from  the 
Erie  Canal  Belt  to  the  Greenland  Ice  Cap, 
or  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps  to  northern 
Spitzbergen. 

503.  The  Alps  as  a type. — We  have  spent 
much  more  time  studying  the  Alps  than  we 
can  spend  on  the  other  high  mountains. 
But  in  studying  the 
Alps  we  have  learned 
about  the  kinds  of  life 
on  the  high  mountains, 
so  that  we  do  not  need 
to  have  it  so  fully  ex- 
plained again. 

II.  The  Pyrenees  and 

the  Cantabrians 

504.  Another  moun- 
tain region  with  three 
languages. — The  west- 
ern part  of  the  high 
mountains  of  Europe 
stretches  for  five  hun- 
dred miles  across  the 
width  of  Spain.  From 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea 
the  Pyrenees  have  no 
break.  The  north  side 
of  the  mountains  is 
almost  as  steep  as  a 
wall,  although  the 
south  side  slopes  more  gently, 
do  not  cross  the  Pyrenees.  They  have  to 
creep  around  the  ends.  These  mountains 
form  a national  racial  and  language  bound- 
ary. The  people  on  one  side  of  the  slope 
speak  French  and  those  on  the  other  side 
speak  Spanish.  Those  who  live  in  the 
Cantabrians  speak  Basque,  the  language  of 
the  people  who  were  in  these  mountains  be- 
fore the  French  and  Spanish  came. 

We  do  not  find  here  the  towns,  the  fac- 
tories, and  the  tourists  of  Switzerland. 
Except  for  one  or  two  resorts,  this  mountain 


region  is  a land  of  the  mountain  farmer  and 
the  shepherd.  In  the  summer  great  flocks 
of  sheep  are  taken  from  the  lowlands  on 
both  sides  of  the  mountains  to  eat  the 
grass  on  the  high  pastures. 

505.  A tiny  country. — The  little  valley  of 
Andorra  on  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees 
is  an  interesting  example  of  the  way  mountain 
peoples  love  their  liberty  and  often  get  it. 
This  country  is  one  of  the  many  hundreds 
of  little  states  into  which  Europe  was  once 
divided.  This  little 
valley,  surrounded  by 
high  peaks,  is  but 
seventeen  by  eighteen 
miles.  The  population 
is  only  five  thousand, 
but  the  valley  is  a re- 
public in  which  the 
people  rule  themselves 
and  are  entirely  inde- 
pendent, except  that 
the  President  of 
France,  and  the  Bishop 
of  Orget,  in  Spain,  take 
turns  appointing  a 
magistrate  and  a 
judge.  Besides  that, 
the  people  of  Andorra 
pay  a tribute  of  $200  a 
year  to  France,  and  $90 
a year  to  the  Bishop. 

Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y.  JJJ  THE  CARPATHIANS 
Fig.  401.  In  this  landscape  in  southern  Switzerland, 

what  do  you  see  that  shows  Switzerland  to  be  a well-  506.  An  island  of 
cared-for  country?  forest  in  a sea  of  farms. 

Railroads  — To  what  country  do  the  Carpathians  be- 
long? These  mountains  are  not  so  high  as 
the  other  three  mountain  systems  of  southern 
Europe.  Their  tops  have  Alpine  pastures, 
but  no  snow-capped  peaks.  The  mountains 
are  mostly  ridges  covered  with  rather  poor, 
sandy  soil,  and  having  great  forests  that  have 
been  well  cared  for  by  the  governments  of 
Hungary  and  Rumania.  The  chief  products 
are  wood,  hogs  fattened  on  acorns  and  beech 
nuts,  and  sheep  which  pasture  on  the  high 
places  in  summer  and  go  to  the  low  plains 
of  Hungary  and  Rumania  for  winter  feeding. 


256 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  International  Film  Service,  N. 


Fig.  402.  Bringing  milk  down  from  the  Alpine  pas- 
tures. How  may  it  be  exported? 

IV. — The  Caucasus 

507.  A region  of  many  races. — This  moun- 
tain system  has  the  highest  ranges  in  Europe. 
Some  peaks  are  over  three  and  a half  miles 
above  the  sea.  Less  rain  falls  upon  these 
mountains  than  upon  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Alps,  so  the  lower  slopes  are  not  quite  so 
good  for  farming. 

The  Caucasus  is  a wild  part  of  the  world. 
In  the  thick  forests  of  the  remote  sections, 
the  hunter  may  still  find  bears,  panthers, 
tigers,  wild  goats,  wild  hogs,  deer,  and  even 
the  European  bison.  On  both  sides  of  this 
region  roving  tribes  of  nomads  have  lived  for 
ages,  and  the  Caucasus  has  been  the  scene 
of  many  wars  between  bands  of  people 
fighting  for  homelands.  So  many  different 
peoples  have  worked  their  way  in  here,  that 
it  is  said  that  in  the  city  of  Tiflis  seventy-two 
languages  and  dialects  are  spoken.  Less 
than  a hundred  years  have  passed  since  the 
Russians  conquered  this  region  and  dimin- 
ished the  fighting  among  the  different 
peoples. 

The  people  are  farmers  and  shepherds. 


They  know  little  of  factories,  tourists,  or 
schools.  There  are  few  roads  other  than 
trails  anywhere  in  these  mountains,  and 
many  of  the  tribes  still  live  in  far-away 
valleys  where  they  have  very  little  trade. 
Like  the  Douglas  family,  they  must  use  the 
spinning  wheel  and  the  handloom,  and  make 
nearly  everything  they  use.  (Secs.  3,  4.) 

V. — The  High  Mountains  of  Scan- 
dinavia 

508.  The  mountains  of  the  north. — Europe 
has  one  more  high  mountain  region,  which  is 
off  by  itself  in  Norway  and  Sweden — the 
Scandinavian  Mountains.  They  are  not  so 
high  as  the  Alps,  but  they  are  so  far  north 
that  they  have  the  same  zones  of  climate 
as  do  the  Alps,  with  large  areas  of  snow- 
field. 

In  summer,  the  farmers  of  Norway,  on  one 
side  of  the  mountains,  and  of  Sweden,  on  the 
other  side,  drive  their  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats 
to  the  upland  pastures,  as  do  the  Swiss.  The 
rough  land  and  the  cool,  moist  winds  from 
the  Atlantic  make  farming  almost  impos- 
sible and  haying  very  difficult.  (Fig.  330.) 
Some  of  the  hayfields  are  in  places  which 
are  so  steep  and  rocky  that  a wagon  cannot 
reach  them,  so  the  hay  is  brought  down  on 


Fig.  403.  A cyclone  on  its  way  from  western  France 
to  north  central  Russia.  Be  sure  you  understand  the 
series  of  cyclone  maps  shown,  Figs.  59  to  62.  What 
kind  of  wind  and  weather  is  this  cyclone  making  at 
Bordeaux?  at  Copenhagen?  at  Geneva?  at  Vienna?  on 
the  south  slope  of  the  Alps?  When  the  center  “L”  has 
moved  to  Czechoslovakia,  what  will  the  wind  and 
weather  be  on  the  north  side  of  the  Alps?  It  will  do 
the  same  for  the  Carpathians  as  it  does  for  the  Alps. 
Can  you  explain  now  why  west  Europe  is  a well- 
watered  region? 


THE  HIGH  MOUNTAINS  OF  EUROPE  257 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  404.  Lugano,  on  Lake  Lugano,  in  the  Swiss 
Alps  near  the  Italian  border. 

little  overhead  trolleys  that  run  on  wires 
stretched  from  high  cliffs.  It  is  no  wonder 
that  the  people  who  have  been  able  to  make 
a living  in  such  a hard  country  become 
prosperous  when  they  go  to  a land  of  better 
opportunity,  such  as  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

509.  Water  power. — This  mountain  region 
is  rich  in  water  power,  which  is  its  greatest 
resource.  What  do  you  know  about  its 
rainfall?  (Fig.  318.)  The  streams  that 
come  down  from  Scandinavian  snowfields 
and  glacial  lakes  have  much  water  and  many 
waterfalls.  Some  of  the  best  water-power 
plants  in  the  world  are  there,  and  many  more 
can  be  built.  If  the  people  should  fully  de- 
velop the  water  power,  what  will  they  do  with 
it?  Will  they  make  textiles  and  other  ar- 
ticles that  require  many  workers  and  many 
cities,  or  . will  they  use  the  electricity  in  elec- 
tric furnaces  which  require  few  workers  to 
smelt  iron  ore,  or  will  they  use  it  to  make  ni- 
trates for  fertilizer?  (Sec.  256.)  In  these 
northern  lands  the  winter  is  so  long,  cold,  and 
dark  that  it  is  not  as  pleasant  a place  in  which 
to  live  and  work  as  are  England,  France,  the 
Low  Countries,  and  western  Germany.  At 
present  the  furnace,  not  the  factory,  uses 
most  of  the  Scandinavian  water  power.  ,Tliere 
is  a plan  to  carry  electric  power  by  cable  from 
the  mountains  of  Norway  under  the  sea  to 


Denmark,  whose  flatness  leaves  her  almost 
entirely  without  water  power. 

Thus  the  Kiolen  Mountains,  like  the  Si- 
erra and  the  Alps,  may  send  the  means  of 
livelihood  to  people  who  never  saw  their 
snow-clad  summits  or  forest-clad  slopes. 

510.  The  future  of  these  high  mountains. 
— For  the  future,  as  in  the  present,  all  these 
high  mountain  ranges  of  Europe  must  remain 
for  the  most  part  in  forests  and  partly  in 
pastures,  with  farms  only  in  the  little  valleys 
and  on  the  lower  slopes.  The  forests  on  the 
Alps  and  those  on  the  French  side  of  the 
Pyrenees  are  as  well  cared  for  as  any  in  the 
world.  The  Spanish  and  Russian  forests 
have  been  neglected,  and  can  be  greatly 
improved  if  the  governments  are  made  more 
efficient. 

In  these  mountain  regions  there  is  one  great 
resource  yet  largely  unused — water  power. 
It  has  been  only  a short  time  since  we  learned 
how  to  make  wheels  strong  enough  to  use 
big  waterfalls  or  high  waterfalls.  It  has  been 
only  a short  time,  also,  since  we  learned  how 
to  turn  the  power  into  electricity  and  to 
carry  it  on  wires  to  places  far  away.  We 
have  only  begun  to  do  these  things. 

It  is  estimated  that  France  alone  has 


Fig.  405.  A waterfall,  penstocks  (Fig.  261),  and  powei! 
plant  in  the  Scandinavian  Mountains.  Can  you  trace 
the  wagon  road? 


258 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


enough  waterfalls  on  the  north  slope  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Alps 
to  make  power  every  minute,  night  and  day, 
equal  to  7,000,000  horses  working  at  their 
best.  If  France  had  to  get  that  much 
power  from  coal,  it  would  take  about  40,- 
000,000  tons  a year,  which  is  about  twice  as 
much  coal  as  France  digs  in  a year.  There 
is  unused  water  power,  also,  on  the  south 
slope  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  Swiss  and  the 
Austrian  Alps,  in  the  Caucasus,  and  in  Scan- 
dinavia. 

Recently,  plans  have  been  made  to  build 
big  water-power  plants  in  all  of  these  moun- 
tains, and  doubtless  many  such  plants  will  be 
built,  and  the  power 
may  be  carried  by  wire 
to  distant  places.  The 
Pacific  States  show  the 
way  to  do  this  (Fig. 

194) ; so  does  Italy. 

In  north  Italy,  water 
wheels  in  the  Alps 
furnish  light  and 
power  for  the  cities 
of  Milan  and  Turin. 

The  Europeans  speak 
of  this  power  from  the 
snowfields  as  “ white 
coal”.  It  lasts  longer 
than  black  coal,  be- 
cause nature  furnishes 
anew  supply  each  year. 

Europe  does  not  have  much  coal.  It  is 
possible  that  thousands  of  years  hence,  when 
the  mines  of  England,  Germany,  and  Penn- 
sylvania have  yielded  all  their  coal,  the 
beautiful  mountain  barriers  of  Europe  will 
still  have  their  zones  of  snowfields,  their 
zones  of  pastures,  and  their  zones  of  forests. 
Their  valleys  may  be  filled  with  gardens 
and  nestling  towns  and  cities,  where  millions 
of  people  may  work  in  factories  and  live  in 
houses  heated  and  lighted  by  electricity 
which  comes  from  distant  waterfalls. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  all  the  countries  that  are  included  or 
partly  included  in  these  regions.  2.  Compare  the 
sports  of  Switzerland  with  those  of  England.  Which 


do  you  think  you  would  most  enjoy?  3.  Would  it 
be  better  for  farming  in  Finland  if  the  Kiolen  Moun- 
tains ran  parallel  with  the  Pyrenees?  Why?  4.  Why 
do  so  few  people  live  on  the  tops  of  high  mountains? 
What  region  previously  studied  do  these  tops  of  high 
mountains  most  resemble?  Why?  5.  Give  three 
reasons  why  the  Swiss  people  are  to  be  admired. 
6.  What  is  the  most  mountainous  country  in  Europe? 
Through  what  four  large  rivers  does  the  snow  from 
the  summit  of  the  Alps  find  its  way  to  the  sea? 
Are  the  mountains  of  Europe  a hindrance  or  a help  to 
the  countries?  When  answering,  consider  (a)  the 
effect  of  the  mountains  upon  climate  and  rainfall; 
( b ) isolation;  (c)  communication;  (d)  natural  re- 
sources; and  (e)  the  resulting  effects  upon  the  cus- 
toms and  the  life  of  the  people. 

8.  Why  have  the  Basques,  the  original  inhabitants 
of  the  Pyrenees,  never  been  dislodged  from  their  land? 
9.  Tell  why  you  think  there  is  less  travel  in  the 
Austrian  Alps  than  in  the  Swiss  Alps?  10.  What  is 
meant  by  the  snow  line? 
Why  is  the  snow  line 
higher  in  the  Caucasus  than 
in  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Alps?  How  would  the 
height  of  the  snow  line  of 
the  Kiolen  Mountains  com- 
pare with  the  height  of  the 
snow  line  in  the  Caucasus? 
Why?  11.  If  you  took  a 
trip  to  Switzerland,  what 
curios  would  you  expect  to 
bring  back? 

12.  Would  you  like  to 
go  to  the  Scandinavian 
Mountains  to  live?  Give 
a reason  for  your  answer. 
13.  What  advantage  would 
it  be  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  if  the  water 
power  of  these  European 
mountain  regions  were  used 
to  run  factories?  14.  If 
possible,  get  the  record, 
“Shepherd  Life  in  the  Alps,”  and  play  it  on  the  vic- 
trola.  See  how  large  a collection  of  pictures  of 
European  mountains  you  can  borrow  from  friends, 
and  bring  them  to  class.  15.  Sum  up  Switzerland’s 
advantages  for  trade  under  the  following  headings: 


Raw 

Materials. 

Transportation 

Facilities. 

Articles 

Manufactured. 

Coast 

Line. 

16.  Why  do  the  Carpathians  have  less  water  power 
in  summer  than  the  other  high  mountains? 

17.  Grass  grows  very  quickly  where  summer 
snow  melts  on  high  mountains.  Can  .you  explain 
how  this  can  be  so?  Name  some  of  the  lakes  of 
Switzerland;  the  principal  cities;  three  of  the  famous 
mountain  peaks.  18.  Why  is  Switzerland  a good 
place  for  the  seat  of  the  League  of  Nations?  19.  See 
what  you  can  find  out  about  the  famous  statue,  The 
Lion  of  Lucerne. 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  406.  Guild  halls,  several  hundred  years  old,  fac- 
ing a public  _ square  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Ger- 
many. This  is  one  of  many  quaint  old  cities  with  many 
interesting  sights  in  the  Central  European  Uplands. 


THE  CENTRAL 'EUROPEAN  UPLANDS 


259 


CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  UPLANDS 

511.  Location  and  character. — A wide 
region  of  low  mountains  and  valleys  lies  like 
an  arch  north  of  the  Alps.  On  the  east  it 
reaches  almost  to  the  Carpathians,  and  on 
the  southwest  almost  to  the  Pyrenees.  What 
regions  does  it  touch?  As  the  sharp  Alps 
may  be  likened  to  our  sharp  Rockies,  so  this 
Central  European  Upland,  composed  of  old, 
rounded  mountains,  may  be  likened  to  our 
Appalachian  region 
and  the  Adirondacks. 

It  has  few  long,  paral- 
lel ridges  like  the 
Alleghenies,  but  has, 
instead,  a number  of 
old  plateaus  into  which 
the  rivers  have  worn 
many  irregular  valleys. 

512.  People,  history, 
and  government. — 

Just  as  our  Appala- 
chians reach  through 
several  states,  so  the 
Central  European 
Highlands  are  a part 
of  several  different 
countries.  Name  them. 

What  languages  are 
spoken? 

The  central  west  in- 
cludes the  well-known 
French  departments 
(corresponding  to  our 
states)  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine,  which  the 
Germans  and  French 
have  in  turn  taken 
from  each  other  by 
. wars.  Between  France  and  Germany  is 
Luxemburg,  a tiny  state  which  remained 
independent  when  the  other  German  states 
united  to  form  the  German  Empire. 

In  the  French  and  Belgian  sections,  much 
of  the  land  is  in  small  farms.  So  great  is 
the  peasant-owner’s  love  of  his  land  that 
during  the  World  War  families  sometimes 
stayed  on  their  farms  even  while  the  enemy 
was  bombarding  them. 


East  of  the  Rhine  are  the  well-known 
German  states  of  Bavaria,  the  capital  of 
which  is  Munich;  Wurtemburg,  the  capital 
of  which  is  Stuttgart;  and  many  smaller 
states. 

The  northern  part  of  the  highlands  com- 
prises a part  of  the  German  state  of  Prussia, 
and  the  eastern  part  of  Bohemia.  The 
Bohemians,  called  Czechs,  with  their  chief 
city  at  Prague,  are  one  of  the  many  Slav  races. 

After  the  Czechs  had 
been  ruled  for  many 
long  years  by  the 
German-speaking  Aus- 
trians, the  World  War 
made  their  country 
again  independent,  and 
added  to  it  the  lands 
of  the  Slovaks,  another 
Slavic  people.  Czecho- 
slovakia now  has 
a parliament  and  a 
president.  Name  the 
capital. 

513.  A beautiful,  well- 
kept  land.  — These 
Central  Highlands  of 
Europe  are  beautiful 
and  well-kept.  From 
lookouts  on  a thousand 
hills  the  traveler  may 
see  down  into  valleys 
where  the  unfenced 
little  fields  lie  spread 
out  in  patches  showing 
many  shades  of  green, 
yellow,  and  brown. 
Through  every  valley 
goes  a shining  white 
road,  passing  like  a great  ribbon  through 
one  farm  village  after  another,  each  with 
its  shade  trees  and  church  spire,  and 
surrounded  by  its  many  well-tilled  little 
fields.  Here  and  there  we  see  a city, 
with  factory  smokestacks,  and  boats  on  a 
river.  Perhaps  it  took  generations  of  labor 
for  men  to  make  the  stream  into  a useful 
waterway.  From  the  lookout  you  can  walk 
along  a well-leveled  forest  path  to  a pic- 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  407.  Middle-aged  spruce  forest,  Austria.  What 
do  the  stumps  tell  you? 


260 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


turesque  little  inn  or  coffeehouse,  whose 
keeper  seems  glad  to  make  you  comfortable. 

514.  Ease  of  travel. — Fortunately  for  the 
people  who  live  in  this  region,  several  large 
rivers  have  made  wonderful  thoroughfares 
through  it.  No  valley  here  is  as  long  as 
the  Great  Valley  that  passes  through  our  own 
Appalachians,  but  these  European  valleys 
are  even  better  highways  because  they  can 
be  used  by  boats.  Trace  the  course  of  the 
rivers  Rhone,  Seine,  and  Rhine.  Observe 
how  close  together  their  upper  waters  are. 
Canals  have  been  cut  to  join  the  three  rivers, 
and  boats  can  pass  from  one  river  to  another. 

The  Rhine  Valley  is  a highway  by  which 
boats  can  cross  this  entire  upland  region 
from  Switzerland  to  the  sea.  What  cities 
are  on  the  Rhine?  By  way  of  what  river  do 
boats  from  Hamburg  pass  into  the  Bohemian 
plain?  A canal  connects  this  river  with  the 
Danube.  The  Danube  furnishes  an  east  and 
west  thoroughfare  through  the  highlands. 
A canal  connects  it  with  a branch  of  the 
Rhine  called  the  Main.  Besides  these 
routes  for  transportation  by  water,  there  are 
many  railroads  in  this  region. 

515.  Mountains  called  forests.-— What  dif- 
ferent mountain  ranges  can  you  name  in 
this  region?  Many  of  these  mountains  are 
so  well  covered  with  forest  that  they  are 


spoken  of  not  as  mountains  but  as  forests. 
Thus  Germany  has  the  Black  Forest  (in  Ger- 
man “Wald”).  There  are  many  others. 

516.  Forestry.— Since  this  region  has  been 
settled  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  has  a 
dense  population  (see  the  table  below),  the 
people  have  been  compelled  to  cultivate  their 
land  well,  and  to  take  good  care  of  their  for- 
ests. A hundred  years  ago  there  was  almost 
a wood  famine  here  because  sheep  and  cattle 
and  forest  fire  had  been  allowed  to  eat  up 
the  little  trees,  as  they  so  often  do  in  America. 


Area  and  Population  of  Some  Upland  States 


Political  Dlvision. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

People  to 
Sq.  Mile. 

Czechoslovakia 

56,316 

13,914,000 

249 

Bavaria 

30,562 

6,962,000 

236 

Wurtemburg 

7,534 

2,438,000 

323 

Seven  departments 

of  France  in  the 

Cevennes 

17,046 

2,187,000 

118 

Pennsylvania 

44,832 

8,720,017 

194 

West  Virginia 

24,022 

1,463,701 

61 

What  timber  there  was  had  been  carelessly 
cut.  With  this  neglect  of  forest,  wood 
became  scarce  and  so  costly  that  the 
European  people  began  to  think  about  these 
things,  and  resolved  to  take  better  care  of 
their  forests.  They  have 
made  great  changes  in  one 
hundred  years.  You  can 
now  travel  in  this  region  for 
days  without  seeing  bare 
mountainsides  made  deso- 
late by  fires,  such  as  are  so 
common  in  almost  every 
American  state. 

Wood  is  so  costly  in  that  . 
densely  peopled  land  that 
the  forests  are  planted  with 
little  trees  three  or  four 
feet  apart,  much  as  we 
plant  corn.  When  the  tree- 
trunks  are  the  size  of  a 
man’s  wrist,  some  of  them 
are  cut  to  be  used  for  bean 
poles  and  fence  palings. 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  408.  Austrian  forestry  students  having  a class.  What  are  some  of  them 
doing?  Why  is  it  a good  thing  for  a country  to  have  students  of  forestry? 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  UPLANDS 


261 


Fig.  410. 
land  be 


When  those  that  remain  are 
the  size  of  an  arm,  some  are 
cut  for  firewood.  Thus  the 
forests  are  cut  over  many 
times,  until  finally  only  a 
crop  of  sawlogs  remains. 

When  the  last  trees  are  cut, 
every  scrap  is  used.  Even 
the  twigs  are  taken  to  the 
bakery  to  make  a quick  fire 
that  will  bake  crisp-crusted 
bread.  Then  the  forest  is 
planted  out  again  to  raise 
another  crop.  In  this  region 
the  forester  is  a very  impor- 
tant man;  he  goes  about 
with  his  dog  at  his  heels, 
taking  care  of  the  precious 
trees  of  the  beautiful  forest. 

517.  Agriculture. — What 
Europe  has  done  with  these  low  mountains 
we  shall  some  day  have  to  do  with  our  eastern 
highlands.  The  people  cultivate  as  much  of 
the  Central  European  Upland  as  they  can. 
The  valleys  are  in  farms,  most  of  them  small 
with  no  fences  between  them.  Some  of  the 
hillsides  also  are  cultivated,  and  there  are 
farms  on  many  level  hilltops.  Long  ago,  be- 
fore Australia,  Argentina,  and  many  other 
distant  lands  began  to  produce  wool  for  the 
European  market,  many  flocks  of  sheep  were 
kept  on  the  hilly  pastures  of  the  Central  High- 
lands. Now,  instead  of  sheep,  goats  and 
cows  are  usually  kept  because  these  animals 
give  milk,  while  wool  can-  be  imported  from 
foreign  lands.  To  feed  the  animals  in  winter, 

large  crops  of 
hay,  barley, 
oats,  and  beets 
are  grown.  It  is 
too  cold  for 
corn,  and  little 
wheat  is  grown, 
except  in  the 
French  section 
along  the  upper 
Rhone.  Rye  is 
often  grown  on 
the  uplands. 


Fig.  409.  Five  leading  nations  in 
production  of  beet  sugar,  1913. 

Short  tons 

A.  Germany 2,900,000 

B.  Austria-Hungary . 2,090,000 

C.  Russia 1,340,000 

D.  France 950,000 

E.  United  States 690,000 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

An  Austrian  forest  called  the  Vienna  Forest.  Why  should  this 
in  forest?  The  foreground  is  young  forest.  The  background  is 
mature  forest  being  clean  cut,  ready  to  start  another. 


The  poorest  part  of  the  whole  region  is  the 
upland  of  the  Cevennes  west  of  the  Rhone, 
much  of  which  is  only  a poor  pasture. 

Many  of  the  hillsides  sloping  south  are 
covered  with  orchards  and  vineyards.  The 
most  famous  wine-producing  section  is  near 
the  upper  Rhone  in  France,  in  the  province 
of  Burgundy.  It  is  called  the  “Cote  d’Or,” 
meaning  “side  of  gold,”  because  the  valuable 
grapes  from  its  hillsides  have  brought  in  so 
much  money. 

The  largest  agricultural  section  of  this 
whole  region  is  in  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Elbe,  the  Bohemian  plain  around  Prague. 
Here  the  patient  workers  weed  by  hand  the 
little  beets  which  in  autumn  will  make  the 
rich  harvest  of  beet  sugar,  enough  for  their 
own  dense  population  and  much  to  spare  for 
export.  Great  quantities  of  potatoes,  barley, 
oats,  and  rye  are  also  grown,  for  much  food 
is  needed  where  so  many  people  live,  and 
the  small  farms  have  to  be  intensively 
cultivated. 

518.  Mining  and  manufacturing. — There 
is  a small  coal  field  and  some  iron  ore  in  the 
French  highland  west  of  the  Rhone.  These 
resources  have  made  the  French  town  of 
St.  Etienne  a famous  iron-manufacturing 
center.  Many  French  cannon  have  been 


262 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  411.  A street  in  Prague.  Locate  the  city.  Of 
what  country  is  it  the  capital? 

produced  there.  The  French  town  of  Nancy 
is  also  an  iron-manufacturing  center.  One 
of  the  great  iron-ore  regions  of  the  world  is 
in  Lorraine.  It  produces  much  of  the  ore 
for  French,  German,  and  Belgian  furnaces 
(Sec.  448).  Longwy  and  Briey  are  ore- 
mining  districts.  The  most  important  field 
of  good  coal  is  in  the  valley  of  the  Saar  River, 
which  is  a branch  of  the  Rhine.  This  valua- 
ble field  belongs  to  Germany,  but  the 
exclusive  right  of  mining  coal  for  fifteen 
years  was  given  to  France  in  1919  by  the 
Paris  Peace  Conference,  to  help  pay  for  the 
French  mines  near  Lille  which  the  Germans 
had  destroyed  during  the  World  War. 

Czechoslovakia  has  coal  fields  in  connec- 
tion with  which  have  grown  up  industries  in 
iron,  glass,  and  steel. 

519.  Fine  goods. — Since  this  Central  Up- 
land region  has  less  coal  than  England,  and 
since  it  does  not  enjoy  the  advantage  of 
being  situated  near  the  sea,  its  people  have 
had  to  make  the  most  of  small  things.  There 


are  so  many  people  that  labor  is  cheap,  and 
much  work  is  done  by  hand,  such  as  toy  mak- 
ing and  wood  carving.  Most  of  the  toys  we 
had  before  the  World  War  came  from  this 
region,  and  most  of  the  canaries  in  our  cages 
came  from  the  Hartz  Mountains,  where  the 
people  raise  birds  in  their  homes.  The  city 
of  Jena  has  a great  factory  famous  for  the 
manufacture  of  field  glasses,  opera  glasses, 
and  microscopes.  Lyons  manufactures  much 
silk.  Why  do  you  think  that  the  industries  of 
this  beautiful  upland  region  should  be  some- 
what like  those  of  New  England?  (Sec.  316.) 

520.  Trade  and  transportation. — This  re- 
gion cannot  greatly  increase  its  output  of 
wood  or  of  food,  because  the  forests  and 
farms  are  already  so  carefully  used.  There 
is  little  coal,  and  it  is  not  of  the  best  quality, 
but  there  are  great  quantities  of  iron  ore 
in  Alsace  and  Luxemburg.  This  will  continue 
to  furnish  a great  export  to  the  iron  furnaces  of 
Germany,  Belgium,  and  France.  (Sec.  448.) 

If  manufacturing  cities  increase  in  the 
uplands,  it  will  be  the  result  of  the  great 
labor  men  have  done  and  are  still  doing 
to  build  railroads,  dig  canals,  and  deepen 
rivers.  Manufacturing  can  prosper  only 
where  there  is  good  transportation.  The 
French  have  begun  to  make  a barge  route 
from  Switzerland  to  the  Mediterranean  by 
way  of  the  Rhone  River.  The  project  will 
require  twelve  or  fifteen  years  for  comple- 
tion, but  when  finished  the  route  will  be  as 
good  as  that  furnished  by  the  Rhine  (Sec. 
445)  from  Switzerland  to  the  North  Sea. 
It  will  permit  boats  much  like  those  of  the 
New  York  Barge  Canal  to  go  from  Mar- 
seille to  the  Swiss  boundary.  Not  only 
will  the  River  Rhone  be  improved  for  navi- 
gation, but  water-power  plants  will  be  built 
for  manufacturing,  and  several  hundred 
thousand  acres  of  land  will  be  irrigated,  so 
that  agriculture  may  be  much  more  in- 
tensive, and  several  crops  a year  be  grown. 

These  two  waterways,  to  the  north  and 
to  the  south,  will  be  a help  to  Switzerland  as 
well  as  to  the  Central  Highlands  through 
which  they  pass. 

521.  Tourists.— Among  Europeans,  a fa- 


THE  BALKAN  MOUNTAIN  REGION 


263 


vorite  way  of  spending  a summer  vacation 
is  that  of  taking  walking  trips  through  these 
forested  highlands,  stopping  for  the  night 
at  comfortable  inns  which  offer  inexpensive 
hospitality.  Before  the  World  War  tens  of 
thousands  of  people,  carrying  knapsacks, 
enjoyed  themselves  in  that  way.  Among 
these  travelers  were  many  groups  of  school- 
children  with  their  teachers.  There  are  ex- 
cellent roads  and  many  good  paths  in  the 
shady  forest.  The  summer  climate  is  cool, 
and  the  distances  are  short  enough  to  make 
walking  trips  a pleasure  in  these  highlands. 
Almost  every  town  is  in  beautiful  surround- 
ings and  has  a local  organization  called  the 
“Beautifying  Union,”  that  marks  historic 
spots  with  monuments,  and  lays  out  walks, 
parks,  and  pleasure  grounds.  Travelers  will 
continue  to  bring  income  to  parts  of  this  region, 
where  hotelkeeping  has  become  an  art. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  countries  of  Europe  lie  in  the  Central 
Upland  Region?  2.  What  makes  the  Rhine  so  pic- 
turesque? 3.  Do  you  think  it  would  be  an  easy  river 
to  cross?  Wdiat  is  its  greatest  use?  4.  Describe 
some  scenes  as  one  sails  down  it.  5.  Why  was 
the  loss  of  Bohemia  a great  blow  to  Austria?  Tell  of 
its  wealth  in  agriculture,  mining,  and  manufacturing. 
6.  On  what  river  is  its  capital  city?  7.  Tell  the  story 
of  your  travels  as  you  go  with  a cargo  of  Czechoslo- 
vakian goods  to  Manchester  from  Prague.  8.  Name 
five  products  your  ship  is  carrying.  9.  Name  five  prod- 
ucts she  will  bring  on  the  return  voyage.  10.  Should 
Austria  rule  the  Czechoslovaks?  11.  Why  are  the 
vineyards  planted  on  the  south-sloping  hillsides?  12. 
How  is  land  protected  from  erosion  in  this  region? 
13.  What  does  the  Elbe  do  for  the  trade  of  Czecho- 
slovakia? 14.  Name  the  countries  of  central  Europe 
that  must  send  their  exports  through  another  country. 
15.  How  might  this  condition  lead  to  war?  16.  How 
should  such  trade  be  controlled? 

17.  Make  a list  of  and  locate  all  the  coal  fields  in 
this  region.  18.  What  makes  Alsace-Lorraine  so 
desirable  to  France  and  Germany?  19.  After  the 
World  War,  how  did  the  peasant  of  France  show  his 
love  for  his  devastated  homeland?  What  countries 
use  the  River  Rhine  to  carry  their  freight?  20.  Fill  in 
as  many  facts  as  you  can  about  one  important  city  in 
each  country  of  this  region: 


City. 

Country. 

Chief  Industry. 

For  What 
Especially  Noted. 

21.  Of  what  value  to  agriculture,  manufacturing, 
and  commerce  will  be  the  French  improvements  on 
the  Rhone?  22.  What  countries  will  be  benefited? 
23.  Fill  in  the  following  diagram: 


River. 

Source. 

Flows 

Empties 

Cities 

Through. 

Into. 

on  It. 

Rhine.  . . 
Elbe .... 
Rhone.. . 

24.  Tell  about  a cheap  vacation  trip  you  would  like 
to  take  in  the  Central  European  Uplands:  about  a 
more  expensive  one. 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  412.  Balkan  peasant  women  spinning  flax. 


THE  BALKAN  MOUNTAIN  REGION 

522.  An  isolated  region. — The  region  of 
the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  very  different  indeed 
from  the  Central  European  Uplands.  Travel 
is  very  difficult  there.  So  many  rivers  have 
cut  deep  valleys  in  the  Central  European 
Uplands  that  boats  can  go  to  the  interior 
by  several  routes.  (Sec.  514.)  In  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  there  is  only  one  navi- 
gable river. 

This  mountain  region  is  the  most  shut-in 
and  isolated  part  of  Europe. 

The  mountains  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
are  not  a range  or  a plateau.  They  are  for 
the  most  part  a jumble  of  mountains  which 
often  shut  people  in  from  all  the  world  and 
separate  the  different  groups  of  peoples  each 
from  the  other.  The  life  of  the  peoples 
who  live  here  is  more  backward  or  primitive 
than  it  would  be  if  the  same  people  could 


264 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Courtesy  The  American  Red  Cross  society 

Fig.  413.  A view  of  Serajevo,  a city  in  Bosnia,  long  a part  of  the  Turkish 
Empire,  later  taken  by  Austria,  but  now  a part  of  Yugoslavia  because  the 
people  are  Serbs.  The  sharp  minaret  and  dome  show  Turkish  influence. 

live  somewhere  else  where  means  of  com- 
munication are  easier. 

Many  of  the  Balkan  Mountains  are  made  of 
limestone  rock  with  the  usual  caves  and  under- 
ground passages  into  which  surface  waters 
disappear,  to  come  out  miles  away  as  large 
springs.  (Sec.  21.)  Thus,  some  sections  have 
no  surface  streams  at  all,  and  it  is  hard  for 
the  people  to  get  drinking  water.  In  a few 
places  one  finds  a valley  having  a flowing 
stream.  But  suddenly  the  stream  disappears 
and  the  traveler  is  surprised  to  find  that  it 
flows  underneath  a mountain,  and  because 
there  is  no  valley  the  traveler  must  climb 
over  the  mountaintop  to  reach  the  other  side. 

• The  high  mountain  wall  of  the  Dinaric 
Alps  shuts  both  travelers  and  streams  away 
from  the  Adriatic  shore.  (Sec.  548.)  Where 
do  most  of  the  streams  that  drain  the  region 
near  the  Adriatic  finally  go? 

The  best  way  to  understand  the  Balkan 
countries  is  to  think  of  them  as  being  a large 
region  somewhat  like  a rough  and  moun- 
tainous plateau.  (Sec.  3.)  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  make  either  highways  or  railroads 
through  such  a mass  of  mountains  and 
shut-in  valleys;  and  for  this  reason  many 


people  in  the  Balkans  live  in 
places  to  which  they  can 
travel  or  carry  freight  only 
on  the  backs  of  animals. 

523.  A backward  region. 
— Such  an  isolated  country 
is  a hard  place  in  which  to 
make  a good  living,  and  the 
people  have  been  further 
handicapped  by  wars  and 
unjust  rulers.  The  Albani- 
ans seem  to  have  been  the 
original  race.  No  one  knows 
when  they  came,  but  their 
land  is  so  rough  and  difficult 
for  the  traveler  that  it  has 
never  been  thoroughly  con- 
quered. The  Greeks  took 
the  TEgean  shores  four 
thousand  years  ago.  Later 
came  the  South  Slavs,  who 
took  the  territory  to  the 
north  of  Albania;  then  came  the  Bulgars, 
who  took  the  land  to  the  east;  and  finally, 
in  1453,  the  Turks  came  across  from  Asia 
Minor,  captured  Constantinople,  and  took 
possession  of  most  of  the  Balkan  region; 
but  even  they  never  succeeded  in  ruling 
some  of  the  Albanians  or  the  people  of  the 
Black  Mountains  (Montenegro)  just  north 
of  Albania. 

524.  The  Turkish  Empire. — For  more  than 
five  hundred  years  the  peoples  of  the  Balkans 
suffered  from  the  unjust  and  cruel  oppres- 
sion of  the  Turks.  In  the  height  of  their 
power  the  Turks  had  a large  empire,  reaching 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Danube.  It  also 
included  most  of  North  Africa. 

Then  one  by  one  the  peoples  gained  their 
independence.  The  Greeks  living  in  Athens 
and  the  parts  of  Greece  to  the  south  of 
Athens  became  free  early  in  the  19th  Cen- 
tury. By  a gradual  process,  ending  in  1878, 
Bulgaria,  Rumania,  and  Serbia,  which  is  now 
a part  of  Yugoslavia,  became  almost  or  quite 
self-governing,  but  Turkey  still  had  a strip 
of  territory  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Adriatic.  Turkish  rule  lasted  so  long 
because  of  the  jealousies  of  England,  France, 


THE  BALKAN  MOUNTAIN  REGION 


Germany,  Italy,  and  Russia.  The  govern- 
ments of  these  five  big  countries  let  the 
sultan  rule  in  the  Balkans  and  live  in  Con- 
stantinople, because  all  feared  that  his 
removal  would  upset  the  balance  of  power 
by  letting  some  strong  nation  get  this  key- 
point  to  southern  Europe  and  Asia. 

In  1912-13  all  the  Balkan  countries  joined 
in  a war  against  Turkey,  and  together  they 
took  more  territory  away  from  the  sultan. 
After  the  World  War,  these  countries  were 
again  enlarged  in  the  attempt  to  let  each 
people  rule  itself.  Even  this  change  has  not 
ended  the  troubles  of  these  peoples,  because 
in  many  localities  people  of  different  races 
are  so  mixed  up  that  it  seems  impossible 
for  any  Balkan  country  to  become  one 
people.  Perhaps  in  one  village  the  people 
are  Greeks,  in  the  next  Turks,  in  the  next 
Bulgars  or  Serbs  or  Albanians.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  Morava-Vardar  passage- 
way, or  corridor  (Sec.  525),  ease  of  travel 
has  made  the  people  a mixture  of  races. 

For  two  thousand  years  the  south  central 
part  of  the  Balkans  has  been  called  Mace- 
donia, because  a kingdom  of  that  name  was 
there  in  very  ancient  days.  Later  it  became 
part  of  the  territory  ruled  by  the  Turks. 
The  southern  part,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Greeks,  was  given  to  Greece  in  1919,  after 
the  World  War. 

On  the  level  prairies  of  Canada  or  the 
United  States,  it  is  easy  for  people  to  move 
about  and  thus  to  get  acquainted  and  to 
understand  each  other.  For  this  reason  we 
can  have  in  America  one  government  ruling 
a territory  larger  than  four  or  five  of  the 
jealous  Balkan  countries. 

525.  The  Morava-Vardar  corridor. — There 
is,  however,  one  open  valley  extending  the 
entire  width  of  the  region.  (Fig.  385.)  It  is 
the  valley  of  the  Morava,  a river  that  flows 
north  to  the  Danube  near  Belgrade,  and  near 
its  source  almost  joins  the  valley  of  the  Vardar 
River,  which  flows  southward  to  the  Aegean 
Sea  near  the  port  of  Saloniki.  The  waters 
of  these  two  streams  are  so  near  together 
that  the  Germans  planned  to  join  them  by 
a canal  when  they  were  in  possession  of  the 


265 

country  during  the  World  War.  The  Serbians 
hope  to  complete  the  canal. 

This  Morava-Vardar  valley  is  one  of  the 
world’s  oldest  thoroughfares.  No  one  knows 
when  bands  of  migrating  people  first  began  to 
go  through  it.  Four  thousand  years  ago 
the  Greeks  passed  this  way  from  the  region 
of  Odessa  to  their  new  home  on  the  shores  of 
the  Aegean  Sea.  In  Roman  times  one  of  the 
great  Roman  roads  went  up  this  valley  to 
the  provinces  on  the  Danube,  and  Uskub 
(or  Skoplje),  then  as  now,  was  a trading 
center  on  a much-used  route.  During  the 
World  War  the  German  and  Allied  Armies 
fought  up  and  down  the  valley  for  possession 
of  the  Balkans.  Express  trains  from  Paris 
and  Berlin  to  Constantinople  run  through  the 
Morava  Valley  and  turn  east  to  Sofia. 

526.  Governments.  — Yugoslavia  is  the 
country  of  the  South  Slavs.  “Yug”  (pro- 
nounced “yoog”)  means  south.  The  South 
Slavs  are  really  three  peoples  very  much  alike 
and  called  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes. 
The  different  states  of  Yugoslavia  unite  to 
elect  a king  and  parliament,  very  much  as 
the  various  states  of  the  United  States  unite 
to  elect  a president  and  congress. 

Bulgaria  and  Greece  have  each  a king  and 
a parliament. 

The  people  of  Albania  still  live  in  tribes 
having  chiefs.  The  Albanians  are  such  very 
independent  people  that  they  do  not  know 
how  to  cooperate.  Many  of  them  will 
not  even  pay  taxes,  so  their  country  cannot 
have  roads  or  schools  or  hospitals  or  other 
things  found  in  more  progressive  countries. 

An  American  relief  worker,  writing  about 
his  Albanian  headquarters  in  1920,  said, 
“ The  first  fortification  is  a barbed-wire  fence. 
Inside  of  this  is  a half-wild  dog.  Then  comes 
a brick  wall  two  feet  thick  peppered  with 
gun  holes.  There  is  another  dog  inside  this 
wall.  Then  comes  the  house.  The  door 
is  massive  oak  held  by  a lock,  an  inside  bar, 
and  a hidden  catch.  The  bottom  floor  has 
no  windows  and  is  used  only  for  stock.  The 
second  floor  has  only  very  small  windows, 
but  the  third  floor  has  fairly  good-sized 
windows.  Every  window  has  a thick, 


266 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Courtesy  American  Friends'  Service  Committee.  Photo.  J.  L.  Lippincott 

Fig.  414.  How  would  you  travel  down  this  Balkan  Valley  if  the  tunnels  were 
not  there?  The  Germans  dug  these  tunnels  during  the  World  War. 


fairly  bullet-proof  shutter.  The  walls  of  the 
house  are  about  a yard  thick.”  What  does 
that  house  tell  you  of  Albania’s  past? 

527.  Agriculture  and  manufacturing. — The 
unfortunate  peoples  of  the  Balkans  have 
escaped  from  the  rule  of  the  Turk  so  recently 
that  many  of  the  people  are  still  poor  and 
uneducated,  although  their  lands  are  rich 
in  undeveloped  resources.  Before  the  World 
War  more  than  one  million  people' from1 
Yugoslavia  alone  had  gone  to  the  United 
States,  seeking  a better  chance  to  make  a 
living  and  to  be  free. 

Owing  to  bad  government  and  the  lack  of 
chance  to  trade,  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  people  of  the  Balkans  are  obliged 
not  only  to  till  the  soil,  but  to  do  most  of 
their  own  manufacturing<as  well.  In  Serbia 
and  in  parts  of  the  other  countries  each 
farmer  has  a small  tract  of  his  own  of  about 
ten  to  thirty  acres.  Serbia  is  so  rough  and 
steep  that  most  of  it  remains  in  pasture. 
Sheep,  goats,  and ' cattle  make  up  the  chief 
wealth  of  the  country.  Before  the  World 
War,  Serbia  and  Bulgaria  alone  had  nearly 
one-fourth  as  many  sheep  as  the  United 
States. 

The  methods  and  tools  used  in  farming  are 
poor.  The  plowing  is  often  done  with  a 
wooden  plow  drawn  by  oxen.  Oxen  are  used 


because  they  are  cheaper 
than  horses.  A working  horse 
needs  grain  as  well  as  hay. 
In  1920,  during  the  high 
prices  as  a result  of  the 
World  War,  it  cost  $400  to 
feed  a horse  for  a year  in 
the  southern  Balkans,  but  an 
ox  could  be  fed  for  $70  a 
year,  because  an  ox  could 
live  on  grass  in  summer  and 
straw  in  winter,  and  could 
finally  be  sold  for  food. 

The  fields  near  the  vil- 
lages produce  wheat  and 
barley  for  bread,  oats  and 
corn  for  the  animals,  and 
sometimes  tobacco  to  sell. 
The  people  can  afford  to 
send  bales  of  wool,  skins  of  animals,  and 
tobacco  long  distances  on  muleback  because 
those  products  bring  a high  price  per  pound. 

In  some  of  the  localities  that  are  near  the 
few  railroads,  or  the  seacoast,  or  the  Danube 
River,  plums  are  grown,  some  of  which  are 
used  to  make  jam  that  is  sent  to  England. 
Dried  prunes  are  sent  from  Serbia  and 
Bosnia  to  Bordeaux,  France,  where  they  are 
repacked  and  sold  as  French  prunes. 

528.  The  Balkan  villages. — As  in  most 
parts  of  Europe,  the  farmers  usually  live  in 
villages.  The  houses  often  have  stone  walls, 
dirt  floors,  and  roofs  thatched  with  straw. 
Thus  the  only  wood  necessary  is  that  used 
for  doors;  windows,  and  rafters.  In  other  sec- 
tions, the  house  has  walls  of  mud  plastered  on 
lath  that  are  nailed  to  a wooden  framework. 
Owing  to  the  small  amount  of  trade,  the 
farmers’  village  is  often  almost  self-sup- 
porting. The  women  spin  by  hand  the  wool 
from  their  sheep,  and  then  weave  it  into 
cloth,  of  which  they  make  clothing.  Women 
and  girls  knit  thick  woolen  stockings,  some- 
times putting  in  gay  colors  and  designs. 
Often  they  knit  as  ’they  walk  about  watching 
the  flocks  at  pasture.' 

The  Balkan  people  love  bright  colors. 
They  have  many  gay  costumes,  each  locality 
having  its  own  style,  which  perhaps  has  not 


THE  BALKAN  MOUNTAIN  REGION 


267 


Courtesy  American  Friends  Service  Committee.  Photo.  J.  L.  Lippincott 

Fig.  415.  A group  of  Serbian  villagers  who  stopped  working  to  let  an 
American  relief  worker  photograph  them. 


been  changed  for  five  hun- 
dred years.  There  are  many 
feast  days  and  holidays. 

Then  the  people  put  on 
their  best  clothes  and  have 
music,  singing,  and  folk- 
dancing. 

529.  Undeveloped  re- 
sources.— The  Balkans  are 
a region  in  which  there  is 
room  for  a great  increase  of 
industry,  wealth,  and  com- 
fort. Why  may  there  be  a 
great  increase  of  wealth? 

Six  words  will  give  the 
answer:  education,  work, 
roads,  machines,  minerals, 
manufacture. 

Many  of  the  Balkan  peo- 
ple cannot  yet  read  and 
write;  they  work  inefficiently,  and  as  nations 
they  are  poor.  In  the  days  of  the  Turkish 
rule  it  scarcely  paid  the  people  to  save  either 
money  or  goods,  because  the  Turkish  tax- 
gatherer  would  come  and  take  away  every- 
thing that  could  be  moved.  How  does  this 
affect  the  country  in  which  it  happens?  Now 
the  Turkish  rule  is  ended,  and  although 
Serbia  and  Bulgaria  lost  almost  half  of  their 
men  through  the  World  War,  these  people 
have  already  settled  down  to  build  up  their 
countries. 

We  can  easily  see  that  trade  has  scarcely 
begun  in  Albania.  The  country  is  larger 
than  New  Hampshire  and  has  twice  as  many 
people,  but  there  is  not  a mile  of  railroad 
within  its  limits.  There  is  good  land  in 
some  of  its  valleys,  and  fine  pine  timber  on 
some  of  its  mountains. 

The  city  of  Uskub  is  located  on  the  Bel- 
grade-Saloniki  railroad  at  a place  where  a 
short  branch  line  comes  in  from  the  west. 
This  little  town  is  the  trading  center  for  a 
million  and  a half  of  people;  as  many  as 
live  in  the  states  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Vermont.  These  people  are  living  in 
villages  up  the  valleys,  and  over  the  hills, 
in  places  where  nearly  all  of  their  trade  must 
go  by  wagon  or  pack-mule.  More  roads 


and  more  railroads  are  needed  to  develop 
modern  trade  in  the  Balkan  region.  Within 
the  last  hundred  years  such  opportunities 
for  trade  have  come  to  nearly  all  the  other 
places  in  all  the  continents  of  the  world 
where  white  people  live. 

530.  The  coming  of  machinery. — Most  of 
the  farming  is  done  by  hand  and  with  the 
help  of  crude  implements.  Some  people 
think  that  the  grain  yields  of  Bulgaria  could 
be  doubled  if  the  people  had  better  tools  and 
could  learn  the  methods  which  are  very  well 
known  to  the  people  of  most  other  countries. 

531.  Minerals. — Minerals  may  help  to 
make  the  Balkans  as  prosperous  as  the  Cen- 
tral European  Uplands.  Serbia  has  rich 
mines  of  copper  and  iron.  For  a long  time 
some  gold  has  been  mined  and  there  are 
several  small  coal  fields.  All  this  mineral 
wealth  may  furnish  work  for  many  people. 

532.  Labor  supply. — This  region  has  one 
great  resource  necessary  for  manufacturing, 
and  that  is  labor  supply.  Its  population  is 
much  more  dense  than  that  of  any  agri- 
cultural section  of  the  United  States,  and  a 
dense  population  furnishes  a supply  of  labor 
for  factories.  In  the  past  the  Balkan  people 
have  been  making  their  own  clothes  by  hand 
and  also  selling  carpets  that  they  weave  by 


11-14 


268 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


hand.  If  they  should  get  machinery  from 
England,  France,  and  America,  they  could 
make  many  times  as  much  carpet  or  cloth. 
If  the  Balkans  can  have  peace  we  may  expect 
their  agricultural  output  to  double,  their 
mineral  output  to  much  more  than  double, 
and  many  little  valley  villages  to  grow  into 
manufacturing  towns  with  the  aid  of  coal 
from  their  hills  and  water  power  from  their 
mountain  streams. 

The  Balkan  countries  are  very  jealous  of 
their  natural  resources  and  are  watchful  to 
see  that  foreign  capital  does  not 
secure  too  powerful  a hold  on 
their  countries.  Laws  requiring 
that  a majority  of  stock  shall  be 
held  by  the  local  government  and 
by  local  people  tend  to  discourage 
foreign  capital.  But  industrial 
leadership  may  develop  among 
those  Bulgars,  Serbs,  Croats,  and 
Greeks  who  have  lived  for  a time 
in  the  United  States  and,  having 
gained  wealth  and  business 
knowledge,  now  wish  to  go  back 
to  their  native  land  to  help  make 
it  prosperous  and  progressive. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  peoples  make  up  the  Kingdom 
of  Yugoslavia?  2.  Has  it  a good  sea- 
coast?  3.  Can  you  explain  why  in 
this  region  the  condition  of  industry  is 
backward?  4.  Why  do  the  Balkan 
farmers  live  in  villages?  5.  In  what 
manufacturing  resources  does  this  re- 
gion surpass  Iowa?  6.  Fill  in  the 
chart  for  the  following  cities: 


City 

Country. 

Why  Important.  , 

Sofia 

Fiume 

Sera  je  vo 

Uskub 

7.  Can  the  need  for  transportation  facilities  be 
supplied?  How? 

8.  WTiy  is  it  that  Montenegro  was  never  conquered 
until  the  World  War?  9.  Why  are  the  finest  Turkish 
rugs  considered  more  beautiful  than  most  rugs  made 
in  the  United  States?  10.  Why  are  their  equals  not 
made  in  America?  11.  Work  out  a series  of  tableaus: 

No.  1— Scene  in  a field:  Balkans  at  work; 

No.  2 — Scene:  Interior  of  a Balkan  house; 

No.  3 — Scene:  Feast  day  on  a village  street. 

12.  Sum  up  Bulgaria’s  agricultural  advantages  under 
the  following  headings: 


Climate. 

Soil. 

Surface. 

Methods  of 
Agriculture. 

13.  How  did  the  Germans  plan  to  use  the  Vardar 
Valley  in  the  Berlin-to-Bagdad  Railroad?  14.  Why 
did  so  much  fighting  during  the  World  War  take  place 
in  the  Balkan  Region?  15.  To  whom  did  Herze- 
govina and  Bosnia  belong  before  the  war?  16.  Where 
is  Valona?  (Fig.  385.)  Why  would  Italy  like  to  own 
it?  Sum  up  Yugoslavia’s  advantages  for  trade 
under  the  following  headings: 


Raw 

Transportation 

Articles 

Coast 

Materials. 

Facilities. 

Manufactured. 

Line. 

18.  How  did  the  World  War  change 
the  political  map  of  the  Balkan  Region? 
Make  two  lists  of  the  countries,  one  as 
they  were  before  the  war.  and  the  other 
as  they  are  to-day. 

THE  EUROPEAN  CORN  BELT 
AND  THE  VIENNA  BASIN 
533.  Summer  rain  in  the  in- 
terior of  a continent.— We  found 
(Sec.  73)  that  there  is  summer 
rain  in  the  Central  Farming 
Region  of  North  America.  This 
area  is  almost  in  the  middle  of 
the  North  American  continent. 
We  find  summer  rainfall  also 
in  Hungary,  Rumania,  south 
Russia,  and  central  Asia.  This 
is  very  important  for  the  farmer. 
Where  there  is  much  summer 
rain  and  a long  season  of  warm 
weather,  there  are  corn  belts. 
Where  there  is  little  rain  and 
a cooler,  shorter  summer,  there  are  spring- 
wheat  belts.  (Sec.  89.) 

Part  I— The  European  Corn  Belt 

534.  Bounds  and  climate. — The  European 
Corn  Belt  is  tucked  in  between  the  Alps,  the 
Balkans,  and  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  really 
divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Carpathians. 
North  of  the  Carpathians  the  summer  is  too 
cool  for  corn,  and  east  of  Odessa  the  summer 
rainfall  is  too  light.  South  of  the  Danube 
Valley,  the  Balkan  Highlands  are  the  bound- 
ary. (Fig.  319.) 

Another  way  of  thinking  of  this  com  belt 
is  to  say  that  it  consists  of  the  lower  valley 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  416.  A Slovenian  peas- 
ant woman  dressed  in  her 
best  native  style. 


THE  EUROPEAN  CORN  BELT  AND  THE  VIENNA  BASIN  269 


of  the  Dneister,  the  middle  and  lower  parts 
of  the  Danube  Valley,  and  the  valley  of  the 
Pruth,  a branch  of  the  Danube. 

535.  Agriculture. — To  understand  this 
country,  we  must  think  of  the  western  part 
of  our  own  corn  belt.  You  remember  (Sec. 
74)  that  the  farmer  of  eastern  Kansas  often 
has  a field  of  corn,  a field  of  wheat,  a field  of 
hay,  and  some  cattle  or  hogs.  The  same 
plan  is  followed  in  Hungary,  because  the 
country  is  the  same — a fine,  rich,  level  land, 
with  a summer  hot  enough  and  moist  enough 
for  corn,  and  a winter  climate  that  suits 
wheat.  Therefore,  the  Hungarian  farmers  grow 
wheat,  corn,  and  hay,  and  keep  animals. 

The  central  part  of  the  Hungarian  plain 
has  less  rainfall  than  the  sections  nearer 
the  mountains,  and  some  of  it,  like  our  own 
Great  Plains,  is  too  dry  for  grain  crops. 
On  these  wide,  flat  stretches  are  ranches 
where  horses,  mules,  and  cattle  are  pas- 
tured in  large  droves. 

The  part  of  Rumania  east  of  the  Car- 
pathians is  much  like  Hungary,  except  that 
there  is  less  rain.  Droughts  are  more 
frequent  and  the  corn  crop  fails  more  often. 
The  Rumanian  farmer  plows  his  fields 
with  oxen.  Can  you  tell  why?  (Sec.  527.) 
Since  the  grain  supply  is  irregular,  the 
farmers  must  keep  fewer  animals  than  do 
the  farmers  in  America.  If  they  tried  to 
keep  many  cattle  they  would  have  no  feed 
for  them  in  the  years  of  poor  crops,  so  they 
sell  the  grain  when  they  have  harvested  a 
crop.  This  shows  why  many  more  cattle 
and  hogs  are  kept  in  the  Middle  Danube 
than  in  the  Lower  Danube  District. 

The  people  of  the  European  Corn  Belt 

H- ^— | make  their  living  largely  by 

selling  corn  and  wheat.  Many 
of  them  eat  corn  bread  because 
it  is  less  expensive  than  wheat 
bread.  Some  of  the  export 
*b  grain  goes  by  river  boats  up 

the  Danube  into  south  Ger- 

vtQ  j jjj/  Fig.  417.  Bushelsofcomin  1912-13: 

■c  1 A.  European  Com  Belt 466,000,000 

B.  Illinois 354,000,000 

C.  Mediterranean  Countries.  167,000,000 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  418.  Europe’s  corn  acreage.  Compare  it  with 
that  of  the  United  States,  Fig.  56,  and  with  Europe’s 
rye  acreage,  Fig.  379. 

many,  or  by  canal  boat  into  the  basin  of 
the  Elbe  in  Czechoslovakia  and  on  to  cen- 
tral Germany.  More  of  it  reaches  the 
markets  of  south  Europe  and  west  Europe 
by  way  of  the  ocean  steamers  that  come  up 
the  Danube  River. 

Some  tobacco  is  grown  in  central  Hun- 
gary, but  the  chief  thing  to  remember  about 
the  agriculture  of  this  region  is  its  likeness  to 
that  of  our  own  western  Corn  Belt. 

536.  People. — Several  peoples  live  in  this 
region.  Chief  among  them  are  Rumanians, 
Hungarians,  and  the  Slovaks  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Czechoslovakia.  In  nearly  all  of 
this  region,  counts  and  dukes  own  large 
estates  on  which  many  tenant  farmers  live. 
Most  of  these  farmers  live  in  villages  and  go 
out  each  day  to  work  in  the  fields  around 
the  village.  On  holidays  the  people  dress 
up  in  gaily-colored  costumes  of  native  style. 
They  are  fond  of  singing,  music,  and  dancing. 
Perhaps  you  have  heard  some  Hungarian 
music. 

537.  Cities. — All  the  chief  cities,  save 
Odessa,  a seaport,  and  Bucharest,  a capital, 
are  along  the  Danube,  the  great  commercial 
thoroughfare  of  this  region.  Much  work 
has  been  done  to  make  it  possible  for  boats 
to  pass  around  the  rapids  at  the  place  called 
the  Iron  Gate,  where  the  river  has  cut  a 
notch  through  the  mountains  that  sepa- 
rate the  Hungarian  and  the  Rumanian 
plains. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  pairs  of  cities 


270 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  419.  Spring  plowing  in  Rumania.  Is  this  efficient  labor?  (Figs.  17, 
98.)  Can  it  be  highly  paid  labor? 


in  the  American  and  European  Corn  Belts 
and  also  a pair  of  corn  ports: 


Pairs  of  Corn-Belt  Cities  and  Corn  Ports 


City. 

Population. 

City. 

Population. 

Bucharest. . . . 

346,000 

Omaha 

191,000 

Belgrade 

91,000 

Topeka 

50,000 

Budapest .... 

880,000 

Kansas  City. . 

324,000 

Odessa 

631,000 

Galveston.  . . . 

44,000 

but  there  is  not  room 
for  many  more  farms. 
When  the  Rumanian  Gov- 
ernment helped  farmers  to 
buy  land  after  the  World 
War  it  tried  to  get  twelve 
and  a half  acres  for  each 
family.  The  average  farm 
in  Kansas  is  more  than  ten 
times  as  large  as  that. 
Unless  this  region  can  build 
cities,  it  may  continue  to 
be  as  it  has  been  in  the 
past — a place  from  which 
people  have  migrated  by 
the  thousands,  seeking 
places  where  there  were 
more  resources  and  more 
chance  for  work  at  good 
pay.  Many  Hungarians  and  Rumanians 
have  come  to  America. 

Can  this  European  Corn  Belt  have  a large 
city  population? 

There  has  long  been  some  manufacturing 
in  Budapest  and  Vienna,  but  only  a small 
part  of  the  products  were  for  export.  Places 
in  northwest  Europe  have  locations  so  much 
better  for  manufacturing,  that  the  European 
Corn  Belt  may  continue  to  be  a region  living 


The  European  cities  are 
larger  than  the  American 
cities  because,  as  the  table 
below  shows,  the  European 
region  is  much  more  densely 
peopled  than  the  American 
region. 


Population  Density  in  Corn- 
Belt  States 


Area. 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

People 
to  Sq 
Mile. 

Rumania 

122,282 

17,393,000 

149. 

Kansas  . 

81,774 

1,769,000 

21.6 

Nebraska 

75,808 

1,296,000 

16.9 

538.  Future. — (Sec.  535.) 
The  uneducated  peasants 
can  learn  to  cultivate  their 
fields  somewhat  better, 


Photo,  by  Elmendorf.  © Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  420.  What  will  probably  be  done  with  the  grain  that  we  see  on  this 
quay  at  Budapest?  How  does  this  dock  differ  from  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  45? 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


271 


chiefly  by  the  export  of  farm  produce,  and 
with  a population  but  little  larger  than  it 
now  has. 

Part  II. — The  Vienna  Basin  and  Vienna 

539.  Bounds  and  climate.  — Ranges  of 
hills  cross  the  Hungarian  plain  near 
Budapest,  leaving  to  the  north  a smaller 
plain  of  which  Hungary,  Austria,  and 
Czechoslovakia  each  have  a part.  This 
small  plain,  being  farther  north  and  also 
of  higher  elevation  than  the  Great  Plain 
of  Hungary,  is  cooler  than  the  latter.  As 
it  has  more  rain,  the  farmer  grows  more  po- 
tatoes with  his  wheat  and  hay,  and  less  corn. 

Here,  in  a kind  of  gateway  to  central 
Europe,  stands  Vienna,  at  the  place  where 
valleys  open  out  in  three  directions.  To 
what  countries  and  places  do  these  valleys 
lead?  (Fig.  319.) 

Vienna  was  a gay  and  beautiful  city  when 
she  was  the  capital  of  the  big  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  Here  lived  tens  of 
thousands  of  army  officers,  clerks  in  the  many 
government  offices,  financiers,  and  mer- 
chants who  had  business  with  all  the  prov- 
inces. Hither  came  the  rich  landlords  from 
the  provinces  and  travelers  from  everywhere 
to  visit  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  world, 
and  perhaps  to  study  music  or  visit  the  opera. 
At  that  time  Vienna  had  over  two  million 
people.  To-day  the  city  is  in  a sad  plight. 
A tenth  of  her  people  went  away  within 
three  years  after  the  World  War.  No  longer 
is  she  the  capital  of  an  empire,  but  only  of 
the  little  agricultural  state  of  Austria,  which 
is  largely  made  up  of  the  poorer  part  of  the 
Alps.  Gone  are  the  most  of  the  army  officers, 
the  landlords,  the  tens  of  thousands  of  govern- 
ment employees.  If  new  industries  locate  in 
the  city  it  may  recover  its  former  importance. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  Rumania  not  raise  as  many  hogs  as 
Iowa  does?  2.  Trace  a shipment  of  corn  down  the 
Danube  from  the  Plains  of  Hungary  to  England. 
3.  Trace  the  journey  of  their  wheat  up  the  Danube  to 
Basel;  by  ocean  to  Marseille.  4.  Name  a tributary 
of  the  Danube  rising  in  the  Alps,  one  in  the  Car- 
pathians, and  one  in  the  Balkan  Mountains.  5. 
As  you  enter  the  harbor  of  Odessa,  what  buildings 
would  you  see  like  those  bordering  the  harbor  of 
Buffalo?  (Fig.  281.) 


6.  What  kinds  of  factories  can  Vienna  build  with 
profit?  7.  What  are  some  of  the  necessities  which 
this  region  must  import?  8.  Make  a chart  for 
Rumania  like  Question  10,  page  236. 

9.  Why  do  so  many  Rumanians  and  Hungarians 
emigrate  to  America?  10.  Suppose  a farmer,  a cow- 
boy, a preacher,  a doctor,  a sailor,  a laborer,  a me- 
chanic, a banker,  a chauffeur,  a fisherman,  a miner, 
and  a business  man  from  the  United  States  should  go 
to  this  region.  Which  of  the  men  would  find  employ- 
ment? Why?  Which  would  be  as  prosperous  as  in 
the  United  States?  Where  do  you  think  each  man 
would  find  his  special  occupation? 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 

540.  Location  and  surface. — The  Mediter- 
ranean Region  lies  in  three  continents. 
Name  them.  Name  the  regions  that  touch 
it.  Beginning  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
(Fig.  445)  follow  the  fringe  of  land,  and 
name  all  the  countries  or  parts  of  countries 
that  are  included.  It  seems  strange  to  find 
a small  part  of  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea 
included  here,  but  there  is  a good  reason 
for  it. 

We  can  think  of  this  region  as  a fringe  of 
land  around  the  edge  of  the  great  blue 
Mediterranean  Sea — a land  which  receives 
both  heat  and  moisture  from  the  warm 
water  which  it  surrounds.  Every  country 
and  almost  every  island  included  in  it  is 
mountainous,  and  the  region  is  one  of  great 
natural  beauty.  The  mountains  seem  to  be 
purple,  or  blue,  or  green.  The  blue  sea  is 
dotted  with  beautiful  islands. 

Examine  the  physical  maps  (Figs.  445, 
319)  and  see  if  you  can  tell  why  many 
peoples  have  entered  the  Mediterranean 
Region,  and  why  many  nations  are  there  now. 


Fig.  421.  A view  of  pait  of  the  ancient  city  of  Pisa, 
Italy,  with  its  medieval  wall  and  the  beautiful  church 
with  the  famous  leaning  tower. 


272 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Fig.  422.  The  public  square  in  Venice,  showing  a 
famous  bronze  lion  many  centuries  old  standing  on 
a tall  pillar  in  front  of  the  Doge’s  Palace.  The  Doge 
was  the  president  of  Venice  when  she  was  a city  re- 
public and  the  financial  center  of  the  world. 

541.  Interesting  lands  for  travelers. — In  a 

region  that  has  been  the  home  of  so  many 
races,  and  that  has  had  so  many  empires, 
kingdoms,  and  civilizations,  many  interesting 
ruins  tell  the  story  of  the  past.  Beautiful 
Greek  temples  still  stand,  not  only  in  Greece 
itself,  but  also  in  Sicily  and  in  Asia  Minor. 
Roman  arches  stand  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  wonderful  ruins  of  Roman  cities  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  goat  and  camel  pastures  of 
Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Syria,  and  beyond  Jordan. 

542.  Ancient  capitals. — In  this  region 
many  cities,  both  large  and  small,  are  rich 
with  the  remains  of  ancient  glory.  Five  of 
them  were  ancient  capitals 
and  four  are  still  capitals. 

(1)  Rome  was  the  seat  of 
the  ancient  Roman  Empire 
for  many  centuries.  Next 
to  Paris  and  London,  Rome 
is  the  greatest  center  of 
travel  in  the  old  world.  The 
palaces  of  the  Pope  and  of 
the  King  of  Italy  are  here. 

Rome  has  many  modern 
and  ancient  churches.  Pal- 
aces, temples,  theaters, 
tombs,  prisons,  and  many 
other  buildings  are  left  from 
the  time  when  Rome  ruled 
all  of  the  world  that  was 
then  thought  worth  hav- 


aT”  Fig.  423.  Population  per  square  mile : 


A.  Italy  (1915)  326.5 

B.  California  (1920)  22.0 


Do  Californians  emigrate  to  Italy? 

ing.  Why  is  it  called  “the  Eternal 
City”? 

(2)  Jerusalem  is  precious  alike  to 
Jew  and  Christian.  It  is  visited  by 
_ 5 many  people  who  are  interested  in 
seeing  sacred  places  mentioned  in  the 
Bible. 

(3)  Athens  was  once  the  most  famous  city 
of  the  world — famous  for  its  learned  men,  for 
the  books  they  wrote,  and  for  the  sculptures 
and  buildings  that  they  made.  The  modern 
Greeks  want  to  make  Athens  a great  city 
again.  The  Olympic  games,  which  were  the 
great  sport  events  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  were 
revived  in  1896,  and  are  held  every  four 
years,  in  different  countries  of  the  world. 

(4)  Constantinople  has  long  been  one  of 
the  great  cities  of  the  world.  For  many 
centuries  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire,  and  later  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  At  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War,  it  was  the  fourth  city  of  Europe  in 
size.  Its  greatness  arises  from  its  location, 
which  is  at  one  of  the  great  crossroads  of 
the  world.  All  traffic  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean  passes  through 
the  crooked  straits  of  the  Bosporus  and  the 
Dardanelles.  Across  these  narrow  straits, 


© Brown  & Dawson,  N.  Y, 


Fig.  424.  A view  of  part  of  Jerusalem.  Where  there  is  but  little  snow 
the  roofs  can  be  flat.  They  serve  as  porches  when  the  sun  is  not  shining. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


273 


travel  and  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia 
are  easy. 

Many  races  mingle  in  Constantinople. 
Men  of  many  lands  go  there  to  trade.  Con- 
stantinople is  famous  for  its  bazars  and  for 
the  workshops  where  the  oriental  craftsmen 
make  their  artistic  wares  of  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk,  wood,  leather,  and  iron  and  other 
metals. 

This  great  city  is  coveted  by  a hundred 
million  Christians  of  the  Greek  Church  and 
by  two  hundred  million  Mohammedans. 
The  head  church  of  the  Mohammedan 
world  is  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  in  Con- 
stantinople. Before  the  Turks  took  the  city, 
in  1453,  St.  Sophia  had  been  for  hundreds 
of  years  the  most  important  church  of  the 
Greek  Catholics.  The  Mohammedans  cling 
to  this  mosque,  and  the  Christians  of  eastern 
Europe  want  to  get  it  back. 

(5)  Venice,  the  island  city,  with  canals  for 
streets,  is  one  of  the  most  glorious  of  cities 
to  visit.  She  has  not  been  pillaged  or  ruined 
for  six  hundred  years.  As  the  capital  of  the 
Republic  of  Venice,  she  was  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean world  what  London  has  been  to 
Europe  for  so  many  years.  (Sec.  433.)  Her 
palaces,  churches,  and  public  buildings  are 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  426.  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople.  This  ancient 
shrine  is  one  of  the  very  interesting  buildings  of  Europe. 

among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world. 
To-day  she  supports  herself  largely  from 
the  tourists  who  visit  the  city.  She  also 
manufactures  cotton  and  “Venetian”  glass. 

543.  Present-day  peoples 
and  their  governments. — 
There  are  many  different 
governments  as  well  as 
many  peoples  in  this  region. 
Portugal  is  a republic; 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece  are 
monarchies,  each  with  a 
king,  and  a parliament  hav- 
ing less  power  than  the 
British  or  a Scandinavian 
parliament.  Greece  gained 
greatly  when  the  men  who 
wrote  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles, after  the  World  War, 
tried  to  give  all  peoples  the 
chance  to  rule  themselves. 
For  about  a hundred  years 
only  that  part  of  the  Greek 
race  which  lived  in  Greece 
had  been  independent;  the 

ii 


From  The  World’s  Photos 

Fig.  425.  A part  of  Constantinople.  The  narrow  water  where  the  ships  lie 
is  called  the  Golden  Horn.  For  the  good  of  all  the  world,  who  should  rule 
Constantinople  and  the  straits?  Why? 


N 


O 


P 


Q 


R 


274  m 


Fig.  427, 


275 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


rest  of  the  Greeks  in  Macedonia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Aegean, 
had  been  ruled  by  the  Turk.  Now,  after 
more  than  two  thousand  years  of  foreign 
rule,  nearly  all  the  Greeks  are  united  under 
their  own  king.  We  have  already  studied 
the  government  of  the  Serbs,  of  the  Albanians 
(Sec.  526),  and  of  the  French.  (Sec.  458.) 

544.  The  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  Greeks 
are  gay  and  merry  people.  They  are  fond 
of  music,  and  many  of  them  love  to  wear 
bright-colored  clothing.  On  holidays  and 
feast  days  the  people  often  sing  and  dance 
out  of  doors.  Many  towns  or  districts  have 
special  styles  of  clothing,  and  some  of  the 
people  would  no  more  think  of  changing  the 
style  of  their  clothes  than  they  would  think 
of  changing  their  flag.  It  is  believed  that 
the  beauty  of  the  region  has  helped  to 
inspire  many  painters,  sculptors,  and  archi- 
tects whose  works  have  helped  to  make 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain  famous. 

The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  suffer  from 
the  results  of  their  wrong  ideas  about  work. 
Many  of  them  still  think  that  a gentleman 
should  neither  work,  nor  have  anything  to  do 
with  a factory,  a store,  or  a farm.  Hence 
most  of  the  work  in  these  countries  is  done 
by  the  uneducated  and,  therefore,  the  less 
efficient  people.  The  ablest  people  of 
Spain  and  Portugal  try  to  enter  one  of  the 

pro  fessions , 
or  govern- 
ment em- 
ploy, or  the 
army.  If 
they  cannot 
do  this  they 
too  often 
waste  their 
time  sitting 
about  the 
cafes  doing 
nothing . 
These  peo- 
ple could 
double  the 

...  T.  , !'mch.&  Baker' u- s-  Uept„^f‘  products  of 

Fig.  428.  Italy’s  rice  acreage.  Why  * . 

is  rice  not  grown  in  other  parts  of  Italy?  their  COUn- 


Photo. Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  429.  A water  carrier  in  Andalusia,  Spain.  In  the 
distance  women  are  washing  clothes  at  the  river’s  edge. 


try  if  they  had  sensible  ideas  about  work. 

545.  Arabs. — On  the  eastern  and  southern 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  are  the  Arabs 
— tall,  solemn,  dark-skinned  people,  most  of 
whom  dress  in  long,  white,  flowing  robes. 
(Fig.  447). 

Most  of  the  people  of  Palestine  and  Syria 
are  Arabs,  although  a part  of  them  are 
Jews.  Palestine  is  now  under  the  protec- 
tion of  England  and  it  is  planned  that  it 
shall  again  become  a Jewish  state. 

546.  Peoples  of  North  Africa. — In  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  Morocco  there  is  a mixture  of 
races.  The  Arab  lives  in  the  lowlands.  The 
highlands  are  still  held  by  the  ancient  Berbers. 
(Sec.  577.)  In  1830  France  began  to  take 
possession  of  Algeria.  In  1881  she  began  to 
take  Tunis,  and  a few  years  ago  Spain  and 
France  began  to  take  possession  of  Morocco. 
The  conquest  has  required  much  fighting, 
but  the  coasts  are  controlled  by  the  armies 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  gradually  these 
Europeans  are  taking  town  after  town  in 
the  interior,  and  are  stopping  the  wars  be- 
tween the  different  native  tribes  which  have 
fought  each  other  for  so  many  centuries. 

Those  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  Region 
that  were  ruled  by  the  Turk  or  the  Arab  can 
double  their  products  and  their  population 
if  they  can  have  a more  just  and  honest 


276 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


intense  that  the  people  have 
formed  the  habit  of  stop- 
ping work  for  a few  hours 
in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
They  rest  in  the  shade  and 
refresh  themselves  by  tak- 
ing a nap,  which  the  Spanish 
call  a siesta. 

548.  Warm  sheltered 
nooks.  — The  mountain 
walls  to  the  north  of  the 
Mediterranean  keep  off  the 
cold  winds  of  winter,  and 
therefore  places  at  the 
southern  base  of  the  moun- 
tains are  warm  in  the  same 
way  that  the  sunny  side  of 


Photo,  wm.  Thompson  a house  wall  is  warm  on 
Fig.  430.  Portuguese  flax  combers  dressed  in  native  costume.  a co}d>  windy>  winter  day> 


In  these  sheltered  nooks  many  crops  can  be 
grown  much  farther  north  than  one  would 
expect  to  find  them. 

(1)  One  of  the  warm  nooks  is  south  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  in  southern  Spain. 
It  contains  the  garden  spots  of  Malaga  and 
Almeria,  rich  in  fruit  like  Pasadena  (Sec.  180). 

(2)  Another  warm  sheltered  nook  is  the 
Riviera,  along  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  in  Italy.  It 
is  on  the  express-train  route  from  Paris  to 
Rome,  and  has  become  a famous  pleasure 
region.  Many  of  the  people  from  north 
Europe  and  elsewhere  spend  part  of  the 


government,  better  education  for  the  people, 
and  scientific  methods  in  agriculture. 

547.  Climate. — You  remember  (Sec.  65) 
that  the  United  States  lies  in  the  zone  of  pre- 
vailing westerly  winds.  Europe  does  also. 

Just  as  California  has  winter  rains  and  sum- 
mer drought,  so  has  the  Mediterranean 
Region,  and  for  the  same  reason.  (Secs.  182, 

193.)  We  may  think  of  this  region  as  the 
California  of  the  Old  World,  so  similar  are  the 
two  regions  in  climate  and  products.  In 
southern  California,  we  found  that  the  forests 
grew  only  on  the  higher  mountains.  It  is  the 
same  in  the  Mediterranean 
Region.  Frosts  are  com- 
mon in  winter,  but  snow 
comes  seldom.  In  spring 
the  land  is  green  with  grass. 

In  summer  the  sun  shines 
without  mercy  for  days 
and  weeks  and  months. 

The  grass  withers;  almost 
the  whole  region  is  brown. 

In  summer,  dust  rises  from 
the  roads  and  settles  on 
everything.  Pasturing  ani- 
mals climb  far  away  to  the 
mountain  pastures  to  get 
fresh  grass.  The  heat  of  . Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

,,  . Fig.  431.  San  Remo,  a pleasure  resort  on  the  Riviera.  Here  the  leading 

tne  summer  noon  IS  SO  men  of  Europe  held  many  important  conferences  following  the  World  War. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


277 


is  the 
so  much 


winter  there,  much  as 
our  people  visit  Florida 
and  California.  The  little 
patches  of  land  that  lie 
between  the  mountains  and 
the  sea  are  clustered 
thick  with  villages,  gar- 
dens, and  hotels. 

(3)  Along  the  east  shore 
of  the  Adriatic  is  a warm 
coast  called  Dalmatia,  shel- 
tered by  the  Dinaric  Alps. 

This  region,  though  fa- 
mous for  the  beauty  of  its 
steep  mountain  landscapes 
and  for  its  rich  gardens, 
is  not  so  easily  reached  as 
Riviera,  and  therefore  is  not 
visited. 

(4)  Other  strange  little  areas  of  warm  lands 
lie  along  the  south  slopes  of  the  Caucasus 
and  the  Crimean  Mountains,  north  of  the 
Black  Sea.  The  Crimea  is  as  far  north 
as  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  and  Augusta, 
Maine,  but  the  high  mountain  wall  to  the 
north  and  the  sea  to  the  south  give  it  such  a 
warm  winter  that  it  has  a heavy  export  of 
oranges,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 

549.  Desert  winds. — The  Mediterranean 
Region  has  one  trouble  that  does  not  come  so 
often  to  California.  It  has  the  desert  wind. 
From  the  great  desert  of  the  Sahara  a hot 
wind,  called  the  sirocco,  may  sometimes  blow 
for  two  or  three  days  at  a time.  It  dries  up 
the  crops  in  Spain  and  Italy.  On  the  island 
of  Madeira,  off  the  coast  of  North  Africa, 
this  wind  is  called  I’este  (the  east),  and  it 

has  been  known 
to  bring  ruin  to 
the  grape  crop  of 
that  populous 
little  island. 

550.  Climate  and 
men. — We  have 
seen  that  the  Med- 
Fineh  & Baker,  u.  s.  Dept.  Agr.  iterranean  Region 
Fig.  432.  As  in  all  countries  of  has  a rainy  winter 
scanty  rain,  only  a tiny  fraction  an(]  spring  and  a 
of  the  land  can  be  irrigated.  . TT 

Contrast  with  Fig.  130.  dry  summer.  How 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  433.  Peasants  in  southern  Italy  making  hay  with  American  mowing 
machines.  Chicago  furnishes  many  such  machines  to  Europe. 


do  people  live  in  such  a countiy?  We  shall 
see  many  ways  in  which  this  climate  decides 
what  man  must  do. 

551.  Mediterranean  food. — The  common- 
est meal  in  America  is  bread  and  butter, 
meat,  and  potatoes.  The  commonest  meal 
in  the  Mediterranean  region  consists  of  bread, 
olive  oil,  beans,  and  some  green  vegetables. 
We  have  already  found  (Sec.  133)  that  the 
winter  rain  suits  wheat  and  barley  well. 
Therefore  the  hills  and  plains  in  the  moister, 
northern  parts  are  green  with  wheat  in  the 
spring,  and  yellow  with  its  harvest  in  early 
summer.  In  the  drier  southern  parts  barley, 
which  looks  much  like  wheat,  but  needs  less 
rain,  often  takes  the  place  of  wheat  as  a 
crop. 

As  this  whole  region  has  many  people  to 
the  square  mile  (table,  p.  278),  the  need  for 
bread  has  made  them  work  very  hard  to 
raise  grain.  They  sometimes  grow  grain 
in  most  difficult  places,  even  in  little  patches 
of  ground  on  mountainsides  where  the  plow 
cannot  go,  and  where  the  ground  must  be 
broken  up  with  a spade  or  a fork.  At  har- 
vest the  grain  is  cut  with  a sickle,  and  car- 
ried down  the  mountain  on  the  backs  of  men 
or  donkeys.  In  spite  of  all  this  labor,  no 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  lands  except  North 
Africa  produces  enough  wheat  for  the  bread 
it  needs.  Does  corn,  the  great  forage  grain 
of  America,  grow  well  in  the  Mediterranean 
climate?  (Sec.  203.) 


278 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  434.  Portuguese  peasants  beating  corn  from  the  cobs  with  flails.  Are 
wages  high  or  low  here?  Why?  (Sec.  551.) 


We  can  now  see  that  people  in  these 
countries  have  hard  work  to  get  enough  to 
eat.  Animals  cannot  get  corn,  as  animals  do 
in  the  United  States,  or  potatoes,  as  they  do 
in  Germany.  Then,  too,  the  population  is 
so  dense  that  the  small  farms  must  be  used 


Table  of  Areas,  Population,  and  Density  of 
Population  in  Europe  and  the  United  States 


Country. 

Area, 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

People  to 
Sq.  Mile. 

Spain 

194,780 

21,000,000 

106 

Portugal 

35,490 

6,000,000 

329 

Italy 

110,632 

36,000,000 

326 

Greece 

41,933 

4,821,000 

115 

United  States.  . . 

2,974,000 

105,972,000 

35.5 

California 

155,652 

3,426,000 

22 

to  raise  food  for  men  instead  of  food  for 
animals.  Therefore,  not  having  animals, 
instead  of  meat  people  eat  many  varieties  of 
beans,  some  of  which  are  unknown  to  us  in 
the  United  States.  Many  different  kinds 
of  vegetables  are  abundantly  produced. 

552.  Fish. — The  pounding  sound  one  often 
hears  in  the  towns  of  these  countries  is  not 
made  by  the  carpenter.  Someone  is  pound- 
ing a hard,  dried  codfish  from  Norway  or 
Newfoundland,  getting  it  ready  to  cook. 
Because  dried  codfish  keeps  well  in  hot 
weather  it  is  a very  important  food  in 


Mediterranean  countries, 
where  there  is  so  little  meat. 

On  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  quanti- 
ties of  sardines  are  caught. 
Enough  sardines  are  packed 
each  year  at  the  port  of 
Vigo  for  every  person  in  the 
United  States  to  have  a box. 

553.  Irrigation.  — In  the 
Mediterranean  Region  one 
often  hears  a creaking 
sound.  It  is  the  noria,  a 
simple  machine  by  means 
of  which  a donkey,  walking 
in  a circle,  lifts  water  from 
a well  or  cistern.  This 
water  is  used  to  irrigate  a 
little  patch  of  ground  so 
that  vegetables  may  grow  in  the  dry  summer. 
The  Bible,  which  was  written  in  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  region,  often  speaks  of  wells 
and  cisterns,  and  tells  of  watering  the  gardens. 

Irrigation  is  greatly  needed  in  all  this 
region,  but  in  only  a few  places  is  there  water 
enough  for  a large  area.  One  of  these  places 
is  at  Granada,  in  southern  Spain.  Granada 
is  fed  by  snow  water  from  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  For  this  reason  this  old  capital 
of  an  ancient  kingdom  in . Spain  has,  for 
centuries,  been  famous  for  its  rich  crops. 

At  the  mouth  of  several  of  the  Spanish 
rivers  are  famous  irrigated  sections,  such  as 
Malaga,  Almeria,  and  Valencia.  Here  the 
skilful  Spanish  gardeners  grow  crop  after 
crop  of  vegetables  in  the  early  spring  and 
during  the  long  summer. 

In  a thousand  other  valleys,  the  careful 
watchers  of 
water  irri- 
gate tiny 
patches  of 
g a r d e n 
vegetables. 

There  are 

many  little  -u  ix  jL>aa.eiy  u.  u.  JL/cpu.  ngi. 

. I r Fig-  435.  European  citrus  fruit  acre- 
patcnes  or  age-  Find  some  places  in  North 
irrigated  America  that  have  the  same  latitude 
, , as  the  northernmost  of  these  orange 

corn,  but  groves. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


279 


the  total  Mediterranean  crop  is  only  a third 
as  much  as  in  some  of  our  American  states. 
Yet  corn  is  a very  important  article  of  food  in 
these  countries,  because  it  is  cheaper  than 
wheat  and  is  also  very  nourishing.  In  all  this 
region  corn  can  only  be  grown  without  irri- 
gation on  the  Atlantic  shores  of  northern 
Spain  and  northern  Portugal. 

In  a few  favored  spots  where  irrigation 
is  possible,  such  as  southern  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Valencia,  in  Spain,  the  orange  is  largely 
grown.  Sicily  produces  most  of  the  lemons 
used  in  Europe  and  some  of  those  used  in 
the  United  States. 

In  the  late  spring,  while  the  Dutch,  the 
Germans,  and  the  British  are  wearing  over- 
coats in  their  damp,  raw,  foggy  weather,  the 
stevedores  on  the  wharves  of  Malaga,  Va- 
lencia, Palermo,  and  Naples  are  singing  under 
a sunny  sky  as  they  trundle  boxes  of  fruit 
and  vegetables  on  board  ships,  bound  for 
the  English  Channel  or  beyond, 
f The  Po  Valley  is  by  far  the  greatest 
agricultural  district  of  the  Mediterranean 
world.  Like  the  valley  of  California,  this 
wide,  level  plain  was  filled  in  by  water-borne 
soils.  On  the  north  the  valley  is  walled  in 
by  snow-clad  mountains,  from  whose  top 
streams  of  snow  water  pour  down  in  summer. 
This  abundant  moisture  (Sec.  510)  on  the 
rich  plain  of  Lombardy  (the  Po  Valley)  helps 
the  busy  men  and  women  to  produce  heavy 
crops  of  rice,  vegetables,  corn,  and  hay. 

554.  Crops  of  the  dry  lands. — Since  there 
is  water  enough  to  irrigate  only  a tiny  frac- 
tion of  the  dry  land,  what  do  the  people  grow 
besides  wheat  and  barley,  fruit  and  vege- 
tables? It  is  plain  that  they  must  have 
crops  that  can  stand  drought.  Fortunately, 
there  are  many  such,  among  them  the  grape, 
the  olive,  the  fig,  and  the  almond.  All 

of  these 
d r o u g ht- 
resisting 
crops  are 
very  impor- 
tant in  the 

Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Qgjjfomia 
fig.  436.  Olive  acreage  of  some  of  the  . , 

Mediterranean  lands.  °t  the  Uid 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  437.  Picking  olives  in  Palestine.  See  the  rocky 
hills  in  the  background.  How  long  has  this  industry 
been  in  Palestine? 

World,  as  well  as  in  the  California  of  the  New 
World.  These  crops  can  endure  drought 
better  than  some  others,  because  their  large, 
long  roots  reach  deep  into  the  earth  for 
moisture,  and  store  the  nourishment  of  one 
year  to  help  make  a crop  the  next  year. 
The  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  often  speak 
of  the  vineyard,  the  vine,  the  vine  dresser  (or 
tender),  the  fig  tree,  oil  (olive  oil),  and  wine. 

555.  Grapes. — On  mainland  and  island, 
from  the  western  coast  of  Portugal  to  the 
hills  of  Palestine,  the  vine  dresser  may  be  seen 
at  work.  Vineyards  cover  a very  large  part  of 
the  land  in  all  these  countries.  Grapes, 
one  of  the  chief  exports  of  Spain,  may  be 
shipped  as  fresh  fruit,  as  raisins,  or  as  wine. 
Wine  has  long  been  a leading  export  of  Italy 
and  Algeria.  Little  dried  grapes,  which  are 
called  currants  when  we  buy  them  in  boxes 
at  the  stores,  are  the  chief  export  of  Greece. 

556.  The  olive. — The  human  body  needs 
some  kind  of  fat  as  a part  of  its  food.  We 
can  get  fat  from  meat,  butter,  or  peanuts, 
from  the  rich  kernels  of  nuts,  and  from  oily 
seeds  such  as  cottonseed.  In  lands  of  sum- 
mer rain  like  the  Mississippi  Valley,  New 
England,  the  north  European  plain,  and 
England,  grass  serves  to  feed  the  butter-yield- 


280 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 


Fig.  438.  Hauling  Spanish  cork  from  the  forest. 

ing  cow  and  helps  to  feed  the  bacon-yielding 
hog.  In  such  places  most  of  the  people 
eat  the  fat  of  animals.  But  the  Mediter- 
ranean lands  are  parched  and  dry  in  summer 
and  there  is  little  grass,  corn,  or  potatoes, 
so  the  herds  of  cows  and  swine  are  few.  In- 
stead of  eating  animal  fats,  the  people  eat 
vegetable  fat  in  the  form  of  olive  oil.  Every- 
where the  gray  green  of  the  olive  tree  may 
be  seen;  from  Lisbon  to  Rome,  from  Athens 
to  Jerusalem,  from  the  edges  of  the  Sahara 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Po. 
In  autumn,  when  the  people  of  Dakota  and 
Manitoba  are  busy  harvesting  wheat,  and 
the  people  of  Iowa  are  busy  with  their  corn, 
the  people  of  the  Mediterranean  lands  are 
very  busy,  too.  They  are  gathering  grapes 
and  crushing  them  for  wine;  gathering  olives 
and  crushing  them  for  oil.  Olives  are 
mashed  or  pounded  into  pulp  and  then 
are  squeezed  in  the  olive  press. 

In  some  years,  Spain  actually  makes  more 
pounds  of  olive  oil  per  person  than  we  in  the 
United  States  make  of  butter.  In  central 
Tunis,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  where  the 
rainfall  is  less  than  ten  inches  in  a year,  olive 
trees  cover  the  plain  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see. 
(Fig.  459.)  The  French  and  the  Arabs  of  Tunis 
are  beginning  to  restore  orchards  that  were 
very  large  in  Roman  times.  In  those  ancient 
times,  tribute-ships  crossed  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  oil  from  Tunis  and  wheat  from 
Egypt  with  which  to  feed  the  people  of  Rome. 


The  olive  tree  is  one  of  the  most  enduring 
pieces  of  property  that  men  can  possess.  It 
is  said  that  olive  trees  which  stood  in  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemane  in  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  Christ  are  still  standing  there. 
This  is  perhaps  uncertain,  but  it  is  known 
that  olive  trees  which  were  planted  in  Tunis 
by  the  Romans  before  648  A.  D.,  are  still 
producing  fruit. 

557.  Figs  and  almonds. — If  we  had  a 
Mediterranean  garden,  we  should  eat  figs 
just  as  people  in  America  eat  apples  and 
peaches.  In  the  villages  near  the  port  of 
Smyrna,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  Turkish 
farmers  raise  quantities  of  figs,  many  of 
which  go  to  New  York.  Figs  are  also  the 
chief  export  from  certain  of  the  hilly  districts 
of  Algeria  and  from  parts  of  eastern  Spain. 

Many  of  the  almonds  which  we  import 
come  from  the  Balearic  Islands  and  the 
neighboring  parts  of  Spain.  In  what  parts 
of  the  United  States  do  almonds  and  olives 
grow?  (Sec.  197.)  , 

558.  Industries  moved  to  America. — Trees 
and  plants  can  be  moved  from  one  part  of 
the  world  to  another  part  that  has  similar 
climatic  conditions.  It  was  from  the  Old 
World  California  that  the  people  of  our  own 
California  received  the  first  trees  and  vines 
and  seeds  of  many  crops  that  are  now  grown 
in  California.  We  are  raising  more  and  more 
of  all  these  crops  which  we  once  imported 
entirely  from  Europe. 

559.  Tree  crops  on  the  mountains. — Since 
trees  can  thrive  in  steep  and  rocky  land,  if 
rainfall  and  temperature  are  suitable,  the 
Mediterranean  peoples  have  built  up  a rich 
tree-crop  agriculture  on  steep  mountainsides. 
Besides  the  olive,  the  chief  tree  crops  of  the 
mountains  are  the  chestnut,  the  cork  oak, 
and  the  acorn  oak,  and  sometimes  the  Eng- 
lish walnut.  The  chestnut  is  the  most  wide- 
spread of  all  the  tree  crops.  These  trees  are 
of  choice  varieties,  and  yield 

Fig.  439.  Bushels  of  grain  pro- 
duced per  person  (1911-13): 

A.  Argentina 34.9 

B.  Italy 10.2 

Does  this  explain  anything  about 

emigration?  about  the  rate  of 
wages? 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


281 


nuts  nearly  half  as  large  as  an  egg.  As  food, 
chestnuts  are  to  the  Mediterranean  moun- 
taineers what  corn  is  to  the  mountaineer 
of  the  southern  Appalachians — providing 
material  for  bread  and  porridge,  food  for 
animals,  and  also  a crop  to  sell.  Schools 
are  closed  during  chestnut  season,  because 
boys  and  girls,  as  well  as  men  and  women, 
are  busy  picking  up  the  nuts  that  fall  in 
the  groves.  For  a long  time  a mountainside 
chestnut  orchard  of  Spain,  France,  Italy, 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  or  Corsica,  has  sold  for  as 
much  per  acre  as  the  best  corn  land  of 
Illinois,  or  for  even  more. 

In  all  the  Mediterranean  countries  there 
is  much  land  that  is  now  pro- 
ducing only  poor  pasture  or 
poor  forest,  which  if  put  to 
tree  crops  would  yield  several 
times  as  much  food  as  it  now 
does.  (Fig.  437.) 

560.  Cork. — Nearly  half  of 
the  world’s  supply  of  cork 
comes  from  the  forests  of  oak 
trees  in  Portugal,  and  most 
of  the  rest  of  the  cork  comes 
from  Spain,  Algeria, and  Tunis. 

Cork  is  the  light  outer  bark 
which  protects  the  tree  from 
the  sun’s  heat  and  from  fire. 

A valuable  harvest  is  secured 
every  nine  or  ten  years.  Then 
the  barefooted  corkgatherer  climbs  the  tree  to 
strip  off  the  thick  bark.  Between  cork  har- 
vests, the  shepherd  pastures  his  goats  beneath 
the  trees  and  the  swineherd  leads  his  pigs  out 
to  fatten  themselves  on  the  acorns  of  the  cork- 
oak  tree.  Indeed,  more  than  half  of  the  pork 
of  Portugal  is  produced  on  acorns,  instead  of 
on  corn  as  in  America,  or  on  potatoes  as  in 
Germany. 

561.  Animals  of  the  dry  land. — The  dry 
climate  of  the  Mediterranean  has  forced  its 
people  to  use  dry-land  animals  as  well  as 
dry-land  crops.  The  horse  and  the  cow 
require  good  pasture  or  rich  hay.  Since  these 
foods  are  scarce  in  the  Mediterranean  world, 
that  region  is  not  as  well  suited  to  horses, 
cows,  and  sheep  as  it  is  to  goats  (Sec.  575) 


and  donkeys.  The  goat  can  live  on  poor, 
dry  herbage  and  still  give  much  good  milk. 
In  many  sections  the  entire  milk  supply  is 
furnished  by  goats.  The  donkey  is  kept 
instead  of  the  horse  or  the  mule.  Donkeys, 
like  goats,  can  live  on  poor  food  and  climb 
to  rough  pasture  land. 

562.  Intensive  agriculture.— In  the  Med- 
iterranean world,  the  people,  in  order  to  get 
a living,  must  use  their  land  more  fully  than 
we  do.  In  doing  this  they  have  in  many  lo- 
calities what  may  be  called  “ two-story  farms”. 
This  means  that  wheat,  beans,  vegetables,  and 
other  crops  are  grown  under  crop-yielding 
trees  such  as  chestnuts,  walnuts,  olives, 

cherries,  almonds,  figs,  oaks, 
or  mulberries.  In  the  Spanish 
island  of  Majorca  about  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  cultivated 
land  regularly  produces  these 
two  sets  of  crops,  one  above 
the  other. 

We  can  see  how  fully  Italy 
uses  her  land  by  comparing 
her  with  the  United  States. 
If  the  United  States  had  as 
many  people  and  as  many 
animals  to  the  square  mile 
as  does  Italy,  we  should  have 
the  same  number  of  swine 
have  that  we  now  have,  twice  as 
many  horses  and  mules,  three 
times  as  many  cattle,  seven  times  as  many 
sheep,  and  ten  times  as  many  people. 

563.  The  Madeira,  Canary,  and  Azores 
islands. — These  are  three  groups  of  small 
islands  in  the  Atlantic.  They  are  the  tops 
of  mountains  which  long  ago  were  pushed  up 
out  of  the  sea.  They  are  located  where  the 
water-warmed  winds  make  the  winters  warm 
and  frostless  and  keep  the  summers  from 
becoming  very  hot.  These  islands  are  even 
more  densely  peopled  than  Italy.  The  chief 
income  is  from  bananas,  oranges,  tomatoes, 
and  early  vegetables,  which  are  sent  to  the 
north  European  market  in  steamers  that 
stop  at  the  islands  for  coal  on  the  way  from 
South  America  and  South  Africa  to  Europe. 

564.  The  two  plateaus. — In  the  Mediter- 


m’,  ■ -.v 
#H.yv_r 

,,*4#  > ’ if . . ■ ]•. 


; 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  440.  A shepherd  with  his  flock 
on  the  hills  of  Judea.  Name  some 
Bible  characters  who  may 
watched  sheep  here? 


282 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


English  of  Shakespeare’s 
time  called  the  Spanish 
swords  “bilboes.” 

For  a long  time  the  people 
of  Sicily  shoveled  most  of 
the  world’s  sulphur  out  of 
old  volcanoes,  in  which  this 
mineral  is  always  formed. 
Of  late  the  sulphur  deposits 
of  our  Cotton  Belt  have 
Fig.  441.  The  plan  for  one  of  the  longest  tunnels  and  greatest  power  plants  surpassed  those  of  Sicily, 
in  the  world.  (Sec.  567.)  What  will  limit  the  amount  of  water  that  can  be  used?  .T  _ 

(Sec.  49,  Fig.  32.)  Large 


ranean  region  are  two  large  plateaus  where 
the  elevation  makes  winters  so  cold  that  the 
fruit,  wine,  and  vegetable  industries  cannot 
exist.  The  interior  of  Spain  is  one  of  these 
plateaus.  There  the  summer  is  very  dry 
and  hot;  but  at  Madrid  it  is  so  cold  in 
winter  that  people  can  skate,  although 
oranges  grow  not  far  away  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean.  This 
section  has  two  great  products:  (1)  wheat, 
and  (2)  great  flocks  of  sheep  that  feed  on 
scanty  pastures.  These  sheep  are  chiefly 
of  the  merino  breed.  (Fig.  627.) 

The  other  plateau,  much  like  that  of  Spain, 
lies  in  Africa,  directly  across  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  a place  where  the  people  look  very 
different  indeed  from  the  Spanish  (Sec.  546). 
This  plateau,  enclosed  between  the  northern 
and  southern  ranges  of  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, is  nearly  one  thousand  miles  long, 
and  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  miles 
wide.  It,  too,  is  a land  of  pastures,  parts  of 
which  may  some  day  be  rich  in  grain,  if  the 
region  is  used  as  fully  as  is  Italy. 

565.  Minerals. — Minerals  are  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  foreign  trade  of  some 
Mediterranean  districts.  The  quicksilver 
mines  of  Almaden  and  the  copper  mines  of 
Rio  Tinto,  in  Spain,  have  been  worked  for 
centuries  and  are  still  rich.  The  town 
which  grew  up  around  our  own  California 
quicksilver  mines  is  called  New  Almaden. 
Southeastern  Spain  has  many  lead  mines. 
On  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  northern  Spain,  is 
Bilbao,  which  ships  much  iron  ore  to  Great 
Britain.  For  centuries  Bilbao  has  been  so 
famous  for  making  excellent  steel  that  the 


deposits  of  potash,  still  unworked,  have 
recently  been  discovered  in  Spain. 

566.  Trade  and  manufacture.  — In  the 
midst  of  this  region  the  Mediterranean 
waters  furnish  one  of  the  great  highways  of 
world  trade.  Each  year  thousands  of  ships 
pass  in  through  the  rock-bound  Strait  of 
Gibraltar.  Other  ships  pass  in  and  out 
through  the  two  gates  on  the  east — the  Dar- 
danelles and  the  Bosporus,  and  the  Suez 
Canal.  To  what  do  these  gates  give  en- 
trance? The  Mediterranean  Region  is  poor. 
It  is  not  a land  of  opportunity.  That  is  why 
so  many  of  its  people  have  emigrated  to 
America.  It  is  very  poor  in  cotton,  lumber, 
petroleum,  and  coal.  It  has  but  little 
water  power,  except  in  the  Alps  and  in  the 
Pyrenees.  (Sec.  510.)  What  can  a region 
like  this  sell  when  it  has  a dense  popula- 
tion? The  scarcity  of  raw  materials  and 
of  power  shows  why  the  exports  of  all 
these  countries  have  been  largely  farm 
products,  wine,  fruits,  nuts,  and  vegetables, 
all  of  which  are  products 
of  the  small  orchard  or  gar- 
den, and  not  of  the  large 
field. 

Ships  from  America  and 
the  Black  Sea  bring  cotton 
and  petroleum,  wheat  and 
com.  The  ships  that  come 
from  northwestern  Europe  44f  RainfaU  °f 
bringing  coal,  machinery,  inches  per  year.  Can 
cotton  cloth,  and  manufac-  you  , tel|  fIonVurls 

. . , graph  why  the  Bible 

tures  stop  on  the  way  home  speaks  so  often  of  cis- 

at  Smyrna  for  figs;  at  tern,s>  of  watering 
T,.  „ „ , . gardens,  and  of  cool 

Piraeus  for  Greek  currants ; water? 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGION 


283 


at  Palermo  and  Naples  for  oranges  and 
lemons;  at  Marseille  and  Algiers  for  wine; 
at  Valencia  for  oranges,  almonds,  and  onions; 
at  Almeria  and  Malaga  for  grapes  and 
raisins;  at  Cadiz,  Lisbon,  and  Oporto  for  wine. 

In  the  spring  and  early  summer  there  is 
much  traffic  in  early  vegetables,  like  the 
trade  in  this  country  from  our  southern 
states  and  California  to  our  northern  cities. 

In  the  attempt  to  find  something  to  sell, 
the  people  of  Milan  make  straw  hats  and  in 
Lombardy  and  the  Rhone  Valley  they  have 
undertaken  the  great  labor  of  making  silk. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  intensive  uses  man 
can  make  of  land.  The  Rhone  Valley  silk 
has  helped  Lyon  to  become  one  of  the  leading 
silk-manufacturing  centers  of  the  world. 

We  shall  study  more  about  silk  in  Japan. 
(Sec.  664.) 

Of  late  years,  Barcelona  in  Spain,  and 
Turin,  Milan,  and  Naples  in  Italy  have  be- 
come busy  manufacturing  centers,  and  Italy 
is  now  exporting  cotton  cloth,  although  the 
manufacturers  who  do  not  use  water  power 
must  pay  high  prices  for  imported  coal. 

Manufacturing  is  far  less  important  in 
this  region  than  it  is  in  England,  Switzer- 
land, or  the  Low  Countries.  A short  time 
ago,  Constantinople  (Sec.  542),  a city  larger 
than  Detroit,  did  not  have  a single  smoke- 
stack. Many  articles  that  are  made 
in  England  by  the  use  of  machines  are  still 
being  made  by  hand  in  parts  of  every 
Mediterranean  country. 

567.  New  sources  of  power. — Any  large 
increase  of  population  in  the  Mediterranean 
world  must  be  supported  by  manufacturing. 
This  requires  power,  and  imported  coal  is 
very  costly.  Perhaps  Italy  can  harness 
her  volcanic  forces.  In  a volcanic  region 
near  Florence,  Italian  engineers  have  learned 
to  run  steam  engines  with  the  heat  of  springs, 
whose  water  is  made  hot  by  the  heated  earth. 
This  power  is  now  taken  by  wire  to  Florence 
and  other  cities,  and  it  is  possible  that  Italy 
may  get  much  power  from  the  hot  earth 
near  volcanoes  which  have  in  the  past  only 
destroyed  lives  and  property. 

Palestine  has  hopes  of  a great  water-power 


plant  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  (Fig.  441.) 
The  plan  is  to  dig  a tunnel  37  miles  long  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  cliffs  overlooking 
the  Dead  Sea.  Since  this  fast-evaporating  sea 
is  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean, the  sea 
water,  after  flowing  through  the  tunnel,  will 
fall  to  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  is  a 
distance  of  1292  feet,  thus  making  power  for 
one  of  the  greatest  power  plants  in  the  world. 
There  is  plenty  of  water  in  the  Mediterranean. 
All  the  water  of  the  Jordan  may  be  used  for 
irrigation.  How  would  the  drying  of  the 
Jordan  be  a help  to  the  power  plant?  Power 
from  such  a plant  might  run  factories  to 
support  thousands  of  people  living  within 
300  miles,  perhaps  500  miles,  of  the  plant. 
If  this  project  is  carried  out,  Jerusalem  may 
become  more  prosperous  than  she  was  in 
the  days  of  King  David  or  King  Solomon. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  western  entrance  into  this  region? 
Who  controls  this  entrance?  Who  controls  the  gate- 
ways to  Persia?  to  India?  2.  Name  the  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  tell  to  what  countries  they 
belong.  3.  Name  some  of  the  cities  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Adriatic;  of  its  western  coast;  of  the 
western  coast  of  Italy;  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
Spain.  Locate  Smyrna,  Sevastopol,  Adrianople,  and 
Marseille.  4.  Write  out  a menu  for  a dinner  you 
would  order  in  Italy;  in  Chicago.  5.  Why  is  the 
Mediterranean  one  of  the  world’s  greatest  highways 
of  trade? 

6.  What  kind  of  grapes  get  their  name  from  a place 
in  this  region?  7.  Why  is  olive  oil  more  expensive 
to  a consumer  in  eastern  United  States  than  cot- 
tonseed oil?  8.  What  is  made  in  Milan  from  wheat 
straw?  9.  Why  are  Mediterranean  countries  unable 
to  produce  sufficient  wheat  to  supply  all  their  people? 

10.  What  uses  are  made  of  the  tree  crops  of  this  region? 

11.  Why  may  the  discovery  of  potash  in  Spain  be  of  so 
much  importance?  12.  Make  a graph  comparing  the 
density  of  population  and  of  animals  in  Italy  and  in 
the  United  States? 

13.  Plan  a pageant  illustrating  scenes  one  would 
witness  as  he  passed  from  port  to  port  from  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar  to  the  Crimea.  14.  What  kind  of  wheat, 
spring  or  winter,  grows  in  this  section?  Why? 
15.  When  was  Palestine  put  under  the  care  of  Eng- 
land? Whose  name  is  connected  with  its  deliverance 
from  the  Turk?  16.  If  you  could  visit  only  one 
country  in  this  section,  which  would  you  choose? 
Why?  17.  Describe  the  outgoing  cargo  on  a ship 
sailing  from  the  Piraeus.  Describe  the  return  cargo. 
Do  the  same  thing  for  Palermo.  18.  Where  do  you 
think  Italy  can  most  advantageously  get  her  raw 
material  for  her  cotton  cloth?  19.  Why  have  so 
many  Mediterranean  people  emigrated? 


284 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS 
OASES 

568.  Bounds  and  appearance. — South  of 
the  Mediterranean  region  is  the  Sahara,  or 
Great  Desert,  as  the  Arabs  call  it.  The 
desert  of  Arabia,  east  of  the  Sahara,  is  just 
another  part  of  the  same  great  desert  region 
and  separated  from  it  by  a narrow  sea. 

What  is  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
desert?  (Fig.  445.)  The  southern  boundary 
is  a climate  boundary,  where  the  rainfall 
gradually  increases  and  the  desert  gradually 
changes  into  a land  with  bunch  grass  and 
bushes.  Farther  south  the  increasing  rain 
makes  a belt  of  grasslands,  reaching  across 
Africa  from  sea  to  sea.  (Sec.  743,  Fig.  552.) 

This  desert  of  North  Africa  and  South- 
west Asia  is  one  of  the  largest  natural  regions 
in  all  the  world.  The  distance  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Red  Sea  is  greater 
than  that  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
From  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Persian  Highlands 
beyond  the  Euphrates  is  as  far  as  from  New 
York  to  Chicago.  A traveler  crossing  the 
desert  on  his  camel  might  ride  for  days 
across  bare  rocks,  from  which  the  hot  wind 
had  blown  every  grain  of  sand.  In  other 
parts  of  the  region  he  might  travel  for  days 
across  heaps  of  sand  which  are  always  drift- 
ing with  the  wind.  The  desert  is  not  every- 
where the  same.  In  some  places  the  earth  is 
bare;  in  other  places  where  there  is  a little 
moisture,  coarse  tufts  of  grass  and  clumps 
of  thorny  bushes  grow.  Later  we  shall 
read  about  the  oases  (Secs.  578-582). 

569.  Climate. — Why  is  it  that  Europe 
is  green  with  crops  and  forests,  while  just 
to  the  south  of  it,  in  Africa,  millions  of 
square  miles  are  brown  and  bare?  The  winds 
make  the  difference.  We  have  seen  the 
effects  of  the  trade  wind  (Sec.  379)  as  it 
blew  across  the  Caribbean,  and  carried  moist 
winds  against  the  West  Indian  mountain- 
sides. In  Africa  this  northeast  trade  wind 
blows  across  lowland,  and  becomes  hotter  and 
hotter  as  it  goes  toward  the  equator.  This 
hot  wind  dries  up  the  moisture  from  the  land 
instead  of  giving  it  moisture.  Thus  the 
trade  wind  makes  the  Sahara  a desert. 


Trade  winds  do  this  in  other  continents  too. 
Geographers  often  speak  of  “Trade  Wind 
Deserts.”  (Secs.  776,  857). 

570.  Summer  heat. — The  sun  heats  the 
dry  ground  very  hot.  The  air  over  it  becomes 
so  hot  that  it  quivers  like  the  air  over  a hot 
stove.  The  desert  Arab  wraps  thick  layers 
of  wool  around  his  head  to  keep  out  the 
heat.  He  wears  a long,  flowing  robe,  or 
burnoose,  made  of  pure  wool.  At  night  he 
needs  this  woolen  garment  to  keep  him  warm. 
The  temperature  is  often  130°  or  140°  F. 
during  the  day,  but  there  may  be  frost  at 
night,  because  the  sand  cools  off  so  quickly. 
In  our  country  moisture  and  clouds  at  night 
keep  the  earth  warm  just  as  our  clothes  keep 
us  warm.  By  watching  the  thermometer  for 
a while  in  winter,  you  can  notice  that  cloud- 
less nights  are  colder  than  cloudy  ones. 

Traveling  in  the  desert  is  often  done  at 
night,  especially  if  the  journey  is  short,  or 
the  traveler  does  not  need  to  rush  on  with  all 
speed  to  reach  some  distant  spring. 

571.  Rain  storms  and  dust  storms. — In 
the  winter  the  cyclones  crossing  the  Mediter- 
ranean bring  a few  inches  of  rain  to  northern 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  the  northern  edge  of  the 
desert.  No  part  of  the  Sahara  is  entirely 
rainless,  but  in  some  places  years  pass  between 
showers.  Thunder  clouds  sometimes  form 
(Sec.  71),  and  rain  may  fall  violently.  But 
often  the  rain  actually  dries  up  before  it 
reaches  the  earth. 

There  are  wind  storms  which  gather  clouds 
of  sand  and  dust  and  drop  them  in  burning 
hot,  stifling  showers.  Sometimes  people  and 
animals  perish  in  sandstorms. 

572.  Desert  watercourses  and  lakes. — It 
seems  strange  to  think  of  watercourses  being 
in  a desert,  but  many  such  are  there.  On 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Atlas  Mountains, 
in  some  of  the  highlands  in  central  Sahara, 
and  in  central  Arabia,  streams  flow  at  the 
time  of  the  winter  rains,  but  soon  sink  into 
the  desert  sands.  Some  of  these  streams 
run  every  year;  some  of  them  run  but  rarely. 
The  watercourse  that  passes  through  the  oasis 
of  M’zab  (Algeria)  has  flowed  only  twelve 
times  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  These 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


285 


Courtesy  American  Geographical  Society,  N.  Y 


Fig.  443.  A small  caravan  of  camels  crossing  the  desert. 

What  goods  may  the  caravan  be  carrying? 

old  water-courses  are  often  the  best  of  roads 
and  may  be  used  in  safety  for  years  and 
years.  Then  suddenly  a cloudburst  may 
descend,  turning  the  road  into  a raging 
torrent,  which  rises  like  a wall  and  rushes 
onward  like  the  wind,  overwhelming  and 
sometimes  drowning  people. 

A traveler  in  central  Arabia,  speaking  of 
a certain  watercourse  or  “wadi,”  says: 
“Never  within  the  memory  of  man  had  the 
wadi  been  known  to  flow.  But  during  the 
summer  of  1917  a flood  of  exceptional 
violence,  descending  from  the  mountains, 
burst  through  a barrier  of  sand  dunes  that 
had  filled  the  old  channel,  and  flowed  down 
the  long-dry  wadi.  The  governor  was  seated 
in  the  audience  chamber  drinking  coffee  with 
his  guests  when  they 
brought  in  the  news. 

‘Bring  me  a cup  and  let 
me  drink  up  this  flood,’ 
said  he,  thinking  there 
was  no  flood.  That  eve- 
ning, the  first  trickle  of 
water  reached  Faraa,  and 
for  seven  days  a broad, 
swirling  river  flowed 
through  the  oasis,  reaching 
a point  some  miles  below 
its  eastern  extremity.  For 
several  months  thereafter 
a deep  and  gradually 
evaporating  lake  stood 


where  water  had  never  been  seen  before. 
The  havoc  wrought  by  this  flood  was  terrible. 
It  completely  wrecked  many  wells  and  de- 
stroyed one  small  hamlet  . . . 150  human 
lives,  450  camels,  and  thousands  of  sheep 
were  lost.”  Thus  many  strange  and  unex- 
pected things  happen  in  deserts. 

573.  Desert  springs. — Through  cracks  or 
breaks  in  the  rocks,  the  water  which  falls  on 
distant  high  parts  of  the  mountains  comes 
up  in  springs  at  some  places  along  the  foot  of 
the  Atlas  and  other  mountains,  or  even  far  out 
in  the  desert.  (Fig.  114.)  From  one  spring  to 
the  next — sometimes  a distance  of  several 
days’  journey — the  caravans  travel  across  this 
wide,  white,  glaring  furnace.  The  springs 
are  the  stations  on  their  route.  The  car- 
avan leader  must  measure  his  march  care- 
fully, for  although  the  caravan  is  on  the  move 
sixteen  hours  a day,  it  may  cover  during  that 
wearisome  time  only  about  thirty  miles. 

574.  Desert  plants. — Everything  that  lives 
in  the  desert  must  learn  to  get  along  with  but 
little  water.  The  plants  have  deep  roots  which 
reach  far  down  for  water.  They  also  have  small 
leaves,  so  that  they  do  not  give  much  moisture 
to  the  air.  Some  plants  grow  very  quickly 
when  it  rains,  and  then  make  seed  and  die. 

There  are  only  a few  plants,  and  many  of 
these  have  a bitter  taste,  while  others  are  so 
poisonous  that  no  animal  will  eat  them,  or  they 
are  so  thickly  covered  with  thorns  instead 
of  leaves,  that  no  animal  can  eat  them. 


Fig.  444.  A village  once  stood  on  this  hill.  See  how  the  wind  has  blown  away 
the  sand  and  clay  until  the  houses  have  been. undermined.  This  process  is 
called  wind  erosion.  See  the  men.  What  became  of  the  sand  and  clay  ? 

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288 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Photo.  J.  Russell  Smith  Courtesy  American  Geographical  Society,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  446.  A camel  eating  the  tips  of  a thornbush  on  the  edge  of  the  desert 
in  Tunis.  In  how  many  ways  is  the  camel  fitted  to  live  in  the  desert  ? 


575.  Desert  animals. — The  animals  are 
strangely  fitted  by  nature  to  get  along  in 
such  a place.  The  camel  is  a kind  of  living 
storehouse.  When  he  has  a chance  to  get 
food  and  drink  he  takes  so  much  that  he  adds 
a hundred  pounds  or  so  of  fat  to  his  hump. 
Then  for  a week  at  a time  he  can  walk 
across  the  burning  sands  and  neither  eat  nor 
drink,  but  each  day  pounds  of  fat  stored  in  his 
hump  go  into  his  blood  and  take  the  place 
of  food.  In  order  that  the  camel  may  eat 
thorny  bushes,  his  lips  are  shod  with  coarse 
thick  hairs  that  lie  flat.  To  avoid  dust,  he 
can  shut  his  nostrils,  as  we  shut  our  mouths. 
His  eye  has  a double  lid,  one  of  which  is 
almost  transparent,  so  that  he  can  see 
through  it  even  in  sand  storms.  Instead  of 
a hard  hoof,  his  foot  is  a wide,  soft  cushion 
that  spreads  out  on  the  sand  and  keeps  his 
feet  from  sinking  in. 

The  desert  sheep  resembles  the  camel  in 
its  ability  to  store  fat,  but  instead  of  a hump 
it  has  a broad,  thick  tail  that  often  weighs 
half  as  much  as  the  sheep  itself.  (Fig.  480.) 

The  donkey,  or  ass,  and  the  goat  are  natives 
of  deserts,  and,  as  we  found  in  Section  561, 
the  donkey  requires  much  less  food  than  the 
horse.  Throughout  the  desert  region  there 
are  wild  antelope  and  wild  gazelles.  They 
do  not  store  food  on  their  bodies  in  the  form 
of  fat,  but  they  can  travel  for  long  distances 
with  astonishing  speed,  and  thus  escape  their 

ii 


enemies  and  find  food  and 
water.  Even  the  desert  man 
can,  like  a camel,  resist 
thirst.  Many  of  the  Sahara 
tribes  are  said  to  be  able  to  go 
without  water  for  four  days, 
suffering  little  discomfort. 

576.  The  nomads. — The 
desert  does  not  have  a 
clearly  defined  edge.  In- 
stead, it  tapers  off  gradu- 
ally into  a country  where 
there  are  patches  of  grass 
in  the  low  places,  and  still 
farther  from  the  desert  good 
pasture  lands,  as  described 
in  Sec.  743. 

Here  on  the  edges  of  the  desert  live  the 
nomads,  people  who  have  only  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats,  camels,  donkeys,  and  a few 
horses.  To  get  water  and  food  for  their 
animals  they  drive  them  from  place  to  place. 
Many  small  tribes  live  by  this  means.  They 
also  buy  things  here  and  there,  which  they 
carry  across  the  desert  to  sell.  For  ages 
nomads  have  carried  negro  slaves  across  the 
Sahara,  just  as  the  band  of  Ishmaelites  took 
the  little  boy  Joseph  down  to  Egypt  3000  j 
years  ago,  and  sold  him  to  the  Egyptians.  | 
The  desert  nomads  (or  Bedouins)  have  a 
hard  life.  If  springs  dry  up  and  pastures 
fail,  the  flocks  starve.  Then  the  nomads 
must  either  starve  or  rob,  and  they  rob.  In 
speaking  of  this  custom,  an  Arab  chief 
once  said:  “It  has  been  a part  of  the 


Pboto.  J.  Russell  Smith  Courtery  American  Geographical  Society,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  447.  A Bedouin  family  and  their  tent.  The  man 
wears  a woolen  burnoose  spun  and  woven  by  hand. 
The  woman  is  grinding  barley  in  a hand  mill. 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


289 


customs  and  nature  of  the  Arabs  from  the 
earliest  time  to  make  war  upon  each  other 
as  well  as  upon  neighboring  nations.  The 
poor  Arab  needs  a horse  so  that  he  can 
ride  to  fall  upon  the  goods  of  his  enemy, 
take  possession  of  them,  and  grow  rich, 
and  the  rich  Arab  likewise  needs  a horse 
to  protect  his  fortune  and  his  head.”  Since 
the  Arab  depends  so  much  upon  his 
horse,  he  has  bred  a kind  of  horse  that 
shows  more  endurance  than  any  other  horse 
in  the  world. 

Why  should  the  nomad’s  property  be  only 
flocks  that  can  walk,  and  bundles  that  can 
be  carried  on  beasts?  No  desert  nomad  owns 
a piece  of  land.  Why  should  he?  Where  he 
wants  to  pitch  his  tent,  there  he  pitches  it. 
When  he  wants  to  move,  he  goes.  Grass  and 
water  are  the  only  things  worth  having,  and 
he  must  move  to  get  them. 

577.  Caravans  and  signal  fires. — Because 
nomads  are  such  robbers,  the  traders  of  the 
desert  nearly  always  travel  in  large  caravans 
for  protection.  To  be  safe  from  robbers 
the  Berbers  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  have 
built  their  towns  upon  the  tops  of  hills, 
where  defense  is  easy.  In  parts  of  southern 
Tunis  these  hill  Berbers  have  regularly  kept 
sentinels  on  high  rocks  overlooking  the  vil- 
lage. There,  night  and  day,  winter  and 
summer,  year  in  and  year  out,  men  for 
generation  after  generation  have  watched, 
with  live  coals  at  hand,  ready  to  start  a signal 
fire.  At  the  first  sight  of  the  enemy,  the  fire 
would  be  lighted.  Seeing  it,  the  watchman 
on  a distant  hill  would  light  his  fire,  to  signal 
the  next  lonely  watcher.  Thus  the  news  of 
danger  would  be  passed  from  village  to  vil- 
lage, until  all  were  called  to  arms.  Even  a 
city  like  Sfax,  on  the  coast  of  Tunis,  still 
has  a solid  stone  wall  higher  than  the  houses, 
and  all  the  people  were  living  inside  of  the 
wall  when  the  French  took  possession  in  1881. 

The  Bedouins  can  rarely  read,  but  they 
have  good  memories  and  know  many  stories 
such  as  those  in  the  book  called  Arabian 
Nights,  which  they  tell  around  the  camp  fire, 
and  thus  pass  them  on  from  generation  to 
generation  and  from  century  to  century. 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  448.  A monastery  a thousand  years  old  built 
around  a spring  at  the  base  of  Mt.  Sinai.  Why  is  this 
monastery  walled  and  the  country  so  bare  ? The  trees 
in  this  picture  are  said  to  be  one  thousand  years  old. 

578.  The  sand  oasis  of  Suf. — In  the  north- 
ern Sahara  a traveler  may  leave  one  of  the 
oases  and  cross  about  sixty  miles  of  waterless, 
wave-like  sand  dunes,  which  spread  before 
him  like  the  waves  of  the  sea.  After  many 
hours  he  beholds  a dark  green  spot  in  the 
white  sand.  It  is  the  tops  of  palm  trees  in  the 
oasis  of  Suf.  Long  ago  plants  growing  here 
showed  the  Arabs  that  there  was  moisture 
beneath  this  sand.  This  discovery  made  the 
place  gradually  become  the  home  of  thousands 
of  people.  Because  date  palm  trees  can 
send  their  roots  through  many  feet  of  earth 
to  reach  moisture  in  the  ground  beneath,  date 
gardens  can  be  made  to  flourish  in  some  places 
where  there  are  no  surface  springs  or  streams. 
These  trees  are  capable  of  supporting  many 
people.  When  a palm  garden  is  to  be  planted , 
the  people  dig  a wide  pit  eight  or  ten  yards 
deep.  In  this  pit  the  trees  are  planted. 
Because  the  sand  dunes  move  before  the 


11-15 


290 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  449.  A Bedouin  woman  milking  her  goats  in  the 
kingdom  of  Hejaz.  Why  does  she  not  have  a cow  ? 

wind,  sand  would  soon  bury  the  palm  trees 
if  the  people  did  not  prevent  it.  This  they 
do  by  carrying  the  sand  in  baskets  out  to  the 
desert,  where  they  dump  it  in  piles.  Each 
day  the  wind  blows  some  of  it  back  and  so, 
from  childhood  to  old  age,  the  Soufas  are 
tugging  baskets  of  sand  out  of  their  little 
date  gardens,  and  piling  it  on  the  surrounding 
sand  hills.  This  awful  labor  reminds  us  of 
how  the  Dutch  pump  water  out  of  their  land ; 
but  carrying  sand  is  a much  harder  job, 
because  the  Dutch  get  the  wind  to  do  their 
lifting  (Sec.  441). 

All  the  people  of  Suf  live  in  stone  houses 
beside  their  palm  gardens.  Camels,  goats, 
and  sheep  can  find  a scanty  living  in  the 
damp  places  between  the  dunes.  So  the 
people  have  wool  and  milk.  Why  are  they 
not  nomads? 

The  eyes  of  these  people  are  trained  in  a 
most  astonishing  way.  If  a Soufa  wants  to 
get  his  camel,  he  will  go  to  the  place  where 
he  last  saw  it  and  follow  the  pad  foot  tracks 
across  the  sand.  He  can  tell  the  track  of 
his  own  camel  from  that  of  his  neighbor’s 


camel.  One  of  us  could  scarcely  tell  the 
difference  between  a camel’s  track  and  that 
of  a horse. 

579.  The  oases  with  wells. — In  another 
part  of  the  desert  west  of  Suf,  most  of  the 
surface  is  bare  rock,  in  which  water  from 
occasional  rains  has  cut  such  a network  of 
channels  that  the  name  of  this  region  is  M’zab, 
meaning  in  Arabic,  “the  net.”  Thevalleysare 
full  of  earth,  and  beneath  the  earth  there  is 
water,  but  it  is  too  far  down  for  even  the 
roots  of  the  palm  trees  to  reach  it.  By 
irrigating  the  oases  with  water  lifted  from 
wells,  thousands  of  people,  called  Mozabites, 
live  here.  The  water  is  drawn  up  in  big 
leather  buckets  that  are  fastened  to  the  ends 
of  ropes.  A rope  passes  over  a pulley  at 
the  top  of  the  well  and  runs  thence  to  a 
donkey  or  a camel  (Fig.  450).  As  the  beast 
walks  away  from  the  well,  he  draws  the 
leather  bucket  up  to  the  top,  and  the  water 
is  dumped.  It  then  flows  away  to  the  gardens 
through  a carefully  lined  channel.  If  the 
wells  yield  water  all  the  time,  the  privilege 
of  using  it  is  sold,  and  all  day  and  all  night 
one  can  hear  the  creaking  of  the  pulley,  the 
yells  of  the  donkey  driver,  the  thump  of  the 
beast’s  feet,  and  the  splash  of  the  water  as 
it  falls  from  the  bucket.  The  labor  is  hard, 
but  the  Mozabites,  like  the  Soufas  and  the 
nomads  of  the  pastures,  are  big  strong  men. 

580.  The  oases  with  springs  and  small 
streams. — In  most  of  the  many  hundreds  of 
oases  of  the  Great  Desert,  living  conditions 


Fig.  450.  A donkey  pulls  the  rope  and  lifts  water  to 
irrigate  an  oasis  garden.  A garden  here  means  work. 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


291 


Photo.  J.  Russell  Smith 

Fig.  451.  The  entrance  to  an  oasis  in  Tunis.  Here  you  see  date  palms,  a fig  tree  at  the  right,  and  the  stream 
that  makes  the  oasis.  The  water  is  flowing  across  a log  with  notches  in  it.  A man  counts  his  fortune  by  the 
width  and  depth  of  his  notch  in  the 'water-measuring  log.  Why  is  the  house  built  outside  of  the  oasis? 


are  easier  than  at  Suf  and  M’zab,  because  the 
water  comes  from  flowing  streams  which 
the  people  can  turn  into  their  gardens,  thus 
giving  the  date  tree  what  the  Arabs  say  it 
wants:  namely,  “its  feet  in  the  water  and 
its  head  in  the  fires  of  heaven.”  The  date 
gardens  yield  crops  year  after  year,  century 
after  century.  Some  oases  are  known  to 
have  been  yielding  steadily  since  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  The  date  garden  yields  twenty 
times  as  much  food  as  a wheatfield  of  the 
same  size. 

581.  Three-story  farming. — Because  much 
food  is  needed  in  these  oases,  the  people  have 
developed  a wonderful  system  of  agriculture. 
Beneath  the  tall  open  topped  date  trees  are 
smaller  trees,  such  as  apricots,  olives,  and 
oranges.  Beneath  these  trees  vegetables 
are  grown.  This  three-story  agriculture 
yields  so  much  that  a tiny  patch  of  ground 
will  support  a family.  Arabs  will  sometimes 
pay  at  the  rate  of  $5000  an  acre  for  a bit  of 
oasis  land  with  palm  trees  on  it. 
i The  villages,  which  are  always  on  the 
desert  beside  the  oases,  swarm  with  people 


who  are  busy  in  the  early  morning  and  in 
the  late  evening  working  their  gardens, 
carrying  water,  and  milking  the  goats.  At 
noon  the  settlement  is  as  quiet  as  death, 
because  everyone  sleeps  during  the  heat  of 
the  day. 

582.  Mysterious  Arabia. — Much  of  Arabia 
is  still  unexplored.  Since.  Roman  times  only 
two  white  men  are  known  to  have  crossed 
Arabia  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the 
Arabian  Sea  is  a strip  of  land  which  the 
Arabs  call  the  “Empty  Quarter,”  because  it 
is  entirely  uninhabited  for  most  of  the  year. 
In  central  Arabia,  however,  there  is  a pla- 
teau, and  its  greater  elevation  causes  more 
rainfall.  Many  streams  flow  down  its  slope. 
Once  these  streams  ran  together  and  made  a 
river  which  reached  the  Persian  Gulf,  but 
this  was  ages  ago.  Now  all  streams  are  lost 
in  the  sand  a short  distance  from  the  plateau. 
But  immediately  at  the  foot  of  the  plateau 
there  is  a strip  of  land  four  hundred  miles 
long  and  twenty  miles  wide,  where  every  little 
valley  has  an  oasis  or  two.  Some  of  the 


292 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


CULTIVATE  D 
LAND 


Fig.  452.  Cultivated  land  , . 

in  Egypt  follows  the  dependent 
Nile.  Why? 


oases  are  so  tiny  that 
there  is  room  for  two 
or  three  trees;  others 
are  five  or  ten  miles  in 
length  and  their  trees 
and  gardens  support 
thousands  of  people. 

583.  An  independent 
town.  — One  of  these 
many  oasis  towns  lies 
with  its  springs  in  a 
little  valley  entirely 
surrounded  by  a water- 
less plateau,  yet  it  has 
10,000  people.  The 
town  is  absolutely  in- 
About  the 
year  1900  the  governor 


of  central  Arabia  sent  a tax  gatherer  to 
collect  taxes  from  the  town.  The  people 
whipped  him  publicly  and  drove  him  away. 
The  governor  could  not  attack  the  town  be- 
cause it  contained  too  many  people.  If  he  had 
tried  to  besiege  it,  he  would  have  had  to  camp 
out  in  a desert  where  there  is  no  water.  This 
shows  why  the  Turks,  who  have  claimed  to 
rule  Arabia,  have  really  ruled  only  a rim 
around  its  shores.  They  have  never  been  able 
to  rule  the  vast,  mysterious  inland  territory. 

584.  Camping  in  the  Empty  Quarter. — At 
the  end  of  the  rainy  season  the  nomads  along 
all  the  desert’s  edges  often  go  into  the  desert 
and  live  for  a short  time  in  places  where  they 
could  not  possibly  live  all  the  year.  At  this 
time  the  oasis  people  living  at  the  south  end 
of  the  central  highland  of  Arabia  often  make 
a trip  into  the  Empty  Quarter.  The  water  of 
the  springs  is  so  salty  that  men  cannot  drink 
it,  but  camels  can.  The  camels,  after  pas- 
turing, must  return  to  the  springs  to  drink; 
so  the  people  camp  by  the  springs,  and  milk 
the  camels  when  they  return  for  water. 
Camel’s  milk,  dates  which  they  bring  with 
them,  the  flesh  of  gazelles,  and  other  game 
furnish  food  for  the  desert  camp.  At  times 
these  people  cross  the  eight  hundred  miles  of 
the  Empty  Quarter  to  raid  the  tribes  on  the 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  but  no  white  man 
has  ever  been  known  to  have  gone  with  them. 


585.  Yemen  and  Mocha  coffee. — A small 
part  of  southern  Arabia,  called  Yemen,  has 
a high  mountain  facing  the  Red  Sea.  This 
section  receives  enough  rainfall  to  grow 
Mocha  coffee,  and  a grain  somewhat  like 
Kafir  corn.  Mocha  coffee  is  one  of  the  most 
expensive  coffees.  It  was  from  this  region 
that  the  people  of  Europe  first  received  coffee. 

The  agricultural  district  of  Yemen  is  so 
small  and  precious  that  the  people  have  ter- 
raced their  hillsides  like  steps,  thus  making 
more  garden  land  on  which  the  rain  can  fall. 

586.  The  great  rivers  and  the  great  oases 
of  Egypt  and  Iraq  (Mesopotamia). — In  two 
places  large  rivers,  rising  in  distant  lands 
of  heavy  rainfall,  carry  their  great  waters 
into  the  heart  of  the  desert  and  on  across 
it.  Thus  the  broad  plains  of  Egypt  and 
Iraq  (Mesopotamia)  can  be  irrigated.  They 
are  the  greatest  oases  in  all  the  world  and 
support  millions  of  people. 

587.  Egypt — the  world’s  greatest  oasis. — 
In  Egypt  (population  13,000,000)  there  are 
more  people  than  can  be  found  in  all  other 
oases  and  all  the  nomad  camps  combined. 
The  Nile,  called  by  the  natives  “Father 
Nile”,  rises  in  the  rainy  parts  of  Africa  and 
carries  water  across  the  entire  width  of  the 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  453.  Arab  women  traveling  in  Egypt;  the  veils 
are  worn  in  Mohammedan  style.  Donkeys  carry  most 
of  the  burdens  of  Egypt.  Note  the  carved  screen. 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


293 


desert.  This  river  alone  makes  the  great 
oasis  called  Egypt.  Once  each  year  the  waters 
of  the  Nile  rise  and  overflow  its  banks. 
(Sec.  763.)  The  water  spreads  over  the  plain 
along  the  lower  courses  of  the  river  and  in 
the  delta.  When  the  flood  begins  to  go  down, 
the  natives  of  Egypt  walk  out  into  the  pools 
of  water  to  sow  the  seeds  of  wheat  and  barley 
and  a native  grain  called  durra,  which  is 
much  like  Kafir  corn  (Sec.  108).  The  seeds 
fall  into  the  water,  settle  in  the  mud  beneath, 
and  when  the  water  has  gone,  the  plants, 
fed  by  the  moisture  of  the  soaked  earth,  grow 
rapidly,  and  ripen  their  harvest  in  the  blazing 
desert  sun.  For  thousands  of  years  grain 
has  thus  been  grown  in  the  Nile  Valley. 

In  twenty-five  years  the  Nile  builds  up  its 
plain  only  about  one  inch,  but  that  is  enough 
to  keep  it  yielding  one  fine  crop  after  another, 
thus  feeding  millions  of  big,  strong,  good- 
natured  black  people,  called  fellahs,  or 
fellaheen  (Fig.  454). 

588.  The  native  Egyptians. — These  natives 
have  been  ruled  first  by  one  foreign  con- 
queror, then  by  another.  No  matter  who  ruled 
them,  the  fellaheen  have  for  centuries  lived 
much  as  they  do  to-day.  Thousands  of  years 
before  Christ,  lordly  tribesmen  from  the 
North  took  possession  of  the  Nile  Valley. 
Those  ancient  conquerors  wanted  to  erect 
tombs  for  their  kings,  so  they  built  the  huge 

S,  pyramids.  For  this  great  work  they  used 
thousands  of  slaves  and  thousands  of  camels, 
but  just  how  they  managed  to  put  the  great 
blocks  of  stone  in  place  is  not  known. 

Enormous  pillared  temples  built  by  these 
ancient  Egyptians  still  amaze  us,  as  do  their 
writings  in  stone  and  on  the  sheets  of  papy- 
rus, the  pith  of  a reed  that  grew  by  the  Nile. 

589.  Native  life  and  native  farming  in 
Egypt. — To-day,  as  for  several  thousand 
years,  the  traveler  sees  flood-plain  and  delta 
dark  green  with  heavy  crops.  Here  and 
there  a few  tall  palm  trees  stand  on  little 
mounds  of  earth  a few  feet  above  the  flat 
plain.  On  the  mound  is  a village  of  brown 
mud  huts.  The  simple  house  has  walls  of 
sun-dried  brick,  set  in  mud.  The  roof  is 
only  a few  rafters  covered  with  straw,  or 


© Underwood  & Underwood.  N.  Y. 

Fig.  454.  Natives  lifting  water  up  the  bank  of  the 
Nile.  Each  man  pours  his  bucket  of  water  into  a pool 
behind  him  until  the  last  man  pours  it  on  the  edge  of  the 
field,  where  it  flows  to  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants. 
Many  men  are  needed  for  even  a small  field.  Suggest 
a better  method  of  lifting  the  Nile’s  waters  to  the  field. 

palm  leaves,  and  plastered  on  top  with  mud. 
There  is  an  opening  that  serves  as  a door, 
but  there  are  no  windows  at  all.  Inside  are 
a few  sleeping  mats,  a few  earthen  vessels, 
a hand  mill  to  grind  grain  for  bread,  and  a 
few  yards  of  cotton  cloth  from  Manchester. 
Such  is  the  home  of  the  man  who  plows  the 
fertile  plain  with  a crooked  stick  drawn  by 
oxen.  His  methods  have  not  changed  from 
those  his  ancestors  used  before  the  time  of 
the  Pharaohs. 

590.  Modernizing  Egypt. — Of  late  years, 
under  the  rule  of  the  English,  even  Egypt 
has  begun  to  change.  The  age  of  machinery 
and  engineering  has  begun  in  Egypt.  Rail- 
roads and  telegraphs  have  been  built.  Egypt 
has  become  prosperous  because  the  people 
can  now  grow  a crop  and  sell  it  and  get  the 
money  for  themselves,  instead  of  having  it 


294 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


Cairo  has  more  people 
than  St.  Louis  or  Boston. 
It  has  become  a great  cen- 
ter for  European  and  Amer- 
ican tourists  who  want  to 
make  a winter  trip  in  search 
of  health  and  recreation. 
Here  the  traveler  sees  a real 
Mohammedan  city,  full  of 
men  of  many  nations.  Near 
by  are  the  ruins  of  many 
ages;  in  museums  are  col- 
lections of  Egyptian  curi- 
osities and  works  of  art. 

Alexandria,  the  Nile  port, 
has  more  people  than  New 
Orleans. 

592.  The  Assuan  dam. — 


© Publishers'  Phsto  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  455.  The  city  of  Cairo.  The  towers  show  the  educated  Arabs’  sense  of 
beauty.  From  these  towers  the  Mohammedan  priests  call  people  to  prayers. 


taken  by  a robbing  tax-gatherer.  Never  be- 
fore did  Egypt  produce  so  much  wheat,  corn, 
rice,  durra  (millet),  and  sugar  cane.  Her 
swarming  people  eat  most  of  these  products, 
but  they  export  some  early  vegetables. 

There  are  fields  of  clover  for  the  donkeys 
and  camels,  and  there  is  cotton  to  sell.  It  has 
been  found  that  Egyptian  cotton  is  the  best 
cotton  of  all.  Its  threads  are  longer  and 
stronger  than  those  of  other  cotton,  so  we 
use  much  of  it  for  automobile  tires.  During 
the  World  War  the  price  of  cotton  was  very 
high,  and  Egyptian  cotton  growers  made  so 
much  money  that  they  bought  automobiles 
as  American  farmers  do. 

After  all,  Egypt  is  a very  small  place  in 
comparison  with  our  own  Cotton  Belt.  Her 
cotton  yield  per  acre  is  greater  than  ours, 
but  her  total  crop  is  only  about  one-eleventh 
as  large  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

591.  Cairo  and  Alexandria. — The  Egyp- 
tian capital,  Cairo,  is  the  metropolis  of  the 
oasis  world  wand  the  largest  city  of  Africa. 
It  is  at  a crossroads.  Here  the  Nile  Valley 
reaches  the  Mediterranean,  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  makes  a bridge  to  Asia,  and  the  Suez 
Canal  (Sec.  610)  provides  the  great  shipway 
from  Europe  to  the  Far  East. 


Because  Egypt  has  over  a 
thousand  people  to  the 
square  mile,  more  land  is 
needed.  The  English  are  turning  desert 
into  farmland  by  making  new  irrigation 
works.  At  Assuan  on  the  Nile  they  have 
built  a great  storage  dam.  It  holds  back 
some  of  the  flood  waters  so  that  the  water 
may  be  carried  in  canals  to  lands  which 
natural  floods  do  not  reach.  Thus  Eng- 
land is  increasing  the  area  of  Egypt’s  fields, 
but  the  yield  is  not  so  good  as  that  of 


Courtesy  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  456,  Native  Egyptians  selling  lemonade  in  the 
streets  of  Cairo. 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


295 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  457.  Arabs  and  their  “ ships  of  the  desert  ” before  the  Sphinx  and  the 
pyramids,  near  Cairo.  These  are  among  the  most  interesting  of  the  many 
monuments  of  the  past.  Ruins  tell  us  how  the  ancient  Egyptians  lived. 


■ 

the  lower  plains,  because 
this  water,  unlike  that  of 
the  floods,  does  not  carry 
the  rich  mud. 

The  English  are  pleased 
with  the  success  of  the 
Assuan  dam.  They  plan  to 
copy  the  example  of  Hol- 
land and  drain  the  shallow, 
salt  lakes  or  bays  at  the 
outer  edge  of  the  Nile  delta, 
and  irrigate  them  with  the 
water  stored  in  dams  a 
thousand  miles  upstream. 

593.  Iraq  (Mesopotamia), 
the  oasis  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Euphrates. — These  two 
rivers,  fed  by  the  winter 
rains  and  melting  snows  of 
the  mountains  of  Armenia, 
flood  thousands  of  square 
miles  each  year.  Like  the  streams  of  Cal- 
ifornia (Sec.  194),  they  have  partly  filled  a 
great  arm  of  the  sea  with  earth.  Even  in 
historic  times  all  that  part  of  the  plain 
below  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates  has  been  built  by  the  two  mud- 
bearing rivers.  The  streams  wind  back  and 
forth  across  this  plain  much  as  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Rio  Grande  do  in  their  flood  plains. 

This  valley  shares  with  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  the  honor  of  being  the  seat  of  early 
civilizations  and  the  site  of  many  changing 
empires.  To-day  many  things  which  are  new 
to  this  locality  may  be  seen  there.  If  we  ride 
about  in  an  automobile,  we  may  see  English 
army  airplanes  flying  overhead.  We  pass  a 
string  of  auto  trucks  which  are  stirring  up  a 
great  cloud  of  blinding  dust  as  they  speed 
along,  carrying  supplies  to  the  garrison. 
These  modern  machines,  the  airplane  and 
the  automobile,  have  not  replaced  the 
ancient  burden-bearers  of  the  East,  for  we 
see  strings  of  camels  shambling  along  the 
road,  and  carrying  bales  of  goods  down  from 
Persia  to  a steamboat  landing  on  the  Tigris. 
A donkey  plods  along  almost  buried  beneath 
his  huge  load  of  straw  stuffed  into  a rope 
net;  his  mean  looking  Arab  master  stalks 


behind,  yelling  loudly  as  he  clubs  the  strong 
little  beast.  Looking  in  one  direction,  one 
sees  the  bare,  dry  desert;  in  the  opposite 
direction,  on  the  river’s  bank,  is  a fringe  of 
palm  trees  and  gardens,  watered  by  natives 
who  laboriously  lift  the  water  from  the  stream 
(Fig.  454).  Everywhere  the  earth  seems  filled 
with  pieces  of  broken  pottery  and  old  bricks; 
near  by,  great  arches  and  gateways  mark  the 
entrance  to  ancient  cities  that  are  now  only 
mounds  of  ruins.  Digging  in  the  side  of  these 
mounds,  one  will  see  one  pavement  above 
another  with  several  feet  of  dirt  between, 
showing  that  cities  have  been  built,  ruined, 
buried,  and  others  built  on  the  same  site. 
Close  by  is  an  ancient  empty  canal  built  by 
King  Nebuchadnezzar  to  irrigate  this  plain. 

Since  the  World  War,  this  valley  with  a 
population  of  three  million  people,  has 
passed  to  the  control  of  England,  and  modern 
industry  is  busy  making  another  Egypt  of  it. 
Even  under  the  Turks,  steamboats  went  up 
the  Tigris  from  Basra  to  Bagdad,  and  ocean 
steamships  carried  from  Basra  to  New  York 
nearly  all  the  dates  that  we  used  in  this 
country. 

Europe  looks  to  these  two  hot  valleys  for  a 
quick  supply  of  cotton  fiber,  which  is  so  im- 


296 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


portant  for  the  world’s  clothing  and  industry. 
But  these  valleys  cannot  furnish  all  the 
cotton  that  Europe  needs,  because  there  is 
not  enough  land  that  can  be  irrigated. 

594.  Other  resources. — There  is  oil  (petro- 
leum) at  Mosul,  in  the  upper  part  of  Meso- 
potamia. (Fig.  445.)  This  may  make  great 
business  as  long  as  the  oil  holds  out,  but  we 
know  it  cannot  last  many  decades  (Sec.  301). 

It  is  strange,  but  the  desert  has  fishermen. 
They  live  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  go  out  in  small  boats,  dive  down 
into  the  shallow  waters,  and  bring  up  in 
their  hands  oysters,  inside  the  shells  of 
which  pearls  are  found. 

595.  Government. — We  have  already  seen 
(Secs.  590, 593)  that  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia 
are  ruled  by  the  British,  who  let  the  natives 
rule  themselves  as  much  as  they  can.  During 
the  World  War  the  British  promised  the 
Arabian  Arabs  that  if  they  would  help  against 
the  Turks  and  the  Germans,  they  could  have 
a kingdom  of  their  own.  This  kingdom  is 
called  Hejaz,  and  the  Arabs  plan  to  let  no 
one  but  a Mohammedan  enter  it.  It  con- 
tains the  sacred  city  of  Mecca,  the  birthplace 
of  Mohammed,  to  which  all  Mohammedans 
who  can  will  make  a journey  once  in  their 
lifetime.  The  King  of  Hejaz  will  probably 
have  no  better  success  than  the  Turks  in 
ruling  central  Arabia.  (Sec.  583.) 


Libia  (Fig.  10)  now  belongs  to  Italy,  and 
most  of  the  Sahara  belongs  to  France,  but  the 
nomads  of  the  Sahara  and  the  people  of  the 
small  oases  may  be  said  almost  to  rule  them- 
selves. The  French  soldiers  do  not  interfere 
much  unless  the  natives  fight  or  rob. 

596.  Future  development. — Much  of  this 
enormous  region  that  stretches  over  the 
whole  width  of  one  big  continent  and  occupies 
a large  corner  of  another  one  will  remain  as 
it  is  now,  a dead  desert.  Great  changes  can 
be  expected  in  the  two  big  oases,  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia,  where  as  long  as  there  is 
water  in  the  rivers,  there  is  a challenge  to 
man  to  find  a way  to  use  it. 

In  any  case,  Mesopotamia  is  not  likely  to  be 
a white  man’s  land.  It  is  too  hot.  An  Ameri- 
can traveler,  speaking  of  the  British  army 
in  Mesopotamia,  said : “ Through  the  months 
of  gasping  heat  when  from  eight  to  five  no 
soldier  is  supposed  to  do  any  work  and  even 
the  animals  do  nothing,  when  people  must 
wear  helmets  made  of  cork,  and  spine  pads 
made  of  wool  all  day,  when  men  out  in  the 
blue  lie  pantingly  in  their  tents  longing  for 
night  to  come,  the  most  important  piece  of 
knowledge  is  the  location  of  the  heat-stroke 
station.” 

Now  that  we  know  how  to  build  railroads 
in  almost  any  kind  of  a place,  the  discovery 
of  minerals  may  make  a busy  town  almost 
anywhere  in  the  Great 
Desert.  In  Tunis  thou- 
sands of  nomads  have  quit 
following  their  flocks,  and 
have  moved  into  the  towns 
of  tin  shanties  and  sun- 
dried  brick  built  around 
certain  phosphate  mines 
that  are  sending  more  than 
a million  tons  of  phos- 
phate rock  a year  to  feed 
the  fields  of  Europe. 

In  the  little  oases  the 
native,  by  hard  work,  is 
often  using  every  bit  of  j 
water  in  raising  crops. 

In  some  places  on  the 
edge  of  the  desert  it  is 


© 1920,  by  The  Curtis  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  458.  The  arch  of  Ctesiphon,  near  Bagdad,  Mesopotamia.  Inside  the 
arch  was  the  great  hall  of  an  emperor.  This  is  a part  of  one  building  in  one 
of  the  several  large  cities  of  ancient  Mesopotamia. 


THE  GREAT  HOT  DESERT  AND  ITS  OASES 


297 


possible  for  olives,  and  per- 
haps for  other  tree  crops, 
to  bring  agriculture  where 
now  there  is  only  pasture 
(Fig.  459).  However,  life 
at  the  desert’s  edge  must 
always  remain  uncertain, 
as  the  lost  civilizations  of 
the  Syrian  desert  show. 

597.  A lost  civilization. — 

Between  the  Jordan  River 
and  the  upper  Euphrates, 
the  desert  is  sprinkled  with 

the  ruins  of  villages  and  Photo,  j.  Russeii  smth 

houses,  which  show  plainly  Fig.  459.  View  from  a tower  near  Sfax,  Tunis,  where  the  olive  orchards 

it-  nnm  V.arl  o rrrostor  reacl1  in  ^ directions  as  far  as  one  can  see.  Yet  the  total  rainfall  in  five 
t,nat  it  once  naa  a greater  , 


population  than  any  part  of 
the  United  States  or  England  outside  of  the 
great  cities.  We  know  that  this  region  is  at 
least  twice  the  size  of  Maryland,  although  no 
one  has  yet  traced  all  its  limits.  Historians 
know  that  it  was  populous  when  the  Old 
Testament  was  written,  and  that  it  was  in 
the  height  of  its  prosperity  from  the  time  of 
Christ  to  600  A.  D.  The  ruins  of  olive  presses 
and  wine  presses  prove  that  it  was  a land 
of  the  vine  and  the  olive  tree,  as  the  Medi- 
terranean world  was  then  and  is  to-day. 
The  ruins  of  the  villages  show  that  the  people 
lived  in  comfortable  stone  houses.  Inscrip- 
tions on  the  buildings  show  that  wealthy 
citizens  left  public  baths,  monasteries, 
churches,  and  other  gifts  to  their  towns. 
In  the  year  610  A.  D.  this  territory  was 
conquered  by  the  Persians.  Soon  after  that 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs.  Misgovern- 
ment  helped  to  ruin  it  and  so  did  erosion. 
Bare  fields  were  washed  into  gullies  until 
only  rock  remained.  To-day  this  great 
region  is  a marvelous  and  desolate  scene 
of  the  ruins  of  ancient  glories,  and  a warn- 
ing to  us  about  our  own  civilization. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Locate  the  Great  Desert  by  stating  its  position 
in  the  continents.  How  long  is  it?  How  wide?  Use 
scale.  2.  Name  some  of  the  desert  plants.  Compare 
the  plants  of  the  desert  with  those  of  the  Arctic 
regions.  In  what  respects  are  they  alike?  3.  Which 
do  you  think  is  the  most  interesting  animal  of  the 
desert?  Which  would  you  rather  own?  Why? 
4.  The  camel  has  been  called  “The  ship  of  the 


years  was  only  35  inches. 

desert”.  Do  you  think  the  comparison  a good  one? 
Give  your  reasons.  5.  On  the  physical  map  of  Africa 
locate  the  sources  of  the  Nile  River.  In  what  regions 
of  Africa  are  these  located?  How  can  you  account 
for  the  great  amount  of  water  fed  into  the  Nile? 
Describe  location  and  direction  of  flow  of  this  river. 
6.  What  causes  the  falls  in  the  Nile?  7.  What  effect 
do  these  have  on  transportation  on  this  river? 
8.  Explain  the  flood  plain  of  the  Nile.  Explain  the 
delta.  9.  Compare  farming  in  Egypt  with  farming 
in  some  part  of  the  United  States.  10.  Locate  and 
describe  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers.  Can  you 
find  any  interesting  stories  connected  with  the  his- 
tories of  these  rivers?  11.  Where  is  Mt.  Sinai? 
12.  Why  does  the  monastery  in  the  picture  (Fig.  448) 
look  like  toy  houses?  13.  Which  do  you  think  would 
occur  most  frequently— a rain  storm  or  a sand  storm? 
Why?  14.  What  damage  is  done  by  sand  dunes? 
15.  Give  some  reasons  why  you  would  like  to  travel 
across  the  desert,  and  some  of  the  hardships  of  such 
a trip.  16.  Which  would  you  rather  own,  an  acre  of 
date  oasis  or  an  acre  of  American  farmland?  Why? 

17.  Explain  how  the  northeast  trade  wind  is  the 
cause  of  the  Great  Desert.  18.  Why  do  the  trade 
winds  bring  rain  to  the  West  Indies  and  dry  weather 
to  the  Great  Desert?  19.  Why  are  they  called 
northeast  trade  winds?  (Sec.  364.)  20.  Locate  and 
describe  the  important  cities  near  the  Nile.  21.  Locate 
the  most  important  seaport.  To  what  country  does 
it  belong?  22.  What  is  there  in  the  picture  (Fig 
455)  that  would  make  you  know  it  was  not  an 
American  city?  23.  Why  do  we  import  cotton  frora 
Egypt?  24.  What  is  meant  by  a nomad?  25.  Com- 
pare the  nomads  with  the  Indians  of  North 
America.  26.  What  do  the  ruins  in  Fig.  458  tell 
about  the  kind  of  people  who  once  lived  there? 
27.  Imagine  that  you  are  traveling  with  a caravan 
across  the  Great  Desert.  Write  an  account,  which 
you  might  place  in  your  diary,  of  the  experiences  of 
a day  on  the  desert.  28.  Dramatize  from  the  Bible 
the  story  of  Joseph . Study  the  text  carefully  to  see  that 
you  make  everythingin  harmony  with  facts  of  desert  life- 


298 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


U.  S.  Official  Photograph 

Fig.  460.  The  city  and  fortress  of  Kars,  Armenia.  Can  you  tell  anything 
of  the  history  and  climate  of  this  country  by  looking  at  this  picture? 


29.  What  other  deserts  have  you  already  studied? 
Compare  them  with  the  Great  Desert  as  to  location, 
size  and  cause.  30.  If  you  were  planning  to  visit  the 
Great  Desert,  to  what  city  would  you  sail?  Tell 
how  you  would  travel — over  what  lands  and  bodies 
of  water.  How  long  would  your  journey  take? 
31.  In  what  other  part  of  the  world  have  we  found 
dry  watercourses?  32.  Compare  the  climate  and  sur- 
face of  such  a place  with  that  of  the  Great  Desert. 
33.  The  temperature  of  the  desert  is  often  140°  F. 
during  the  day,  but  there  may  be  frost  at  night. 
Why?  Give  two  reasons.  34.  What  is  the  value 
of  land  in  your  community?  How  does  this 
compare  with  the  price  which  is  stated  as  the  cost 
of  some  oasis  land?  35.  The  Egyptians  worshipped 
the  Nile  River.  Can  you  tell  why?  36.  Man’s  greatest 
need  is  food.  The  earliest  peoples  lived  in  food- 
producing  regions.  How  then  can  we  connect  ancient 
civilization  with  this  desert  region?  37.  Write  a play, 
“Scenes  in  the  Desert”;  plan  scenery,  costumes,  and 
acting,  true  to  desert  life. 

THE  PLATEAUS  OF  ASIA  MINOR 
AND  IRAN 

598.  Bounds  and  climate. — On  all  its 
shores  the  plateau  of  Asia  Minor  rises  abrupt- 
ly from  the  sea.  What  are  the  seas?  (Fig. 
469.)  Its  continuation,  the  plateau  of  Iran, 
also  rises  abruptly  from  two  seas  and  three 
low  plains.  What  are  they?  (Fig.  474.)  From 
the  western  end  of  this  plateau  one  may  travel 
on  a highland  for  twenty-five  hundred  miles 
across  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Persia,  and 
Baluchistan,  until  at  last  one  looks  down 
upon  the  dry  lowlands  of  the  Indus  valley. 

This  high  dry  region  is  larger  than  all  of 
the  United  States  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 


tains. Even  the  peninsula  of 
Asia  Minor  is  longer  than  the 
distance  from  Lake  Erie  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  We  can  best 
understand  this  region  by 
thinking  of  it  as  another  Utah 
and  another  Southwestern 
Plateau,  both  of  which  it 
resembles  in  climate,  surface, 
appearance,  and  products.  As 
in  Utah  and  Mexico,  we  here 
find  a few  cities  in  a dry,  high 
land,  depending  for  water 
upon  streams  from  the  moun- 
tains. The  city  of  Teheran  is 
at  an  elevation  of  4000  feet, 
Hamadan  at  6000  feet,  and 
near  both  cities  rise  still  higher  mountains. 
Fig.  (474.)  As  in  the  southwestern  United 
States,  high  mountains  shut  out  the  rain- 
bearing winds,  so  that  the  plains  between 
the  mountains  are  often  deserts  where 
mountain  streams  sink  into  the  sands  or  flow 
away  to  salt  lakes,  as  in  Utah  and  Mexico. 

The  mountains  of  Armenia,  which  are 
higher  than  the  Alps,  stand  upon  this  plateau. 
Mt.  Ararat  is  one  of  these  famous  peaks. 
Streams  fed  by  rain  and  melting  snow  flow 
from  these  mountains  into  the  rich  plain 
of  Iraq.  Thus  the  plain  has  been  able  to 
support  the  empires  of  the  past.  (Fig.  458.) 

599.  Plateaus  of  hate  and  despotism. — 
This  region  has  many  different  peoples, 
and  for  a long  time  they  have  got  along 
very  badly  indeed  with  each  other.  The 
Turks  are  in  western  and  central  Asia  Minor. 
The  Armenians  are  in  northeastern  Asia 
Minor.  South  of  the  Armenians  are  the 
Kurds,  and  north  of  the  Armenians  are  the 
Georgians  and  Tatars  of  Azerbaijan.  East 
of  the  Armenians  are  the  Persians  and  the 
Baluchis.  Arabs  with  their  flocks  and 
herds  are  scattered  in  many  parts  of  the 
plateau.  All  of  these  peoples  have  often 
fought  each  other  fiercely  for  land  and  water. 

The  Armenians  especially  have  had  a 
bad  time  of  it.  They  were  civilized  people 
three  thousand  years  ago,  and  have  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  Christian  churches.  They  live  in 


THE  PLATEAUS  OF  ASIA  MINOR  AND  IRAN 


a country  where  the  other  people  keep  flocks 
and  herds  and  till  the  soil.  The  Armenians 
do  these  things,  too,  but  in  addition  they  are 
skilled  artisans  and  traders.  Because  the 
Armenians  differ  from  their  neighbors  in 
race  and  religion,  and  are  better  business 
men  than  their  neighbors,  they  are  hated. 
The  Turks  to  the  west  and  the  Kurds  to  the 
south  have  often  massacred  Armenians  by 
the  thousand.  Of  the  seven  chief  peoples, 
the  Armenians,  the  Georgians,  and  the 
Persians  are  dark-haired  white  people.  The 
others  are  black-haired,  yellowish-skinned 
peoples. 

Before  the  World  War,  four  nations  ruled 
or  pretended  to  rule  this  region.  Russia 
ruled  all  the  land  between  the  Black  and 
the  Caspian  seas;  the  Turks  claimed  all 
the  rest  that  lay  west  of  Persia;  the  English 
ruled  the  wild  tribes  of  Baluchistan;  and 
Persia  was  independent.  Like  the  Armeni- 
ans, the  Persians  had  an  empire  long  ago; 
but  for  a long  time  the  Persian  shahs,  or 
kings,  have  ruled  almost  as  badly  as  have 
the  Turks  themselves. 

600.  The  jealousy  of  European  countries 
has  hurt  this  region,  as  it  has  hurt  the 
Balkans.  (Sec.  524.)  No  nation  has  inter- 
fered when  Turks  have  killed  Armenians  in 
Asia,  because  each  nation  feared  the  other 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  461.  Harvesting  wheat  by  hand  in  Asia  Minor. 


©'JJnderwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  462.  Viewing  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna  from  a moun-= 
tain  ridge.  What  kind  of  trees  do  you  think  you  see 
as  you  look  down  on  the  shore  plain?  (Sec.  557.) 

would  get  the  Turkish  territory.  Jealousy  of 
European  nations  has  also  kept  railroads 
from  being  built  in  this  region. 

601.  Trans-Caucasia. — The  land  between 
the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas  is  called 
the  Caucasus  and  Trans-Caucasia.  Many 
tribes  inhabit  it.  All  were  conquered  years 
ago  by  Russia.  Then  Russia  built  a railroad 
from  Batufn  on  the  Black  Sea  through  Tiflis, 
the  ancient  capital,  to  Baku  on  the  Caspian 
Sea.  At  Baku,  near  the  east  end  of  the 
Caucasus  Mountains,  is  one  of  the  great  oil 
fields  of  the  world.  For  hundreds  of  years 
this  place  was  visited  by  fire  worshippers 
from  Persia,  who  made  the  long  pilgrimage 
to  visit  the  natural  fires  that  burned  in  the 
rocks  where  natural  gas  escaped.  Now, 
instead  of  fire  worshippers,  oil  workers  go 
to  Baku.  The  place  bristles  with  the  der- 
ricks of  oil  wells,  and  many  thousands  of 
Georgians,  Tatars,  and  Russians  are  at  work 
there.  For  many  years  this  region  was  sec- 
ond only  to  the  United  States  in  oil  pro- 
duction. Oil  is  taken  nearly  six  hundred 
miles  by  train  and  by  pipe  line  to  Batum, 
where  ships  load  it  for  Europe. 


300 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


602.  Living  the  life  of  the  ancients. — 
There  are  few  railroads  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
almost  none  in  Persia.  In  this  country, 
800  miles  wide  and  1300  miles  long,  people 
are  living  almost  as  they  did  1000  or  2000 
years  ago.  In  fact,  the  roads  were  better 
2500  years  ago  when  Persia  was  a great 
empire  than  they  were  in  1914.  At  the 
opening  of  the  World  War,  except  for  a few 
miles  of  railway  and  a few  wagon  roads,  all 
travel  was  by  the  backs  of  horses,  camels, 
or  mules.  All  trade  was  by  caravans  which 
climbed  high  mountains  and  crossed  dreary 
desert  plains.  If  the  traveler  could  find 
an  inn  he  was  fortunate.  Even  then  he 
must  furnish  his  own  bed  and  food,  as  is 
the  custom  at  Persian  inns. 

603.  Agriculture. — This  plateau  is  a land 
of  little  rain.  In  some  localities  there  is 
rain  enough  over  small  areas  for  wheat  and 
barley.  Near  some  of  the  mountains,  as  in 
Utah  and  the  Mexican  plateau,  water  may 
be  had  for  irrigating  small  areas.  These 
precious  spots  are  used  intensively.  Rice 
is  grown  where  there  is  water  enough.  Where 
water  is  less  plentiful,  there  are  rich  gardens 
in  which  vegetables  are  grown  beneath  fruit 


© E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  463.  Children  weaving  a Persian  rug.  To  the 
thread  of  coarse  net-like  linen  cloth,  a short  piece  of 
woolen  yarn  is  tied,  then  another  and  another,  until 
finally  thousands  stand  close  together.  When  the 
network  is  full  the  ends  of  the  yarn  are  clipped  off 
evenly,  and  often  the  ends  stand  up  solidly  as  much 
as  half  an  inch. 


trees.  People  who  need  more  land  so  much, 
usually  grow  fruits  and  vegetables  together. 
We  also  see  the  intensive  use  of  land  in  the 
production  of  opium,  of  attar  of  roses,  and 
of  silk.  These  products  require  little  land, 
but  with  much  labor  they  yield  large  cash 
returns. 

The  wheat  and  barley  cannot  be  sent  far 
on  muleback  to  market.  Therefore  each 
locality  must  raise  its  own  supply.  Some- 
times more  is  raised  than  can  be  used.  Then 
the  price  is  low.  Again,  in  bad  seasons,  less 
is  raised  than  is  needed,  and  the  price  is  high. 

The  price  of  needful  things  is  always 
affected  by  the  quantity  to  be  had.  This 
is  especially  true  in  places  like  this  region, 
where  the  people  have  no  opportunity  for 
world  trade.  This  interior  district,  which 
is  almost  without  railroads,  supports  over 
200,000  people  in  Teheran  and  as  many 
more  in  Tabriz.  Salt  Lake  City  has  117,000 
people.  * 

* Much  of  the  world’s  licorice  is  made  of 
the  extract  from  the  root  of  a wild  bush  that 
is  dug  up  by  the  people  of  Asia  Minor. 

604.  The  nomads. — As  most  of  this  wide 
upland,  like  our  own  Southwestern  Plateau, 
is  fit  only  for  pasture,  nomads  are  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  it.  The  total  number 
of  nomads  in  Persia  is  estimated  as  a million 
and  a quarter.  Compare  that  number  with 
the  population  of  the  four  states  of  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Nevada.  The 
Kurds  of  Kurdistan  are  almost  entirely 
nomads.  These  nomads  have  about  as 
hard  a time  of  it  as  do  those  who  live  in  the 
desert  of  Sahara  itself,  for  on  the  plateau 
there  are  sometimes  heavy  falls  of  snow 
which  cover  the  grass.  Men  and  animals 
sometimes  freeze  to  death  in  the  snow. 
Poverty  and  suffering  encourage  these  people 
to  be  raiders  and  to  plunder  their  neighbors. 

605.  Manufacture  and  trade.— A region 
almost  without  coal,  water  power,  railroads, 
or  good  highways  cannot  use  machinery 
as  it  is  used  in  the  factories  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  Armenians  and  Persians, 
like  the  craftsmen  of  ancient  times,  work 
by  hand,  and  are  very  skilful.  They  make 


THE  TRADE  OF  EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  301 


beautiful  metal  work,  and  their  firearms 
and  other  weapons  are  often  inlaid  with 
lavish  designs  in  gold,  silver,  and  pearl. 

The  most  wonderful  and  expensive  rugs 
in  the  world  come  out  of  this  plateau.  These 
rugs,  together  with  other  valuable  exports 
of  silk,  furs,  wool,  and  skins,  go  for  long 
distances  to  market  on  the  backs  of  pack- 
animals.  When  sold  they  pay  for  the  im- 
port of  cotton,  sugar,  tea,  kerosene,  and 
small  manufactures. 

606.  Future. — This  region,  which  has  more 
people  than  Canada,  is  ready  to  enter  the 
age  of  transport,  machinery,  and  trade,  if 
only  it  can  have  peace  and  order.  Then 
man  could  work  and  build  and  be  sure  of 
keeping  his  property  after  he  has  acquired  it. 
The  people  are  poor  but  willing  to  work.  If 
this  region  has  a chance,  one  of  the  first 
things  produced  will  be  minerals.  It  is  rich 
in  iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  manganese.  Coal 
is  also  found.  There  are  promising  oil 
fields  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Caspian 
and  in  southern  Persia.  Even  before  the 
World  War,  there  were  railroads  in  the 
Trans-Caucasus,  and,  as  a result,  hundreds 
of  ships  sailed  each  year  from  Batum  and 
Poti,  with  oil  for  Europe  and  manganese 
ore  for  the  steel  mills  of  England,  Belgium, 
and  Germany.  Some  of  the  ore  came  even  to 
the  United  States.  This  is  only  one  example 
of  what  railroads  may  do  here. 

In  many  a mountain  defile  in  this  long 
plateau  there  is  room  for  irrigation  reser- 
voirs such  as  we  are  building  in  our  own 
country,  but  first  peace  must  come.  When 
this  land  really  enters  the  world’s  trade  it 
will  send  its  goods  out  by  the  four  seas  that 
touch  it.  The  Caspian,  with  the  great  river 
Volga,  gives  Russia  a fine  chance  to  trade 
with  Azerbaijan  and  north  Persia,  while 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  British  possession 
of  Mesopotamia  give  Britain,  with  her  ships, 
an  open  road  to  southern  and  western  Persia. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  England  and  Russia  both  covet  pos- 
session of  Persia?  2.  Compare  the  occupations  in 
this  region  with  the  occupations  of  people  in  Utah. 
Why  the  difference?  3.  Locate  Teheran,  Bagdad, 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y . 

Fig.  464.  Persian  charcoal  merchant  on  the  way  from 
mountain  to  market.  Why  do  not  the  people  bum  coal  ? 

Erzerum,  Batum,  and  Tiflis.  4.  Compare  the  life  of 
the  nomads  of  this  region  with  that  of  the  nomads  of 
the  Great  Desert. 

5.  What  advantages  would  there  be  in  going  into 
this  region  to  live?  What  dangers?  6.  What  are 
the  advantages  for  manufacture  possessed  by  this 
region?  The  disadvantages?  7.  Fill  up  the  chart: 


Trip  from 

Trip  from 

Topic. 

Bassora  to 

The  Hague 

Teheran. 

to  Moscow. 

Mode  of  travel 

Hotel  accommodations. . . . 
Temperature(Figs.328,329) 

Rainfall 

Nature  of  country 

Streams  crossed 

Cities  you  would  want  to 

visit  on  the  way 

8.  What  conditions  have  produced  the  high  de- 
velopment of  rug-making  in  Persia?  Look  up  the 
prices  of  these  oriental  rugs;  stories  of  their  making; 
pictures  of  their  colorings  and  design.  9.  What  has 
been  the  effect  of  wars  and  of  jealousies  of  nations 
upon  this  region? 

THE  TRADE  OF  EUROPE  AND  THE 
MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD 

607.  Likeness  of  North  America  and 
Europe. — We  found  that  the  greatest  trade 
in  North  America  was  carried  on  between  the 
densely-peopled  factory  area  in  the  northeast, 
and  the  food  and  raw  material  areas  of  the 
north,  west,  and  south.  In  Europe  and  the 
Mediterranean  world  we  find  a similar  ex- 
change of  goods.  Where  are  the  raw  material 
areas?  (Figs.  319,  467.) 

608.  The  easy  routes  of  Europe. — Look  at 
the  maps  (Figs.  14,  319)  and  explain  why  it 


302 


EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REGIONS 


sage  to  Basra  near  the 
head  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Doubtless  a railroad  will 
some  day  go  on  from  Iraq 
(Mesopotamia)  to  India. 

From  London  a traveler 
going  eastward  may  take 
boat  for  Rotterdam.  From 
that  city  he  may  proceed  by 
train  to  Berlin,  and  at  Ber- 
lin three  main  routes  spread 
out:  one  northeastward  to 
Leningrad  (Petrograd)  and 
Finland;  one  southeast- 
ward to  Breslau  and  Odessa ; 
and  one  eastward  to  Moscow 
and  Siberia.  From  Moscow 
a line  goes  south  to  the  oil 
fields  of  Baku  at  the  eastern 

© Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y.  . . , , , 

Fig.  465.  The  harbor  of  Hamburg  showmg  ships,  harbor  boats,  river  enc*  ^ne  LaUCaSUS,  and 
boats,  and  warehouses  with  cranes  for  lifting  freight.  Name  three  cities  another  goes  through  Oren- 
(Fig.  385)  these  river  boats  may  serve.  burg,  past  the  shores  of  the 


is  easier  to  trade  in  Europe  than  it  is  in  North 
America.  Show  how  Europe  can  have  two 
sets  of  routes:  (1)  the  water  routes  for  heavy 
freight,  such  as  grain,  ore,  iron,  and  wood; 
and  (2)  the  railroads  for  express,  mail,  and 
passenger  traffic.  Why  are  several  nations 
anxious  to  control  the  straits  of  Gibraltar 
and  the  Bosporus? 

Except  in  Russia,  the  European  railroads 
run  many  fast  trains,  which  are  nearly  always 
on  time. 

609.  Travel  centers  and  connections. — 

The  greatest  European  railroad  centers  are 
London,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  Express  trains 
leave  London  and  connect  at  channel  ports 
with  boats  that  run  across  the  channel  like 
ferries,  taking  the  traveler  by  one  of  several 
routes  to  Paris.  From  Paris  the  traveler  may 
go  to  Madrid,  Marseille,  Geneva,  Rome,  and 
Naples;  or  he  may  take  the  Oriental  Express 
to  Vienna,  Belgrade,  Sofia,  and  Constanti- 
nople. Across  the  narrow  Bosporus  is  the 
great  terminal  station  that  was  built  by  the 
Germans  at  the  end  of  the  Bagdad  road.  On 
this  railroad  the  traveler  may  cross  part  of 
Turkey.  The  line  is  planned  to  reach  Bag- 
dad, where  he  may  take  steamboat  pas- 


Aral  Sea,  far  into  central  Asia.  The  main 
line  crosses  Siberia  to  Vladivostok,  and  when 
the  road  is  in  working  order  it  is  one  section 
of  the  quickest  route  around  the  world. 

610.  The  Mediterranean  and  the  Suez 
Canal.  — The  Mediterranean  and  its  arms 
make  a most  useful  natural  route,  but  men 
have  made  it  a still  greater  route  by  building 
the  Suez  Canal.  The  waters  of  the  Red  Sea 
came  so  close  to  the  Mediterranean  that 
men  carried  freight  across  the  narrow,  level, 
sandy  isthmus  for  several  thousand  years. 
Even  in  Pharaoh’s  time  a small  canal  was 
there,  but  it  became  filled  with  desert  sand. 
When  steamships  came  into  general  use, 
there  was  much  more  freight  to  be  carried 
across  from  one  sea  to  the  other.  Thousands 
of  camels  then  labored  back  and  forth 
shifting  cargo  from  Port  Said  to  Suez. 

When  the  French  engineer  De  Lesseps 
finished  the  Suez  Canal  through  the  desert 
isthmus,  he  enlivened  the  trade  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  Especially  did  he  wake 
up  the  cities  of  the  Mediterranean  and  South 
Europe.  Algiers,  Malta,  and  Port  Said 
became  great  coaling  stations.  So  did  Aden, 
although  it  is  in  a place  so  dry  that  even 


THE  TRADE  OF  EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  303 


After  0.  R.  J.  Howarth 

Fig.  467.  Map  showing,  in  a general  way,  the  occupations  of  men.  Why  are 
both  the  industrial  regions  in  the  same  latitude?  Can  you  find  points  of 
similarity  in  other  latitudes  all  over  the  world? 


the  drinking  water  must  be 
condensed  from  sea  water. 

The  traffic  through  the 
new  canal  built  up  Genoa, 
the  port  of  North  Italy 
and  Switzerland,  and  made 
Marseille  a greater  center 
for  the  trade  in  olive  oil, 
peanut  oil,  and  palm  oil. 

By  bringing  trade  to  Medi- 
terranean ports,  the  Suez 
Canal  helped  put  three  great 
tunnels  under  the  Alps.  Fast 
through  trains  now  ran  from 
France,  Germany,  and  Den- 
mark to  the  Italian  cities. 

611.  Ports  of  international  concern. — This 
region  has  a number  of  cities  called  “ Ports  of 
International  Concern.”  They  are  so  called 
because  the  League  of  Nations  has  been 
given  some  authority  over  their  trade,  so 
that  the  peoples  and  countries  near  by  may 
all  have  a fair  opportunity  for  trade.  Name 
these  cities.  (Fig.  325.) 

612.  Europe’s  needs. — Europe  has  a great 
trade  within  itself  and  with  the  other  parts 
of  the  Mediterranean  world,  but  it  has  so 
many  people  and  so  many  factories  that  it 
also  needs  other  continents  to  supply  food  and 
raw  materials  in  exchange  for  manufactures. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  American 
producers  find  in  Europe  a market  for  their 


wheat,  corn,  meat,  cotton,  oil,  and  lumber. 
We  shall  see  that  every  other  continent  that 
we  study  also  has  a great  trade  with  Europe; 
in  most  cases  a greater  trade  than  with  North 
America.  This  happens  because  Europe  has 
many  more  cities  and  more  people  than 
North  America  (Appendix),  and  conse- 
quently has  need  for  more  things. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  one  article  of  import  and  one  of  export 
from  each  country  of  Europe,  North  Africa,  and 
Southwest  Asia,  and  show  a place  where  you  think 
each  would  be  traveling  by  ship.  2.  Name  five  ports 
through  which  the  trade  of  the  plateaus  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Iran  should  pass.  3.  What  would  be  the  shortest 
way  you  might  travel  by  water  from  Marseille  to 
Paris?  4.  Why  is  the  control  of  Constantinople  of 
so  much  importance  to  all  the 
countries  of  Europe?  5.  What 
cities  would  export  and  import 
the  following:  cork,  olive  oil, 
figs,  manufactured  silk  goods, 
gloves,  fine  china,  carved  wood, 
and  Persian  rugs?  6.  Has  Swit- 
zerland a large  or  a small  foreign 
trade?  Why?  7.  What  coun- 
tries of  Europe  have  most  diffi- 
culties in  carrying  on  trade? 
Why?  8.  What  will  be  the 
return  cargo  in  boats  carrying 
cotton  to  Marseille?  coal  to 
Genoa?  meat  to  Lisbon?  9.  Plan 
a trip  to  visit  the  most  important 
places  of  the  British  Isles  and  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  starting 
from  Liverpool.  Consider  that 
your  time  and  money  are  limited. 
Trace  the  route  of  travel.  10. 
Which  are  the  great  manufactur- 
ing countries  of  Europe? 


Courtesy  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  466.  Port  Said  and  the  Suez  Canal,  which  links  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Red  seas.  Can  you  tell  what  route  ships  had  to  follow  before  this  canal 
was  cut?  Where  can  a ship  on  this  route  find  coaling  stations?  (Fig.  9.) 
Of  what  value  is  this  canal  to  Great  Britain?  to  the  United  States? 


OCCUPATIONS 
| Industrial 
Mired 

DEM]  Agriculture 

I-M  Pastoral 


Courtesy  The  Washington  Post 

Fig.  468.  The  city  of  Darjeeling,  a cool  summer  resort  on 
the  Himalaya  slopes,  Bengal,  India.  In  the  background,  a 
hundred  miles  away,  is  the  highest  mountain  peak  in.  the 
world,  Mt.  Everest,  29,002  feet. 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 

ASIA— THE  CONTINENT 


613.  Size. — Asia,  the  largest  of  continents, 
is  larger  than  Europe  and  Africa  together, 
or  than  North  and  South  America  combined. 
We  can  understand  its  size  better  if  we  look 
at  the  map  (Fig.  469).  On  the  map  Europe 
looks  like  just  a little  peninsula  stuck  to  the 
comer  of  Asia.  The  two  continents  are 
really  one  great  land  mass  which  is  some- 
times called  Eurasia.  The  mainland  of  Asia 
reaches  farther  north  than  that  of  any  other 
continent,  and  it  also  reaches  southward 
almost  to  the  equator. 

614.  Geographic  wonders. — Asia  has  every 
kind  of  land  to  be  found  in  the  world  and 
many  wonders  not  found  elsewhere:  (1)  the 
highest  mountains,  the  Himalayas;  (2)  the 
highest  plateau,  Tibet;  (3)  the  district  of 
greatest  rainfall,  where  the  warm  moist 
winds  from  the  Indian  Ocean  sweep  up 
against  the  south  slope  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains;  (4)  one  of  the  world’s  emptiest 


deserts,  the  great  Empty  Quarter  of  south- 
ern Arabia  (Sec.  582) ; (5)  the  longest  desert, 
which  extends  a distance  of  forty-five  hun- 
dred miles  from  Mecca  in  Arabia  almost  to 
Tsitsihar  in  Manchuria,  with  but  a few  small 
oases  to  break  the  almost  endless  waste; 
(6)  the  coldest  place  in  the  world,  which 
strange  to  say  is  not  at  the  north  pole,  but 
at  Verkhoyansk,  in  the  midst  of  the  continent 
near  the  arctic  circle,  east  of  the  Lena  River. 
(Fig.  329.)  Why  is  this  place  colder  than 
the  pole?  (Sec.  409.) 

615.  Fierce  animals. — Asia  has  the  largest 
of  wild  animals,  the  elephant,  and  the  most 
deadly  of  animals:  (1)  the  cobra  of  India, 
a snake  whose  bite  is  fatal,  and  (2)  a wild 
buffalo  which  lives  in  the  jungles  of  the 
Malay  peninsula  and  secretly  hunts  the 
hunter,  springing  on  him  from  the  thicket 
and  stamping  him  to  pieces. 

616.  Ancient  civilizations. — Asia  is  the  seat 


(304) 


Bering  Stx 


CM 


CO 


305 


M- 


10 


OXEJU12H 


o>||Ojjon  oq^uu^ABS 


©pnmtn 


0A!4.gJgdLUOQ 


JopEjqET 

jjj0q;nos 


8pn;mn 


>JJOA  M0fs|O 


0A;}\2JEdlUOO 


Fig,  469. 


O SEOEJEQ 


306 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


lands.  More  than  half  the 
people  of  the  world  live  in 
Asia.  The  islands  off  her 
shores  have  more  people  than 
has  the  United  States  or  all 
of  South  America.  India 
and  China  are  the  countries 
having  the  largest  popula- 
tions, while  China  proper 
is  the  most  densely  peopled 
of  all  large  countries.  No 
other  continent  has  so  many 
kinds  of  people.  India 
alone  has  as  many  kinds  of 
people  as  the  whole  of 
Europe,  and  Europe  has 
many  more  kinds  of  people 
than  North  America.  Asia 
has  great  numbers  of  men 
and  great  resources.  In 
the  future  she  may  rise 
again  to  great  power. 

618.  How  we  shall  study 
Asia. — We  have  already 
studied  large  parts  of  Asia, 

© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y.  , 

Fig.  470.  Indian  snake  charmers  with  cobras.  The  cobra  is  one  of  the  because  they  were  SO  much 


largest  and  deadliest  of  snakes. 

of  some  of  the  world’s  oldest  civilizations, 
most  of  which  have  fallen  into  decay.  We 
have  seen  how,  time  after  time  in  Mesopota- 
mia, one  great  empire  was  built  upon  the  ruins 
of  another.  The  same  thing  has  happened 
in  other  parts  of  Asia.  But  in  China  we  see 
a country  whose  civilization  has  continued 
century  after  century  since  thousands  of 
years  before  Christ.  No  other  country  has 
remained  so  little  changed  while  the  civil- 
izations of  western  Asia  and  of  Europe  have 
risen  and  fallen  again  and  again.  A Chinese 
student  in  an  American  university  was  asked 
a question  about  his  family.  He  began  his 
answer  by  saying,  “I  trace  my  family  his- 
tory four  thousand  years.” 

All  of  the  great  world  religions — Judaism, 
Christianity,  Mohammedanism,  Confucian- 
ism, Brahminism,  and  Buddhism — have  had 
their  beginnings  in  Asia. 

617.  Many  people. — Asia  is  a continent  of 
vast,  empty  spaces  and  of  painfully  crowded 


like  parts  of  Europe  and 
Africa  that  they  needed  to  be  studied  at  the 
same  time.  Now  we  shall  begin  at  the  north- 
ernmost region  and  pass  southward,  seeing 
how  climate  and  surface  divide  the  greatest 
of  continents  into  regions  that  differ  greatly 
from  each  other. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  12  ways  in  which  Asia  stands  out  promi- 
nently in  comparison  with  the  other  grand  divisions. 
2.  Name  the  plateaus  of  Asia;  the  plains;  the  penin- 
sulas; seas,  gulfs,  and  bays;  deserts,  and  the  largest 
islands.  3.  How  many  things  can  you  name  that 
you  eat,  drink,  wear,  or  have  in  your  neighborhood 
that  may  have  come  from  Asia?  Can  you  tell  why 
and  how  they  came? 

4.  What  countries  in  Asia  would  you  like  to  visit? 
Why?  5.  Are  there  any  you  would  prefer  not  to 
visit?  Why?  6.  How  would  you  go  to  Asia  from 
a place  in  central  Europe?  from  London?  7.  Com- 
pare the  size  of  the  desert  area  of  Asia  with  the 
Sahara. 

8.  How  can  you  account  for  ancient  civilizations 
being  connected  with  a continent  which  has  so  many 
desolate,  unexplored  regions?  9.  Why  is  there  so 
little  general  knowledge  of  Asia’s  wonders  compared 
with  the  knowledge  regarding  Europe? 


2 


3 


4 


5 


307 


i! 


Fig.  471. 


308 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  472.  A Japanese  priest  in  native  costume  of  silken 
robes.  A famous  volcano  is  in  the  background. 

THE  ASIATIC  TUNDRA 

619.  Likeness  of  Europe  and  Asia. — Some 
belts  of  territory  in  Europe  go  on  without  a 
break  into  Asia. 

The  tundra  that  reaches  across  the  vast 
length  of  cold  Siberia  is  the  same  kind  of 
tundra  that  we  found  in  Russia.  (Sec.  488.) 
The  only  difference  is  that  it  is  colder  in 
winter  and  warmer  in  summer,  because  it  is 
farther  from  the  Atlantic.  (Sec.  409,  Figs. 
328,  329.)  It  has  the  same  reindeer,  tended 
by  various  wandering  Mongolian  tribes,  peo- 
ple much  like  the  Lapps  (Fig.  393)  and  the 
Eskimos  (Sec.  357).  The  Tunguses  are  one  of 
these  peoples,  and  they  show  that  a pleasant 
land  is  not  necessary  to  make  pleasant  people. 
A traveler  says:  "All  observers  speak  in 
enthusiastic  language  of  the  temperament 
and  moral  qualities  of  the  Tunguses.  . . . 
Full  of  animation  . . . always  cheerful  even 
in  the  deepest  misery,  holding  themselves 
and  others  in  like  respect,  of  gentle  manners 
and  poetic  speech,  obliging  without  servility, 


unaffectedly  proud,  scorning  falsehood,  and 
indifferent  to  suffering  and  death — the  Tun- 
guses are  unquestionably  an  heroic  people.” 

620.  Government  in  the  tundra. — This 
region  is  marked  on  the  maps  as  belonging  to 
Russia,  but  really  the  Russian  Government  has 
little  to  do  with  it.  These  people  are  so  far 
away  and  so  few  in  number  and  so  constantly 
on  the  move  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
rule  them.  They  are  living  as  they  have  been 
living  for  ages,  except  for  the  great  help  they 
receive  from  an  occasional  sledgeload  of 
rifles,  knives,  needles,  and  trinkets  that 
comes  through  hundreds  of  miles  of  forest  to 
the  south  of  them,  in  exchange  for  their  furs 
and  skins. 

621.  The  future  of  this  region  will  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  European  tundra.  If  you 
look  at  the  map  you  can  see  that  it  is  larger  by 
far  than  England,  France,  and  Italy  together. 
As  long  as  its  resources  are  only  moss  and 
grass,  it  can  export  nothing  but  skins  and 
perhaps  reindeer  meat.  If  oil  or  gold  should 
be  found,  conditions  might  change  while 
the  mineral  lasted.  (Sec.  491.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  which  continent  is  there  more  land  within  the 
Arctic  Circle:  Europe,  North  America,  or  Asia? 

2.  Which  does  the  climate  of  this  region  more  resemble: 
that  of  the  Arctic  region  of  North  America,  or  of 
Europe?  Why?  (Sec.  409.) 

3.  Would  the  discovery  of  gold  bring  a permanent 
population  to  the  Asiatic  tundra?  Why? 

4.  Compare  the  Mongolian  tribes  of  this  region  with 
the  Lapps  of  the  European  tundra,  from  these  stand- 
points: homes;  occupation;  food;  government. 

THE  TAIGA,  OR  GREAT  EVERGREEN 
FOREST  OF  SIBERIA 

622.  The  world’s  largest  forest. — The 
northern  forest  belt  of  Asia — called  the  Taiga 
— stretches  eastward  from  the  Urals,  on 
and  on  and  on,  like  an  evergreen  sea,  all  the 
way  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and  the  Bering 
Sea.  It  is  unbroken  save  for  a few  mountain 
ranges  whose  heights  extend  above  the  timber 
line.  The  Taiga  is  as  large  as  the  entire 
United  States.  Its  nearest  rival  in  size  is  the 
Great  Northern  Forest  of  North  America, 
which,  like  the  Eurasian  Forest,  lies  between 
the  tundra  on  the  north  and  the  land  of  wheat 


THE  TAIGA,  OR  GREAT  EVERGREEN  FOREST 


309 


and  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  potatoes  on  the 
south. 

This  cold  Siberian  forest,  like  the  cold 
American  forest  (Sec.  348),  is  a vast  expanse  of 
evergreen,  buzzing  with  mosquitoes  in  sum- 
mer, and  blanketed  with  snow  for  the  many 
months  of  the  long,  cold  winter.  As  in 
America,  the  wolf,  the  bear,  and  the  fur 
hunter  roam  over  its  vast  area.  Like  the 
American  forest,  it  was  scraped  and  dug  by 
glaciers,  and  made  rough  and  swampy.  But 
in  the  winter  it  becomes  smooth  and  level 
because  the  snow  covers  the  roughness. 
Snow  has  always  been  a help  to  the  lumber- 
men of  the  north  woods  and  to  the  fur  hunter 
traveling  on  snowshoes.  Look  at  the  tem- 
perature maps  (Figs.  328,  329).  What 
are  the  January  temperature  and  the  July 
temperature  east  of  the  Lena  Valley?  What 
is  the  difference  between  the  two  months?  Is 
there  any  other  place  with  as  much  difference 
between  winter  and  summer  temperature? 
What  is  the  difference  where  you  live? 

623.  A little-used  land.— 

The  Siberian  forest  has  no 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  no  Gulf  of 
Finland,  and  no  White  Sea, 
to  which  ships  may  come  in 
summer  to  carry  away 
wood.  The  Arctic  ice  pack 
is  jammed  against  the  Siber- 
ian coast  for  most  of  its  great 
length,  and  the  trading  ship 
comes  not  to  such  a place. 

On  the  southern  edge  of  the 
forest  some  lumber  is  cut 
for  the  Russian  farmers  of 
central  Siberia,  but  most  of 
this  forest,  like  the  Great 
North  Woods  of  America, 
lies  as  a vast  reserve, 
awaiting  the  time  when 
man  can  use  it, — if  it  is  not 
burned  before  that  time. 

624.  Useless  rivers. — 

It  is  a great  misfortune 
that  the  Siberian  rivers, 
those  great  log  carriers  of 
forest  regions,  flow  north 
toward  the  land  of  ice  and 


polar  bears  instead  of  south  toward  the  land 
inhabited  by  man.  In  which  part  of  such  a 
stream  does  the  ice  break  up  first  in  summer? 
The  loose  ice,  floating  north,  finally  jams 
against  the  tightly  frozen  ice  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  streams  and  forms  great  ice  dams, 
which  cause  the  rivers  to  overflow  during  the 
spring  and  summer,  and  thus  to  flood  large 
areas  of  forest  and  tundra. 

625.  Minerals. — The  south  central  part  of 
this  region  has  coal,  and  in  an  area  of  such 
great  size,  of  which  so  little  is  known,  we  may 
expect  discoveries  of  valuable  metals.  The 
southern  and  eastern  parts  have  rocks  that 
give  promise  of  many  mines.  Much  gold 
has  already  been  mined  on  the  upper  Lena. 
If  the  ore  is  rich  enough  it  can  be  mined 
anywhere  in  the  forest  or  tundra,  for  now 
we  know  how  to  build  railroads  to  such  places. 

626.  The  forest  fire — a world  problem.— 
The  minerals  will  wait  for  men  to  find  them, 
but  fire  often  runs  ahead  of  the  lumberman 
and  eats  up  the  forests.  This  gives  us 


Fig.  473.  Annual  rainfall  map  of  Asia,  a continent  of  little  rain, 
most  of  Asia  receive  heavy  rainfall  or  light  rainfall? 


Does 


II 


Fig.  474. 


Fig.  474. 


312 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  475.  Flour  mill  on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Is  there  any  other 
wheat  region  from  which  it  costs  so  much  to  get  flour  to  Loudon? 


one  of  the  hardest  problems  we  have, — 
to  live  in  this  world  and  leave  it  as  good 
as  we  found  it.  If  we  remove  the  trees 
and  grow  food  on  all  the  good  farming  land 
we  must  take  great  care  to  keep  forests  pro- 
ducing lumber  on  the  land  we  do  not  want 
for  farms.  Nature  takes  two  centuries  to 
make  some  trees.  A lumberman  can  cut  a 
tree  down  in  a few  minutes.  If  forest  fires 
occur,  they  may  kill,  in  a few  minutes,  the 
forest  that  took  two  centuries  to  grow.  So 
much  damage  of  this  kind  has  been  done  in  a 
very  short  time  that  even  Pennsylvania,  a 
state,  most  of  which  should  be  forest  (Sec. 
293),  is  not  able  to  furnish  as  much  lumber  as 
is  used  in  the  Pittsburgh  district  alone. 
The  world  will  soon  be  facing  a lumber 
famine,  largely  because  of  forest  fires. 

Every  one  needs  wood  in  many  forms,  and 
the  world  will  soon  need  the  lumber  of  the 
great  northern  forests  of  America  and  Eurasia. 
Can  these  world  resources  be  saved  and  used, 
or  must  they,  too,  burn?  It  will  take  work 
to  save  them.  This  is  one  of  the  many  big 
problems  that  world  trade  has  produced. 
Man  must  solve  the  problem  of  threatened 
lumber  famine  or  his  children  will  feel  the 
keen,  sharp  want  of  wood.  We  must  find 
some  new  ways  of  doing  things  so  that  the 
lumber-using  farmers  on  the  plains  of  Illinois, 
the  plains  of  the  Po,  and  the  Dutch  meadows, 

can  join  with  their  lumber-using  city  brothers 
ii 


in  the  skyscrapers  of  New 
York,  London,  Paris,  and 
Rome  to  help  keep  the 
fires  out  of  the  forests  of 
Siberia,  Russia,  Canada, 
Alaska,  the  Appalachians, 
and  the  Rockies. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  Taiga  set  apart 
as  a distinct  region?  2.  It  might 
be  said  that  In  this  region 
Nature  has  built  a great  store- 
house of  wood,  and  thrown  away 
the  key.  Why?  3.  What  kind 
of  trees  would  you  expect  to 
find  here?  4.  What  common 
interest  has  all  the  world  in 
this  region? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the 
timber  line?  Is  it  higher  or  lower  in  this  region  than 
in  the  Himalaya  Mountains?  Explain.  6.  What  are 
the  possible  exports  from  Okhotsk. 

7.  Describe  a scene  in  this  region  as  it  is  to-day. 
Imagine  one  fifty  years  hence,  if  railroads  in  that  time 
have  been  extended  generally  throughout  the  region. 
8.  How  many  of  man’s  uses  for  wood  can  you  name? 
Can  you  suggest  any  substitutes  for  wood? 

SIBERIAN  WHEAT  BELT 

627.  Location  and  bounds. — In  Canada,  a 
wide  wheat  belt  lies  to  the  south  of  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  great  northern  forest.  In 
Siberia,  also,  a wheat  belt  lies  south  of  the 
Taiga.  On  its  southern  edge,  where  there  is 
less  rain,  and  greater  heat  and  evaporation 
than  farther  north,  it  is  too  dry  for  grain  to 
grow,  and  the  farming  region  gives  way  to 
pasture  lands,  as  in  our  own  Great  Plains 
(Sec.  105). 

How  wide  is  the  Siberian  Wheat  Region? 
We  do  not  know  just  where  its  boundaries 
will  finally  be,  because  men  do  not  yet  know 
how  far  south  on  the  dry  steppes  men  can 
learn  to  grow  wheat,  nor  how  far  north  in 
the  land  of  forest  and  frost  men  can  learn 
to  grow  wheat.  (Compare  with  Canada, 
Sec.  91.)  To  the  eastward,  the  region  ends 
at  the  highlands  near  Lake  Baikal.  On  the 
west,  the  unbroken  plain  extends  into  the 
plain  of  east  Europe. 

About  the  time  that  the  Americans  were 
building  the  later  transcontinental  railroads 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Russians 


SIBERIAN  WHEAT  BELT 


313 


Courtesy  American  Red  Cross 

Fig.  476  A water  tower  and  station  on  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  in  the 
edge  of  the  forest  country.  What  change  in  daily  living  did  this  road  make? 


were  building  the  trans- 
Siberian  line  through  the  flat 
lands  of  the  wheat  belt,  and 
across  the  mountains  beyond 
Lake  Baikal  and  on  to  the 
Pacific  at  Vladivostok.  Then 
came  the  Russian  peasant 
farmer  to  settle  this  fine 
wheat  country,  just  as  the 
American  and  Canadian  set 
tiers  were  doing  in  Dakota, 

Manitoba,  and  Saskatchewan. 

The  two  regions,  each  in  the 
middle  of  its  continent,  are, 
indeed,  very  much  alike  in  soil, 
in  climate,  in  the  appearance  of  the  country, 
and  in  the  kinds  of  crops  that  men  grow  there. 

628.  Surface  and  soil. — Flat,  flat,  very  flat 
is  the  land,  and  very  black  and  very  rich  is 
the  soil  of  central  Siberia.  Day  after  day  the 
train  will  carry  you  through  flat,  black  land, 
past  villages  of  one-story  houses  built  of 
wood  brought  by  rail  from  the  Taiga.  There, 
also,  are  the  sod  houses  which  serve  as  homes 
for  the  newest  settlers.  (Fig.  96,  Secs.  93, 95.) 

629.  Climate  and  agriculture. — The  winter 
is  cold,  with  months  of  freezing  days  without 
a single  thaw.  Not  much  snow  falls,  but  there 
is  enough  for  sleighs  and  sleds.  With  horses 
galloping  across  the  bitterly  cold  plains, 
farmers  can  haul  their  grain  and  frozen  meat 
many  miles  to  market.  The  summer,  like  that 
of  the  Northern  Wheat  Belt  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  has  light  rain  which  just 
suits  spring  wheat.  This  land  can  also  pro- 
ducerye,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  beets,  and  hay. 
At  the  northern  edge  there  is  less  evaporation, 
so  that  the  scanty  rain  makes  moisture 
enough  to  support  the  forest.  In  some  places 
the  settler  must  clear  away  the  forest  to  get 
a field,  as  settlers  do  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  wheat  region  of  western  Canada. 

What  shall  the  new  settlers  in  this  region 
sell?  It  is  a very  long  way  to  the  markets  in 
western  Europe.  The  freight  rate  must  be 
high,  so  the  settler  must  sell  small  valuable 
things  like  butter,  eggs,  and  wheat;  not 
bulky  cheap  things  like  potatoes  and  oats. 
The  people  of  western  Siberia  sent  for  Danes 


to  come  and  teach  them  how  to  make  good 
butter,  which,  before  the  World  War,  used  to 
go  by  carloads  to  the  Baltic  ports  for  ship- 
ment to  England.  The  Danes  also  showed 
the  farmers  how  to  work  together  and 
run  cooperative  dairies.  Siberian  coopera- 
tive societies  were  among  the  best  in  the 
world  at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War. 

630.  Future. — Siberia  is  one  of  the  world’s 
great  grain  reserves,  but  it  would  be  more 
useful  if  its  several  navigable  rivers  (Fig.  529) 
gave  outlet  to  the  Indian  Ocean  rather 
than  to  the  Arctic.  But  the  Arctic  is  not 
without  hope.  In  1919,  a Swedish  ship 
made  the  two-thousand-mile  journey  from 
Gottenborg,  through  the  Kara  Sea,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ob  River,  and  traded  her 
cargo  of  manufactures  for  a cargo  of  farm 
produce  that  had  been  brought  down  in 
boats,  through  the  forest  district,  from  the 
Siberian  Wheat  Belt.  Some  people  think 
that  ships  may  visit  this  place  regularly 
between  July  and  October.  If  so,  it  will  be 
a great  boon  to  Siberia  and  to  the  entire 
commercial  world. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  reason  for  the 
growth  of  cities  (Sec.  321),  we  can  tell  that 
this  region  will  not  have  a big  city  like 
Chicago.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railroad  and 
others  not  yet  built  will  help  the  boat  traffic 
of  the  rivers  to  build  up  a number  of  small 
cities. 

We  do  not  know  how  valuable  this  grain 
country  may  finally  be  to  the  world.  We  do 


11-16 


314 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 

Fig.  477.  The  ancient  Steppes,  the  ancient  dry-land  beast  of  burden,  and  a 
mower  from  America.  Of  what  are  the  traces  made?  Would  the  harness 

fit  a horse? 

not  know  how  big  it  is;  but  certainly  it  is 
longer  than  our  Great  Plains  between  Mexico 
and  Canada;  and  certainly  it  is  wider.  It  is 
a place  of  enormous  possibility,  once  it  is  all 
used,  and,  as  in  Canada  (Sec.  91),  new  crops 
and  new  methods,  especially  the  use  of  the 
tractor,  may  cause  its  extension  both  north- 
ward and  southward. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  The  Wheat  Region  of  Siberia  is  larger  than  the 
Great  Plains  of  the  United  States.  Then  why  is 
Siberia  not  a leading  wheat-exporting  country?  Why 
is  spring  wheat  raised  here?  2.  Compare  a wheat 
harvest  scene  here  with  one  in  Kansas  under  the 
following  topics:  Time  of  year;  Appearance  of  har- 
vesters; Farming  implements.  Is  there  a part  of 
Fig.  477  that  might  have  been  taken  in  Kansas? 

3.  Compare  the  cities  of  this  region  with  those  in  the 
Red  River  region  of  North  America.  Compare 
transportation  facilities. 

4.  What  characteristic  has  this  region  that  would 
lend  itself  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat  with 
modern  tractors  and  harvesters?  5.  Do  you  think 
the  wheat  here  is  shipped  as  grain,  or  as  flour?  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer. 

6.  What  would  encourage  the  amount  of  produc- 
tion of  wheat  per  acre?  What  would  cause  an  exten- 
sion of  the  wheat  area?  7.  Why  is  there  so  little  snow 
in  this  region?  8.  In  what  way  should  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railroad  help  famine  in  China?  9.  What 
commodities  could  be  exchanged  between  Omsk  and 
Obdorsk  on  the  Ob?  Omsk  and  Tashkend?  10.  Take 
two  journeys  from  southwest  Siberia  to  western 
Europe,  one  north  by  sea  to  Sweden;  one  west  by  rail 
to  Paris.  (Figs.  474  and  319.)  11.  Name  countries 

and  rivers  crossed,  and  the  Siberian  products  these 
countries  buy.  12.  What  cargo  goes  back  to  Siberia? 


EURASIAN  STEPPES 
AND  DESERTS 
631.  A dry,  flat  land. — 

Europe’s  dry  district  is  near 
the  Caspian  Sea  (Sec.  462). 
It  is  called  the  Steppes, 
and  extends  far  into  Asia. 
Steppe  is  the  European 
word  for  a flat  plain  with 
scanty  grass.  How  long 
is  the  region  of  the  Eura- 
sian Steppes?  (Fig.  474.) 

In  this  land  of  dry  flat- 
ness, a little  rain  falls  in 
summer.  Fortunately  it 
comes  at  a time  when  it 
can  do  the  most  good  by 
making  grass  grow,  giving 
a pasture-land  that  is  like  parts  of  our  Great 
Plains.  Other  sections  are  like  parts  of  our 
Great  Basin.  Some  parts  are  salty  plains; 
some  are  sandy  desert.  The  three  bodies  of 
water  in  the  Steppe  region  are  all  salty,  like 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  lakes  of 
Nevada.  (Sec.  137.) 

632.  Three  nomad  races. — In  such  a land 
of  scanty  grass  and  little  water,  the  people 
must  be  nomads  (Sec.  576).  They  are  rich 


Photo.  Ellsworth  Huntington 

■.  Kirghiz  milking  a sheep.  These  people 
also  get  milk  from  mares  and  camels. 


EURASIAN  STEPPES  AND  DESERTS 


315 


in  horses,  sheep,  donkeys,  and  camels.  The 
camel  in  this  dry  land  (the  Bactrian  camel) 
has  two  humps,  and  the  desert  sheep  have 
humps  of  fat  on  their  backs  or  on  their  tails 
(Fig.  480).  The  people  live  in  thick  felt  tents, 
wear  coats  and  caps  of  sheepskin,  and  have 
piles  of  wool  blankets  to  keep  themselves 
warm  in  the  bitter  cold  winter.  There  is 
little  snow,  so  the  animals  can  pick  their 
living  in  winter  as  they  do  on  parts  of  the 
Great  Plains  of  the  United  States. 

A nomad  people  called  Kirghiz  live  with 
their  flocks  and  herds  in  the  central,  northern, 
and  eastern  parts  of  this  region.  They  claim 
to  be  descended  from  Japheth,  the  third  son 
of  Noah. 

In  the  corner  of  the  region  between  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  Persia  are  the  Turkomans, 
who  live  much  as  the  Kirghiz  do.  It  was 
their  brothers,  the  Turks,  who  swarmed 
across  the  plateau  of  Iran  nearly  seven 
hundred  years  ago,  bringing  great  sadness  to 
the  lands  they  conquered. 

The  country  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is 
the  homeland  of  the  Cossacks,  who  are  such 
wonderful  horsemen.  Their  great  sports  are 
horseback  tricks,  such  as  riding  three  horses 
at  once,  jumping  or  even  somersaulting  off 
of  a horse  as  it  goes  at  a full  run,  and  jumping 
back  on  it  again  while  it  still  runs  at  full 
speed.  These  people  can  do  the  riding  tricks 
of  the  circus  performer.  For  generations 
they  have  been  cavalrymen  in  the  Russian 
armies  and  are  greatly  feared. 

633.  The  Caspian  Sea  fisheries. — The  great 
River  Volga  flows  through  the  arid  land  of 
the  Cossack  country  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Not  long  ago,  as  geologists  count  time,  the 
Caspian  was  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
At  that  time  it  was  supplied  with  seals  and 
a great  sea  fish  called  the  sturgeon.  The  seals 
and  sturgeon  still  live  there,  and  the  sturgeon 
fisheries  of  the  Caspian  and  the  Volga  have 
long  been  the  greatest  in  the  world. 

634.  Irrigation  and  cities. — Name  some 
rivers  that  flow  into  this  plain  from  the 
Asian  mountains.  They  bring  enough  water 
from  the  mountains  to  irrigate  rich  valleys. 
Here  oasis  cities  have  arisen  in  the  midst  of 


Photo.  Ellsworth  Huntington 

Fig.  479.  Kirghiz  costumes,  and  house  of  felt  on  frame 
of  poles  and  reeds  brought  from  some  distant  stream. 

gardens  such  as  those  in  the  irrigated  lands  of 
Arizona  and  Nevada.  (Sec.  139.)  There  are 
Tashkend,  Khiva,  Samarkand,  and  other 
cities.  They  are  all  ages  old,  older  by  far  than 
London,  Paris,  or  Rome.  Perhaps  they  belong 
to  the  time  of  Babylon  and  the  pyramids. 

635.  Conquest  and  emigration. — Such  fertile 
spots  in  a nomads’  land  have  always  been 
great  temptations  to  hungry  rovers.  Nomad 
conquerors  have  often  ruled  these  cities. 
The  people  from  the  central  plain  of  western 
Asia  and  eastern  Europe,  seeking  homes  or 
booty  in  better  lands,  have  for  ages  been  a 
terror  to  all  farmlands  within  their  reach. 
These  migrating  bands  fought  fiercely  for 
the  land  they  wanted.  Many  times  have 
they  forced  their  way  into  Europe,  Persia, 
and  India.  To  keep  out  these  home  seekers, 
the  Chinese  finally  built  a great  stone  wall, 
longer  than  the  railroad  from  Boston  to  Chi- 
cago. We  can  still  see  it  (Fig.  474)  reaching 
over  hills,  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains. 
It  is  wide  enough  on  top  for  a wagon  road. 
Night  and  day,  year  in  and  year  out,  for 


316 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Photo.  J.  Russell  Smith 

Fig.  480.  This  sheep  of  the  desert’s  edge  stores  fat 
in  his  broad  tail  as  the  camel  does  in  his  hump.  Fat 
sheep  tails  are  of  several  shapes. 

several  centuries,  the  Chinese  armies  watched 
from  the  top  of  that  great  wall. 

636.  Russian  conquest  and  the  railroad. — 
After  railroads  made  traveling  easier,  the 
Russian  Empire  conquered  all  this  country. 
About  1880  a Russian  railroad  was  built  con- 
necting Tashkend,  Samarkand,  and  Merv 
with  the  steamboats  on  the  Caspian.  Later 
a more  direct  line  was  built  from  Orenburg, 
on  the  Ural,  to  Tashkend. 

The  railroad  made  a great  and  sudden 
change  in  trade.  For  hundreds  and  thou- 
sands of  years  these  towns  had  sent  light 
things,  such  as  wool,  skins,  handmade  rugs, 
and  silks,  by  caravan  to 
Bagdad,  Constantinople, 
and  Nizhni  Novgorod. 

Then  came  the  railroad 
and  made  it  possible  to 
ship  heavy  things  too.  In 
a short  time  the  oasis 
orchards  began  to  supply 
Russia  with  dried  apricots, 
and  with  cotton,  which 
grows  here  in  the  hot  sum- 
mer, as  it  does  in  Arizona. 

637.  Future. — There  can 
be  no  great  increase  of 
population  in  this  region, 
except  by  irrigating  more 
land . The  grasslands  have 
been  fully  used  for  ages. 


Rice,  silk,  fruit,  corn,  and  the  splendid 
gardens  of  the  oases  are  using  all  the  water 
that  is  now  to  be  had.  Fortunately,  reser- 
voirs may  be  built  in  the  mountains  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  as  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the 
United  States.  These  will  enable  flood  waters, 
now  wasted,  to  feed  millions  of  men. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  herding  the  chief  industry  of  the  Eurasian 
Steppes?  Tell  five  ways  in  which  sheep  are  useful 
to  the  nomads.  2.  What  is  there  about  this  land  that 
resembles  our  Great  Basin?  Tell  how  the  people  and 
animals  of  the  Eurasian  region  differ  from  ours.  3. 
What  is  unusual  about  cotton  and  seals  being  found 
in  the  same  locality? 

4.  Point  out  a resemblance  in  the  development  of 
the  dried  fruit  business  in  California  and  in  central 
Asia  after  the  railroads  came.  5.  Why  do  the  Russian 
Cossacks  make  excellent  cavalrymen?  6.  Why  does 
Moscow  want  the  oasis  cotton?  7.  Trace  the  journey 
by  rail  from  Tashkend  to  Moscow.  Through  what 
continents,  countries,  and  regions  do  you  pass?  How 
much  of  the  journey  from  Tashkend  to  Nizhni  Novgo- 
rod can  you  take  by  water?  8.  What  is  sent  to 
Nizhni  Novgorod?  What  is  brought  back? 

9.  Compare  the  prospects  of  this  region  with  those 
of  Nevada  and  Arizona.  10.  If  you  were  elected  to 
govern  this  region,  what  would  you  do  to  improve  it9 

THE  HIGH,  DRY  PLATEAUS  AND 
MOUNTAINS  OF  CENTRAL  ASIA 

638.  A high,  dry,  and  vast  region. — In  the 
very  center  of  Asia,  shut  in  by  mountains, 
is  one  of  the  large  regions  of  the  world, 
almost  as  large  as  the  United  States.  It  is 
little  known  because  it  is  little  used.  It 


Courtesy  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  N.  Y 
Fig.  481.  Two  yak  picking  a living  in  the  snow  of  a high  Asian  plateau 
Why  should  they  have  very  long  hair  under  their  bodies? 


HIGH,  DRY  PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAINS  OF  CENTRAL  ASIA  317 


Courtesy  Trans-Pacific  Magazine,  Tokyo 

Fig.  482.  Caravan  of  camels  with  their  hales  of  carpet  wool  resting  in 
Hatumen  Street,  Peking.  Where  did  this  wool  grow?  Where  may  it  be 
made  into  carpet?  (Sec.  266.) 


is  little  used  because  it 
has  little  that  man  can 
use — it  is  so  high,  so  cold, 
so  dry,  so  hot,  and  so 
hard  to  reach.  Geogra- 
phers usually  speak  of  it 
under  the  names  of  its  four 
parts:  Tibet,  Sin  Kiang  (or 
Eastern  Turkestan) , Mon- 
golia, and  Afghanistan. 

639.  Tibet. — A few  years 
ago  an  Englishman  with 
his  camel  train  left  Srina- 
gar in  the  province  of 
Kashmir  in  northern  India 
for  an  exploring  trip  across 
Tibet.  Traveling  was  so 
difficult  that  it  took  him 
eighty  days  to  reach  Kho- 
tan  in  Sin  Kiang.  How  far 
is  it?  The  journey  took  him  across  the  north- 
western comer  of  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  the 
highest  plateau  in  the  world.  Large  areas  of 
it  are  higher  than  Pikes  Peak  or  the  top  of 
the  Alps.  As  the  plateau  is  shut  in  on  the 
south  by  the  still  higher  walls  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  the  winds  from  the  ocean  cannot 
bring  much  rain  to  Tibet  and  the  other  Central 
Asia  plateaus.  Therefore  the  region  is  dry. 
Because  it  is  very  high,  it  is  cool  in  summer, 
and  in  winter  so  very  cold  and  snowy  that 
much  of  it  is  quite  impassable. 

Perhaps  you  see  now  why  the  Tibetans 
have  been  able  to  keep  nearly  all  strangers 
out  and  to  keep  their  country  to  themselves 
like  a little  closed  world.  You  can  also  see 
why  Tibet  is  sparsely  peopled  and  by  shep- 
herds only,  except  for  a few  towns  in  valleys 
where  snow  water  permits  irrigation. 

The  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  highest  in 
the  world,  are  little  known  because  traveling 
there  is  almost  impossible,  and  because  the 
natives  have  not  wanted  white  men  to  go 
there.  Until  1921  no  white  man  had  ever 
been  within  sixty  miles  of  Mt.  Everest,  the 
highest  peak  in  the  world.  In  1921  the 
greatest  mountain-climbing  expedition  ever 
seen  set  out  from  London  for  a two  years’ 
campaign  to  find  a path  to  Everest  and  if 


possible,  to  climb  it.  Can  you  tell  something 
about  this  expedition? 

640.  Turkestan  and  Mongolia. — The  pla- 
teaus of  Turkestan  and  Mongolia  are  not  so 
high  as  that  of  Tibet,  but  they  are  much 
drier  and  most  of  their  surface  is  desert. 
These  wide,  dry  plateaus  of  Central  Asia 
are  so  difficult  to  cross  that  they  keep  peoples 
apart.  A journey  from  Samarkand  in 
Russian  (western)  Turkestan  to  Peking  in 
China  is  longer  than  a journey  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco.  Take  the  map 
(Fig.  474)  and  trace  out  the  route.  From 
Kashgar  to  Kami  the  camels  must  follow 
the  base  of  the  high  Tianshan  Mountains. 
Small  streams,  fed  by  melting  snow,  run 
down  to  the  edge  of  the  plain  and  furnish 
drinking  water,  a little  pasture,  and  perhaps 
a few  irrigated  gardens,  making  a string  of 
little  oases  at  the  edge  of  the  great,  dead 
desert  of  the  Tarim  basin.  Trace  a caravan 
route  from  Peking  across  Mongolia.  (Fig.529.) 

641.  The  nomad  shepherds. — A few  nom- 
ads with  sheep,  goats,  and  camels  get  only 
a scanty  living  on  this  high,  dry  world, 
that  is  hot  in  summer  and  bitter  cold  in 
winter.  They  know  the  water-holes  and 
mountain  pastures,  and  they  believe  it 
brings  bad  luck  to  plow  the  ground.  By 


318 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  483.  A Korean  valley.  How  many  villages  do  you  see?  What  do  you 
notice  about  the  plan  of  the  houses? 


caravan  they  send  out  bales  of  wool,  and 
skins  from  their  flocks  and  from  the  wild  deer, 
antelope,  and  other  animals  that  they  hunt. 

China  claims  to  rule  Mongolia,  Sin  Kiang 
(or  Eastern  Turkestan),  and  Tibet.  China 
has  governors  in  such  towns  as  Kashgar  and 
Hami,  but  most  of  the  people  are  nomads  and 
rule  themselves,  because  the  governors  in  an 
oasis  town  do  not  know  where  the  nomads 
may  be  at  any  particular  time  because  they 
are  constantly  on  the  move. 

642.  Afghanistan  is  not  as  high  as  Tibet, 
and  a railroad  might  be  built  through  the 
country  from  the  plains  of  Central  Asia  to 
the  plains  of  India  without  much  difficulty. 
Before  the  World  War  there  was  a jealous 
fear  between  Russia  and  England  that  an 
army  might  follow  such  a route.  Neither 
nation  was  willing  to  have  the  armies  or  rail- 
roads of  the  other  enter  Afghanistan,  so  both 
nations  left  Afghanistan  as  a kind  of  no-man’s- 
land.  Its  ruler,  a tyrannical  despot  called 
the  Amir,  has  but  little  authority  over  some 
of  the  wild  tribes  that  live  in  the  high 
mountain  pastures,  the  little  irrigated  val- 
leys, and  the  dry  plains  that  are  so  hot  in 
summer  and  so  cold  in  winter. 

643.  Future. — Afghanistan,  Tibet,  Sin 

Kiang,  and  Mongolia  are  nearly  as  large 


as  the  United  States,  but 
have  few  men  in  their 
wide  spaces.  With  no 
large  streams  for  irriga- 
tion, this  land  will  continue 
in  the  future  in  much  the 
same  condition  as  at  pres- 
ent, except  where  valuable: 
minerals  may  be  discov- 
ered. In  that  case  rail- 
roads may  be  built  and1 
mining  towns  may  spring 
up  as  quickly  as  they  have 
done  in  Nevada.  (Sec. 
141.)  Already  much  gold 
and  copper  have  been  pro- 
duced on  the  Siberian  side 
of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
which  form  a part  of 
the  great  mountain  wall 
along  the  northwestern  edge  of  the  region. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  50  or  60  days  you  can  travel  around  the  world 
by  crossing  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  United  States.  Why 
did  it  take  nearly  three  months  crossing  one  corner  of 
Tibet  to  reach  Sin  Kiang?  2.  If  there  were  no  Him- 
alaya Mountains,  what  kind  of  a region  would  this  be? 
3.  Why  is  there  so  much  interest  among  explorers  in 
regard  to  this  region?  4.  Why  is  there  more  interest 
in  exploring  Tibet  than  the  other  plateaus?  5.  Tell 
some  of  the  dangers  and  some  of  the  pleasures  of 
travel  in  Tibet. 

6.  Would  there  be  much  freight  on  a railroad  from 
the  Yangtze  to  the  Caspian?  7.  Account  for  the 
many  camels  seen  in  the  city  of  Peking.  8.  Do> 
the  Chinese  have  camels?  Why? 

9.  Name  the  plateaus  of  this  region,  and  tell  of 
what  country  each  forms  a part.  Make  them  of  sand 
or  clay.  With  strings  show  the  caravan  routes.  Make 
the  camels  in  clay.  With  what  exports  should  they 
be  laden?  10.  Where  will  you  put  the  Great  Wall  of 
China?  11.  Is  it  as  much  needed  now  as  when  built? 
12.  If  you  had  to  live  on  one  of  these  plateaus, 
which  would  you  choose? 

THE  JAPANESE  RICE  REGION 

Part  I. — The  Land 

644.  Bounds  and  character. — The  Japanese 
Rice  Region  includes  most  of  the  Japanese 
islands  and  a part  of  the  Korean  peninsula. 
In  this  region  the  summers  are  warm  enough, 
moist  enough,  and  long  enough  for  rice  to  grow 
well.  Most  of  the  people  both  of  Japan  and 
Korea  live  in  the  rice  region,  and  eat  rice  as 


THE  JAPANESE  RICE  REGION 


319 


their  chief  food.  Most  of  the  land  is  forested 
mountains.  Some  of  the  mountains  are  vol- 
canoes. One  of  them,  the  beautiful  Fuji- 
yama (Fig.  472),  is  regarded  as  sacred  by  the 
Japanese.  Because  the  country  is  volcanic, 
Japan  has  many  earthquakes.  The  valleys 
and  plains  are  green  with  crops,  and  are 
dotted  with  villages  in  which  millions  of 
farmers  live.  They  toil  day  in  and  day  out 
on  their  little  farms,  the  women  and  children 
helping  them— working,  working,  working. 
Big  and  little,  male  and  female,  they  seem  to 
be  forever  at  work.  Because  the  climate  is 
favorable  for  food  production,  this  tiny  region 
has  more  people  than  all  the  rest  of  Asia 
that  we  have  studied.  All  the  other  Asiatic 
regions,  except  the  wheat  belt,  are  too  dry  or 
too  cold  to  support  many  people. 

645.  The  cyclones. — Japan  and  Korea 
have  rain  both  winter  and  summer.  In 
autumn,  winter,  and  spring  they  have 
cyclones  very  much  as  the  United  States 
and  England  do.  Rains  at  these  seasons  let 
the  people  grow  winter  wheat  (Sec.  74), 
and  also  barley  and  rye.  Summer  brings  a 
new  kind  of  rain  wind,  the  monsoon. 

646.  The  monsoon. — In  summer  the  great, 
dry  center  of  Asia  becomes  very  hot.  The 
heated  air  expands,  becomes  lighter  and 
rises,  and  to  take  its  place  a great  sea  breeze 

of  warm, 
moist  air 
from  the  In- 
d i a n and 
Pacific 
oceans 
blows  into 
southeast- 
ern Asia. 
This  is  the 
monsoon. 
It  blows 
day  and 
night  for 
several 
months, 
bringing 
Fig.  484.  Japan’s  rice  acreage.  Why  moisture 
is  there  none  in  the  central  parts  , 

of  the  islands?  and  sum- 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  485.  Decorating  porcelain  in  a Japanese  factory, 
mer  rain  to  all  shore  lands  lying  between  the 
Indus  and  Amur  rivers.  Summer  heat  and 
summer  rain  make  plants  grow  and  help  the 
farmer  to  produce  abundant  crops.  For  this 
reason  the  monsoon  lands  of  Asia  hold  about 
half  the  human  race. 

Part  II. — The  Old  Japan 

647.  An  independent  civilization. — Japan 
has  a history  very  different  from  that  of  the 
other  Asiatic  countries  we  have  studied.  We 
have  read  of  roving  peoples,  of  conquests, 
of  empires  that  rose  and  fell.  Japan  is 
different.  She  is  protected  by  the  sea.  No 
foreigner  has  invaded  her  shores.  For  hun- 
dreds of  years  her  emperors  have  ruled  their 
beautiful  land,  while  the  industrious  people, 
aided  by  their  good  climate,  developed 
agriculture,  hand  industries,  arts,  and  a high 
civilization.  For  many  centuries  the  Japa- 
nese have  been  taught  reading  and  writing. 

648.  An  artistic  people. — For  centuries 
the  Japanese  were  a nation  of  expert  and 
careful  farmers  and  skilled  workers  in  wood, 
metal,  clay,  porcelain,  silk,  paper,  and 
lacquer,  which  is  a kind  of  varnish  that  we, 
in  America,  do  not  make.  Japanese  paper 
umbrellas  and  lanterns  are  so  pretty  that  we 
sometimes  use  them  for  ornaments. 


320 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© Publishers’  photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  486.  The  fine  lady  of  Japan  goes  calling.  Why 
does  she  not  have  a horse  and  driver,  or  an  automobile? 

649.  Japanese  flowers. — Many  plants  in 
American  gardens  were  brought  from  Japan. 
The  people  are  wonderful  gardeners,  both  in 
fruits  and  flowers.  With  patient  skill  they 
have  produced  many  varieties  of  fruits  new 
to  us.  In  Japan  there  are  cherry  and  other 
fruit  trees  that  produce  beautiful,  large 
flowers  but  no  edible  fruit.  Cherry-blooming 
time  in  Japan  is  a kind  of  spring  festival. 
Thousands  go  out  to  see  the  cherry  trees  that 
almost  bury  the  little  houses  in  seas  of  red 
and  pink  and  white  blossoms.  Often  poems 
are  written  to  the  cherry  trees. 

650.  Good  manners. — The  people  have 
lived  close  together  for  such  a long  time  that 
they  have  made  a great  many  rules  about 
how  one  person  should  treat  another.  Even 
the  little  children  are  taught  to  obey  these 
rules  of  conduct.  Indeed,  the  Japanese  and 
the  Chinese  are  among  the  most  polite 
people  in  the  world. 

651.  Love  of  country. — The  Japanese  have 
long  loved  their  country.  They  love  it  so 
well  that  they  are  willing  to  obey  its  laws 
more  thoroughly  than  we  in  the  United 
States  obey  our  laws.  As  soldiers,  the 
Japanese  have  shown  great  bravery,  and 
the  people  declare  they  would  die  to  the  last 
man.  to  save  their  country  from  invasion. 

652.  Sports  and  games. — Japanese,  both 
young  and  old,  are  fond  of  sports  and  games, 
and  have  many  that  we  do  not  know  in  this 
country.  Their  wrestlers  and  acrobats  some- 
times come  to  America  and  give  amazing 
exhibitions  of  what  they  can  do, 


653.  Japan’s  problem — the  food  supply. — 

For  many  centuries  the  Japanese  supported 
themselves  by  farming  and  household  indus- 
tries. They  had  no  foreign  trade.  After 
many  centuries  the  population  became  so 
dense  that  the  people  had  a very  hard  time 
to  get  enough  to  eat.  That  is  Japan’s  great 
problem — something  to  eat.  The  three  large 
southern  islands  are  about  one-twenty-fifth 
as  large  as  the  United  States,  but  they  have 
more  than  half  as  many  people  as  the  whole 
United  States.  Japan  is  so  hilly  that  only 
about  one-sixth  of  her  land  can  be  farmed. 
On  the  average,  one  acre  of  cultivated  land 
has  been  made  to  feed  four  Japanese  people. 

654.  Little  land,  much  labor. — When  four 
people  get  their  food  from  one  acre  of  land, 
it  means  that  they  must  work  very  hard, 
and  by  intensive  farming  raise  many  crops. 
As  one  acre  of  ground  can  not  be  made  to 
produce  enough  to  feed  both  men  and  beasts, 
the  Japanese  do  not  keep  animals.  Man 
must,  therefore,  do  his  own  plowing.  Some- 
times men  and  women  pull  plows,  but  most 
of  the  land  is  turned  by  hand  with  spades  and 
forks.  This  is  called  garden  agriculture, 
or  hand  agriculture.  In  the  main  island  of 
Honshu  the  average  farm  is  only  70  yards 
by  175  yards  (two  and  a half  acres).  The 
field  that  grows  wheat,  barley,  or  rye  in  the 
winter  is  immediately  spaded  up  after  har- 
vest and  planted  to  rice  or  some  other  summer 
crop.  More  than  half  of  the  cultivated  land 
of  this  part  of  Japan  has  been  leveled  for 
rice  fields,  called  “paddies.”  (Sec.  672.) 

655.  Bamboo. — Our  Bureau  of  Forestry  at 
Washington  tells  us  that  we  are  using  up  our 
wood  in  the  United  States  about  four  times 
as  fast  as  it  grows.  We  are  able  to  do  this 
for  a time  because  we  have 
only  been  in  this  continent  a 
little  while.  Long  ago  the 
Japanese  found  that  they  must 

Fig.  487.  Bushels  of  grain  per  person 
raised  in  1911-13: 

A.  United  States 50.8 

B.  Canada 47.4 

C.  Japan 5.0 

You  know  that  Japan  does  not 

import  much  grain.  What  does  this 

fact  tell  about  her  wealth? 


THE  JAPANESE  RICE  REGION 


321 


grow  wood  as  fast  as  they  used  it.  The  wood 
that  they  cultivate  is  the  bamboo  (Fig.  516). 
It  grows  very  quickly  and  is  wonderfully  use- 
ful. To  the  Japanese,  and  to  the  Chinese  as 
well  (Sec.  675)  it  is  lumber,  water  buckets, 
pipes,  and  innumerable  other  useful  things. 
A list  of  all  the  uses  made  of  bamboo  would 
fill  a page  or  two  of  this  book.  The  young 
shoots  are  even  used  as  lettuce. 

656.  Japanese  food. — The  usual  meal  of 
the  Japanese  garden  farmers  consists  of  rice, 
beans  or  other  vegetables,  much  cabbage  and 
other  greens,  a little  fish,  soy  bean  oil,  and 
soy  bean  sauce  for  flavoring.  The  Japanese 
meal  is  nourishing,  and  because  of  the  green 
vegetables  it  is  more  healthful  than  a meal 
of  bread  and  butter,  meat  and  potatoes. 
Instead  of  bread  and  potatoes  the  Japanese 
eat  rice,  because  it  is  the  best  crop  to  grow 
in  a land  that  has  a warm,  wet  summer.  They 
use  fish  and  beans  instead  of  meat,  because 
land  is  scarce,  and  therefore  animals  are 
scarce.  For  the  same  reason  soy  bean  oil  is 
used  instead  of  butter.  We  may  not  know 
it,  but  we  often  use  meat  to  make  our  meal 
taste  good.  For  that  purpose  the  Japanese 
use  a bit  of  fish,  or  a sauce  made  from  fer- 
mented soy  bean  meal. 

657.  Fisheries. — As  the  Japanese  have 
neither  room  to  raise  meat,  nor  money  with 
which  to  buy  it,  they  must  go  to  sea  and 
catch  fish.  The  waters  near  the  Japanese 
shores  are  dotted  with  the  sails  of  little  fishing 
boats.  No  other  nation  except  Norway  has 
so  many  of  its  people  catching  sea  food. 
Just  as  the  people  of  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington  sail  up  to  the  coast  of  Alaska  to 
catch  salmon,  so  the  Japanese  now  sail  up  to 
the  cold  Asiatic  shores  of  Kamchatka  oppo- 
site Alaska,  and  catch  salmon  and  other 
fish,  and  crabs.  This  sea  food  is  canned. 

Part  III. — The  New  Japan 

658.  Japan’s  sudden  change.  — After  we 
in  America  had  the  steamship,  the  railroad, 
and  the  telegraph,  Japan  was  going  along 
as  she  had  done  for  centuries — beautiful, 
artistic,  polite,  but  crowded  and  getting 
hungry.  For  many  generations  Japan  had 


refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  foreign- 
ers, and  travelers  from  other  continents 
were  asked  to  go  away.  But  in  1853  and 
1854  an  American  fleet  visited  Japan,  and 
the  American  Admiral,  Perry,  made  a treaty 
with  the  Mikado,  or  Emperor.  Japan  then 
sent  a minister  to  Washington  and  we  sent 
one  to  Tokyo.  Thus  Japan  entered  the 
society  of  nations.  In  1868  there  was  a 
revolution.  Japan  then  became  a limited 
monarchy,  with  a parliament  to  help  rule. 

659.  Learning  science  and  using  it. — In 
1868  Japan  was  living  very  much  as  Europe 
lived  eight  hundred  years  ago.  In  forty  years 
she  became  one  of  the  great  powers  of  the 
world.  The  changes  that  have  come  in  Japan 
have  been  among  the  most  amazing  things 
in  all  the  history  of  the  world.  Most  of  the 
old  Japan  has  remained,  but  to  old  Japan 
there  have  been  added  the  new  education,  like 
that  of  Europe  and  America,  and  the  new 
science  which  has  made  possible  machinery, 
factories,  railroads,  steamships,  trade,  and  a 
modern  army  and  navy.  How  did  this  happen  ? 
Because  Japan  learned  the  scientific  way  of 
doing  things,  and  used  her  knowledge.  As  an 
example,  see  the  health  of  herarmy.  When  the 
Japanese  army  invaded  Manchuria  in  1904,  in 
a war  with  Russia,  a sanitary  squad  with  micro- 
scopes went  in  ahead  of  the  army.  The  squad 


rhoto.  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  X. 


Fig.  488.  The  horseless  carriages  of  Tokyo, 


322 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Fig.  489.  A bale  of  cotton  and  skeins  of  raw  silk  of 
equal  value.  What  makes  silk  so  expensive?  (Sec.  664. ) 

tested  every  spring  and  well,  looking  for 
disease  germs.  If  the  water  was  found  to 
be  bad,  the  squad  posted  a notice  to  boil  the 
water  before  using  it.  The  soldiers  obeyed, 
and  the  Japanese  army  came  through  that 
campaign  in  better  health  than  any  other 
army  that  had  ever  been  heard  of. 

660.  Equipping  a nation. — This  sudden 
change  in  ways  of  doing  things  happened 
because  the  Japanese  government  had  sent 
many  students  to  the  universities  of  America 
and  Europe.  Japan  began  sending  them  as 
soon  as  she  decided  that  she  must  use  scien- 
tific methods.  These  students  studied  every- 
thing. They  learned  how  to  build  and  run 
railroads,  ships,  and  factories,  and  to  do 
things  as  they  were  done  in  Europe  and 
America.  Japan  does  not  now  send  many 
students  abroad,  for  she  has  colleges  and 
universities  at  home,  taught  by  professors 
who  were  trained  abroad.  The  libraries  and 
laboratories  of  a college  in  Japan  are  like 
those  in  America  and  Europe. 

Many  of  the  Japanese  have  even  laid 
aside  their  picturesque  and  comfortable 
national  clothes,  and  dress  as  do  the 
Americans.  They  use  automobiles,  bicycles, 


trolleys,  and  trains;  they  have  the  telephone, 
the  telegraph,  the  wireless,  factories,  the 
airplane,  and  steamship  lines  to  every  con- 
tinent. There  are  many  newspapers  in 
Japan,  and  an  army  and  a navy  that  may 
be  the  most  efficient  in  the  world.  Japan  has 
a department  of  agriculture  much  like  ours, 
and  the  Japanese  government  supports 
scientific  work  better  than  our  government 
does.  Her  government  does  many  things  to 
aid  industry  at  home  and  trade  in  for- 
eign countries.  Japan  is,  indeed,  a highly 
civilized,  very  modern,  scientific,  and  efficient 
nation. 

661.  Japan  builds  an  empire. — This  new 
Japan  of  science  and  machines,  factories 
and  ships,  is  working  hard  for  a place  in  the 
world’s  trade.  Japan’s  population  is  increas- 
ing rapidly.  As  she  is  using  about  all  the 
land  that  can  be  used,  the  home-grown  food 
supply  no  longer  feeds  her  people.  She  must 
import  food  as  well  as  raw  materials.  What 
has  Japan  to  sell  in  payment?  She  is  follow- 
ing the  example  of  England  and  becoming 
a manufacturing  nation,  and  with  manu- 
factured articles  she  will  pay  for  her  imports. 
Japan  is  rapidly  building  up,  by  conquest, 
an  empire  in  Asia.  Her  first  colony  was 
the  tropic  island  of  Formosa,  which  she  got 
from  China  in  1894.  Here  she  produces 
some  sugar,  some  tea,  and  most  of  the  world’s 
supply  of  camphor,  which  is  secured  by  dis- 
tilling the  wood  of  the  camphor  tree. 

Japan  holds  a part  of  southern  Manchuria, 
where  she  has  developed  a wonderful  bean 
industry;  but  most  of  the  beans  are  grown 
by  Chinese  people  who  live  there. 

She  also  has  control  of  mining  and  rail- 
way rights  in  Shantung  peninsula.  Japan 
took  Shantung  from  Ger-  I , — H 

many  during  the  World A | 

War  and  later  ceded  it  to  j— ■= — ■= — - 
China.  | 


Fig.  490.  The  silk  production  of  five 
nations  (1919-20) : 

Pounds  B 

A.  Japan 48,800,000 

B.  China 42,800,000 

C.  Italy 4,000,000 

D.  Levant 2,200,000 

E.  France 300,000 


t 


THE  JAPANESE  RICE  REGION 


323 


After  the  World  War,  Japan  occupied 
the  northern  half  of  the  island  of  Sakhalin. 
This  island  is  rich  in  coal  and  fish. 

662.  Korea  (Chosen)  has  been  called  the 
“Hermit  Kingdom,  ” because  for  centuries  it, 
like  Japan,  was  shut  away  from  the  world. 
The  people  of  Korea  lived  much  as  the 
Japanese  did,  but  the  population  is  not  so 
dense  as  that  of  Japan.  When  Japan  sent 
her  students  to  Europe  and  America,  the 
government  of  Korea  was  too  dull,  too  weak, 
and  too  inefficient  to  do  the  same.  In  1910 
Japan  annexed  Korea  and  made  it  a Japa- 
nese province.  The  Koreans  do  not  like 
foreign  control,  but  Japanese  methods  have 
increased  the  Korean  rice  crop  from  forty 
million  to  sixty  million  bushels,  and  Japanese 
engineers  are  busy  turning  waste  land  into  rice 
paddies.  Thus  Korea  helps  to  feed  Japan. 

663.  Factories  and  imports. — Japan’s  fac- 
tories and  manufacturing  cities  have  grown 
almost  as  rapidly  between  1890  and  1920 
as  have  those  of  the  United  States.  Japan 
is  now  becoming  a manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial nation.  She  has  nearly  enough  coal 
for  her  own  use,  but  little  iron  ore.  The 
chief  import  is  raw  cotton  from  the  United 
States  and  India.  Next  come  iron  and 
machinery  from  the  United  States  and 
England.  She  must  also  import  rice  from 
Indo-China,  sugar  from  Java,  and,  to  fertilize 
her  rice  fields,  bean  cake  (Sec.  35)  from  Man- 
churia. She  must  import  other  things,  too, 
for  after  all  Japan  is  poor  in  raw  materials. 

664.  Raw  silk  and  tea. — Japan  is  working 
hard  to  build  up  export  trade  by  selling  fac- 
tory goods,  but  her  chief  export  is  raw  silk, 
a product  of  hand  labor  on  the  little  farms. 
Women  and  girls  make  silk  by  unwinding 
the  threads  that  the  silk  worm  has  wound 
around  itself  to  make  a cocoon  in  which  to 
pass  two  or  three  weeks  before  it  becomes  a 
moth.  The  Japanese  raise  silk  worms  by  the 
hundreds  of  millions.  The  worms  are  kept  on 
trays  in  warm  rooms,  carefully  tended,  and  fed 
enormous  quantities  of  leaves  from  the  mul- 
berry tree.  In  the  year  1918  we  imported 
from  Japan  a dollar  and  fifty  cents’  worth  of 
raw  silk  for  every  man,  woman,  and  child 


in  America.  Silk  means  work.  So  does  tea, 
another  export,  which  is  made  by  carefully 
drying  the  leaves  of  the  tea  tree  after  they 
have  been  picked  by  hand. 

665.  Factories  and  exports. — Next  among 
Japanese  exports  come  cotton  manufactures, 
silk  manufactures,  matches,  porcelain,  earth- 
enware, beans,  and  peanuts.  Japan  gets  some 
of  the  peanuts  from  Korea  and  China. 

666.  The  Japan  of  to-morrow. — Instead  of 
villages  with  paper  walls  and  bamboo  house 
frames,  Japan  is  now  building  cities  like 
those  of  Europe  and  America.  Tokyo, 
Yokohama,  and  Osaka  look  like  Chicago  or 
Manchester.  The  buildings  are  of  cement, 
brick,  and  steel.  There  are  trolleys,  tele- 
phones, and  railroads.  The  iron-clad  war- 
ship lies  in  the  harbor,  the  freight  steamer 
lies  at  the  dock,  and  newspapers  tell  of  New 
York,  London,  and  Petrograd,  and  baseball 
games,  just  as  American  newspapers  do. 
Factories  and  trade  have  made  cities  grow 
rapidly  in  Japan,  just  as  they  have  in  the 
United  States  and  northwestern  Europe. 

To  feed  her  polite  but  hungry  people, 
Japan  must  always  keep  up  her  careful  and 
laborious  agriculture.  She  will  steadily  in- 
crease her  manufactures  and  foreign  trade, 
for  which  her  people  and  her  government 
work  so  diligently  and  skilfully. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  One  condition  necessary  to  produce  monsoons  is 
large  bodies  of  warm  water,  with  large  areas  of  hotter 
land  near  by.  Which  continent  has  the  most  regions 
under  the  influence  of  monsoon  winds?  2.  Study  the 
map  of  ocean  currents  (Fig.  327)  and  temperatures 
(Fig.  329),  and  give  a reason  why  Japan  has  a 
mild  climate.  Compare  the  climate  of  Japan  with 
that  of  the  adjoining  mainland  of  Asia,  and  explain 
the  differences.  3.  How  does  it  happen  that  Japan 
raises  tea  and  silk,  but  the  United  States  does  not? 
4.  What  countries  of  Europe  carry  on  intensive  agri- 
culture, somewhat  as  does  Japan?  Why?  5.  If  you 
were  traveling  in  Japan  in  regions  away  from  the 
big  cities,  what  are  some  of  the  things  about  your 
appearance  that  would  cause  the  natives  to  stare? 
6.  What  are  some  of  the  customs  of  the  natives  that 
would  be  hard  for  you  to  follow?  7.  Compare  the 
houses  pictured  in  Fig.  483  with  those  in  Fig.  431. 
8.  Of  what  material  are  they  built?  Why?  9.  Why 
is  Japan  the  only  country  of  Asia  that  is  recognized 
as  a world  power? 

10.  How  do  you  think  a scene  in  a business  street 
of  modern  Tokyo  would  differ  from  the  one  in  Fig.  488? 


324 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Fig.  401.  Little  fields  in  tlie  terraced  lands  of  north  China. 


Uotirtenv  U.  b.  Dept  Acrr 

Will  rain  be  more  useful  here  or  on  sloping  ground? 


11.  Compare  the  geography  of  England  with  that  of 
Japan  under  the  following  topics:  Climate;  Location; 
Industries;  Needs  of  the  people.  12.  What  is  meant 
by  the  Industrial  Revolution  in  Japan?  Why  is 
Japan  changing  from  an  agricultural  nation  to  one 
with  manufactures?  Compare  her  history  with  that  of 
England  in  this  respect.  13.  What  great  advantage 
has  England  in  her  natural  resources?  14.  How  does 
Shantung  help  Japan’s  manufacturing?  15.  Which 
has  gained  more  as  a result  of  Perry’s  visit  in  1854, 
Japan  or  America?  Give  arguments  on  both  sides. 
16.  Make  an  imaginary  visit  to  a Japanese  home,  and 
describe  all  of  your  experiences  of  a day  and  a night. 

17.  How  did  Japan’s  island  location  affect  her 
history?  18.  Where  is  a natural  place  from  which  to 
get  her  raw  materials?  Where  will  she  find  the  best 
market  for  her  cotton  manufactures?  19.  Describe 
the  cargo  of  a ship  coming  into  the  harbor  of  Osaka 
from  the  United  States.  Describe  its  return  cargo. 
20.  Describe  a cargo  going  from  Nagasaki  to  Man- 
churia, and  the  return  cargo.  21.  Why  does  Japan 
need  colonies?  Name  and  locate  all  of  her  colonial 
possessions.  (Fig.  10.)  22.  Show  on  the  map  what 

territory  she  has  acquired  by  the  World  War.  23. 
Which  one  did  China  contest?  Why?  Which  did  the 
United  States  contest?  Why?  24.  Fill  in  the  chart: 


Chief  Imports 
into  Japan. 

From 

Where. 

Chief  Exports 
from  Japan. 

To 

Where. 

Fig.  492. 


Population  of  the  five  largest  nations  anc 
empires  in  millions: 

A.  British  Empire  . .442 

B.  China  (1911)  . ...32( 

C.  Russia  (1915)  . . . 16( 

D.  United  States 
and  posses- 
sions (1920)..  11) 

1'  $ E.  Japanese  Empire 

B F|  (1918) 71 

ll  Mr  ??  Why  is  China  sometime! 

. Li  U called  a sleeping  giant! 


THE  CHINESE  REGION 

667.  Bounds  and  character. — The  region 
called  the  Chinese  region  takes  in  nearly  all 
the  provinces  that  are  often  called  China 
Proper.  It  lies  between  the  Central  Asian 
plateau,  the  Manchurian  Region,  and  the 
sea.  Look  at  the  map  (Fig.  474),  and  describe 
briefly  the  physical  features  of  the  region. 

668.  Comparison  with  the  eastern  United 
States. — The  Chinese  Region  and  that  part 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  are  about  equal  in  size,  and  each 
occupies  the  southeast  corner  of  its  continent. 
They  are  in  about  the  same  latitude  and  can 
produce  very  much  the  same  crops,  because 
the  climate  in  the  two  regions  is  quite  similar. 
The  chief  difference  in  climate  is  the  greater 
summer  rain  of  southern  and  eastern  China, 
brought  by  the  monsoon  (Sec.  646).  The 
monsoon  sometimes  causes  sorrow  in  China 
by  bringing  so  much  rain  that  floods  drown 
people  by  the  thousand.  Sometimes  the 
monsoon  comes  too  late  or  does  not  come  at 
all,  and  then  the  crops  fail  and  people  starve. 

The  greatest  difference  between  the  Chi- 
nese Region  and  the  eastern  United  States 
is  in  the  number  of  people.  One  has  70,000,- 
000  people,  the  other  has  300,000,000  people 
who  live  in  a region  that  has  more  high 
mountains  than  has  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States. 

Much  of  the  coast  plain  of  the  United 
States  is  sandy  and  little  used.  The  wide 


THE  CHINESE  REGION 


325 


coast  plain  of  China  is  very 
rich  delta  land  of  clay  and 
mud,  and  every  foot  of  it  is 
used.  It  supports  swarms 
of  people,  who  live  as  the 
Japanese  lived  before  they 
began  to  develop  their  for- 
eign trade.  Most  of  China’s 
people  live  on  their  little 
farms,  and  often  they  travel 
about  the  coast-plain  coun- 
try in  canal  boats. 

The  great  river  of  Amer- 
ica, the  Mississippi,  flows 
south  through  large  areas 
of  unused  swamp.  The 
Yangtze,  the  great  river  of 
China,  flows  east  in  the 

same  latitude  as  Charleston,  Fig.  495.  China  and  its  railroads  shown  on  the  same  scale  as  the  United 
South  Carolina.  Along  this  States  (Fig.  494).  What  do  the  sets  of  columns  marked  “Population”  and 

river  there  were  swamps, 


‘Railroads”  tell  of  the  transportation  opportunities  in  the  two  countries? 


which  centuries  ago  were  turned  into  rice- 
fields.  * The  Yangtze  itself  has  for  ages  been 
a great  highway.  Thousands  of  ,* 
sailboats  and  steamboats  carry 
freight  up  and  down  the  river. 

669.  The  oldest  nation  on 
earth. — The  Chinese  have  light 
Fig.  493. 


Total  populations  in 
millions: 

A.  China  (1911) 320 

B.  United  States  (1920) 105 


yellow  skin,  almond-shaped,  slanting  eyes,  and 
stiff  black  hair,  which  was  formerly  braided 
into  a long  “pig-tail”.  They  have  been 
civilized  longer  than  any  other  race. 
When  Solomon  built  his  temple  in  Jeru- 
salem, the  Chinese  had  been  a civilized 
nation  for  many  centuries.  The  various 
nations  of  Europe  came  into  being,  and  still 
China  remained  as  in  past  centuries.  Greece 
rose  and  fell,  Rome  rose  and  fell,  and  China 
still  lived.  Why?  Because 
the  country  was  good  for 
agriculture,  and  was  pro- 
tected by  nature  from 
invaders.  The  waves  of 
migrating  people  who  broke 
up  the  Roman  Empire  did 
not  reach  China,  because 
there  were  high  mountains, 
plateaus,  and  deserts  to  the 
west  of  China.  On  the 
east  was  the  wide  empty 
sea.  On  the  south  the  tropic 
forest  reared  its  jungle 
wall  and  on  the  south- 

Fig.  494.  Map  showing  the  railroads  in  the  United  States.  Compare  this  west  were  high  moun- 
with  Fig.  495,  and  state  in  which  country  you  would  prefer  to  carry  on  a busi-  fnina  olmvn  vnlWc  onH 
ness  that  would  require  rapid  transportation  facilities  from  the  interior  to  the  ’ . " ^ ’ 

coast.  Has  nature  given  China  more  natural  waterways  than  the  United  States?  deep  rivers,  and  yet  more 


326 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  496.  A Chinese  farmer  grinding  corn  with  a stone 
rolling  on  a saucer-shaped  base. 

high  mountains,  sharp  valleys,  and  deep  rivers. 
In  the  winter  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
snow,  and  in  the  summer  the  valleys  are 
flooded  with  monsoon  rain.  Surely  nature 
gave  China  an  almost  perfect  barrier!  Only 
in  the  north  could  large  bodies  of  people  with 
horses,  flocks,  and  herds  cross  into  China, 
and  there  the  Chinese  built  the  Great  Wall 
to  keep  invaders  out.  Read  about  it  in  some 
encyclopedia.  Such  invaders  as  did  occa- 
sionally enter  by  this  northern  route  could 
not  seriously  disturb  the  Chinese  farmer- 
nation. 

670.  An  isolated,  independent  people. — 

Thus  for  century  after  century  the  Chinese 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  people  of  any 
other  country,  and  wanted  only  to  be  let 
alone.  They  could  live  thus  isolated,  because 
they  had  at  home  everything  a nation 
needed.  China  reaches  from  Peking,  in  the 
latitude  of  the  land  of  wheat,  corn,  and  barley 
in  the  United  States,  down  to  Hongkong,  in 
the  latitude  of  Havana,  the  land  of  oranges, 
bananas,  and  sugar  cane.  In  the  west  are 
mountains  rich  in  minerals,  and  the  nomad’s 
country,  where  wool  and  hides  are  pro- 
duced. The  different  parts  of  China  traded 
with  each  other  by  means  of  junks  (sailing 
vessels)  that  went  up  and  down  the  coast, 
by  boats  on  many  canals  and  rivers,  and 
by  caravans  over  hills  and  high  mountains 
and  swift  streams. 

671.  A nation  of  hard  workers. — The 


Chinese  have  been  in  their  land  for  such  a 
long  time  that  the  population  is  very  dense 
(Figs.  492,  495).  There  is  only  a little  land 
for  each  family.  For  this  reason  they  must 
work  hard  for  a living.  Everybody  works, 
even  the  children.  The  children  of  China 
have  rather  a hard  time  of  it,  because  they 
begin  work  so  young  and  work  long  hours. 

An  Iowa  farmer  often  has  160  acres  of 
land,  and  has  horses,  tractors,  reapers,  and 
other  machinery.  Each  year  he  raises 
thousands  of  bushels  of  grain.  This  is 
enough  to  give  each  member  of  his  family  the 
five  or  six  bushels  a person  needs  to  eat  in 
a year,  and  wagonloads  besides — enough  to> 
feed  many  horses,  cattle,  and  pigs.  The  Iowa 
farmer  raises  one  crop  on  each  field  each  year. 
Some  of  his  land  is  usually  in  pasture.  The 
farmer  on  the  Chinese  plains  often  has  only 
two  acres  or  even  less,  and  he  raises  two 
crops  a year  on  all  of  it.  None  of  it  is  in 
pasture,  because  the  yield  from  pasture  is  too 
small. 

In  the  autumn,  with  the  help  of  his  family, 
he  sows  the  land  to  winter  wheat.  In  sum- 
mer, if  the  land  is  in  the  northern  or  the 
inland  section  of  light  rain,  the  farmer  uses 
a part  of  it  for  sweet  potatoes,  a part  for 
corn  or  millet,  and  a part  for  soy  beans.  The 
only  animals  on  the  place  are  some  chickens, 


Fig.  497.  Porters  carrying  bales  of  Chinese  tea  up 
the  mountains  into  Tibet. 


827 


THE  CHINESE  REGION 


a cow  that  pulls  a cart  and  lives  on  straw 
and  bean  stalks,  and  a pig  that  eats  scraps 
that  no  other  animal  will  eat.  To  prepare 
the  ground  for  crops  a spade  is  used  instead 
of  the  plow.  Though  the  land  yields  two 
crops  a year,  there  is  very  little  to  sell, 
because  the  family  must  eat  nearly  every- 
thing that  can  be  grown. 

672.  Rice. — You  remember  that  Holland 
is  the  gift  of  the  Rhine.  Look  on  the  map 
(Fig.  474),  and  see  how  the  great  plain  of 
northeastern  China  is  also  the  gift  of  two- 
rivers.  Which  ones  are  they?  They  have  cut 
sand  and  clay  from  the  mountains,  and  have 
carried  them  down  and  built  up  the  wide 
lowlands.  This  making  of  new  land  goes  on 
so  fast  that  cities  that  were  once  seaports 
are  now  thirty  miles  inland.  This  plain  is 
the  land  of  rice,  the  great  summer  crop  of 
the  warm  lowlands  of  Central  and  South 
China.  Here  each  summer  tens  of  millions 
of  men  and  women,  boys  and  girls,  work 
hard  in  the  millions  of  little  ricefields. 

It  takes  a great  deal  of  labor  to  grow  rice 
in  the  way  it  is  grown  in  the  Far  East.  Rice 
is  a swamp  plant.  To  make  it  feel  at 
home  and  grow  well,  the  people  turn  their 
ricefields  into  ponds.  To  do  this  they 
make  the  land  as  level  as  a floor,  so  that  the 
water  may  be  at  the  same  depth  in  all  parts 
of  it.  Then  they  make  a bank  of  earth 


Courtesy  Trans-Pacific  Magazine,  Tokyo 

Fig.  498.  The  basket  merchant  with  his  wares  on  a carrying  pole,  a very 
common  device  in  China.  Why  doesn’t  he  use  an  automobile? 


Photo.  Wm.  H.  Rau,  Inc. 

Fig.  499.  A memorial  arch  of  carved  stone  near  Soo- 
chow,  China.  Chinese  works  of  art  require  vast  labor. 

about  a foot  high  all  around  the  field. 
To  bring  water  to  the  ricefields,  canals  cross 
the  low  plain  in  every  direction,  as  roads 
cross  the  farmlands  of  the  United  States. 
Sometimes  the  water  will  run  from  the  canal 
into  the  ricefields,  but  if  it  does  not  the 
people  must  do  the  hard  work  of  lifting  it 
from  the  canals  up  to  the  field  in  buckets  or 
by  treadmills. 

The  ricefield  is  fertilized 
with  care  and  with  an  al- 
most unbelievable  amount 
of  hard  work.  Mud  that 
is  shoveled  out  of  canals 
is  spread  upon  the  fields 
year  after  year  and  thus, 
little  by  little,  the  plain 
has  been  built  up.  Some- 
times mud  from  the  canals 
is  piled  on  stacks  of  clover 
and  straw,  and  afterward 
shoveled  over  and  over  to 
mix  it  with  the  decaying 
stalks.  Thus  a fine  com- 
post is  made,  which  is 
spread  upon  the  fields. 


328 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Photo.  Wm.  H.  Kau,  Inc. 
Fig.  500.  A Chinese  jitney.  Wliy  is  a wheelbarrow 
a good  vehicle  for  bad  roads? 


People  wade  nearly  knee-deep  in  mud  and 
water,  weeding  the  rice  by  hand  and  pushing 
the  weeds  down  into  the  mud  so  that  they 
may  decay,  and  help  to  fertilize  the  rice  plants. 
As  the  grain  ripens,  the  water  is  drawn  off  and 
the  ground  allowed  to  dry.  The  grain  is 
harvested  by  hand,  set  up  on  sticks  to  dry, 
and  threshed  by  hand  Then  the  ground  is 
at  once  spaded  up,  and  the  crop  of  winter 
wheat  or  barley  is  planted  for  the  harvest  of 
May  or  June. 

To  save  time  for  the  next  year’s  crop,  the 
rice  is  planted  in  little  seed  beds,  before 
the  wheat  or  barley  is  harvested.  The  young 
plants  are  moved  to  the  field  or  “paddy” 
and  set  out  by  hand  as  soon  as  the  wheat  is 
cut.  Think  of  all  the 
work  that  must  be  done 
to  raise  these  two  crops  of 
grain  each  year! 

673.  The  Chinese  meal. 

— In  southeastern  China 
the  commonest  meal  con- 
sists of  rice,  beans,  a little 
vegetable  oil,  and  a sur- 
prisingly large  amount  of 
some  kind  of  boiled  greens, 
of  which  the  Chinese  have 
many  varieties  that  we  do 
not  use.  Long  ago  they 
learned  that  greens  are 
very  wholesome.  In  place 


of  butter  they  eat  vegetable  oil  made  from  soy 
beans  or  the  seed  of  rape,  which  is  a kind  of 
cabbage.  These  vegetables  give  much  more 
edible  fat  to  the  acre  than  does  the  cow  with 
her  milk  and  butter,  or  the  pig  with  his 
bacon.  The  Chinese  eat  great  quantities  of 
vegetables,  and  are  the  finest  gardeners  in  the 
world.  Manyof  the Chineseand  Japanese  who 
have  come  to  America  are  vegetable  growers. 

674.  North  China. — North  China  and  Cen- 
tral China  have  less  rainfall  than  South 
China  and  East  China.  Peking  has  a climate 
almost  exactly  like  that  of  Omaha,  Nebraska. 
In  the  sections  of  smaller  rainfall,  millions 
of  people  either  do  not  know  what  rice  is,  or 
they  regard  it  as  a luxury.  The  farms  there 
are  planted  in  winter  to  wheat  and  barley, 
and  in  summer  to  soy  beans,  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  corn,  and  millet,  a grain  that  looks 
something  like  Kafir  corn.  Peanuts,  a new 
crop  for  China,  are  also  grown  here.  About 
1895  an  American  missionary  gave  a quart 
of  seed  to  some  farmers  in  Shantung.  The 
nuts  grew  well  and  quickly  became  an 
important  crop  in  that  province.  The  peanut 
industry  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance 
in  China  and  Japan,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States  and  Africa.  The  province  of  Shan- 
tung, the  peninsula  between  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili  and  the  Yellow  Sea,  alone  produces 
enough  peanuts  each  year  to  make  five 
pounds  for  every  person  in  the  United  States. 
Many  of  them  are  sent  to  this  country. 


Fig.  501.  A ferryboat  crossing  a Chinese  river.  The  boat  is  attached  to 
loops  which  slide  along  a rope  or  cable  made  of  bamboo  fiber.  What  industry 
furnishes  the  cable  we  would  use  for  this  purpose? 


THE  CHINESE  REGION 


329 


675.  Fuel  and  wood. — This  land  has  had 
so  many  people  for  so  long  a time  that  very 
little  forest  is  left.  Houses  are  made  of  brick, 
with  tile  roofs  and  dirt  floors.  The  Chinese 
have  learned  how  to  heat  their  houses  with 
but  little  fuel.  They  have  a very  economical 
kind  of  stove  called  a kang.  This  is  a wide, 
brick  platform  built  along  one  side  of  the 
room  and  kept  warm  by  a very  tiny  fire 
underneath.  On  the  warm  platform  the 
people  sit  by  day  and  sleep  at  night.  The 
kang  is  often  heated  by  burning  straw,  corn- 
stalks, or  trimmings  of  fruit  trees,  and  the 
ashes  are  carefully  saved  for  fertilizer.  A 
long  time  ago  the  Chinese  invented  a kind 
of  fireless  cooker. 

To  get  wood  the  Chinese,  like  the  Japanese, 
grow  the  bamboo  tree  as  they  do  any  other 
crop.  (Sec.  655.)  This  plant,  which  grows 
with  great  rapidity,  has  a strong,  hollow, 
jointed  stalk,  which  the  people,  like  the  Jap- 
anese, have  learned  to  use  in  numberless  ways. 

676.  Western  ideas. — About  a hundred 
years  ago  there  began  for  the  people  of 
Europe  and  America  a period  of  time  which 
may  be  called  the  Age  of  Science.  Until  that 
time  we  had  nothing  that  China  wanted,  and 
her  idea  about  wanting  to  be  left  alone  was 
quite  right.  But  now,  like  the  Japanese, 
the  Chinese  begin  to  see  that  we  have  things 
that  they  want — new  knowledge,  new  ma- 
chines, new  ways  of  doing  things — so  China 
has  changed  her  attitude  towards  other 
nations.  She  is  now  sending  her  young  men 
to  the  universities  of  America  and  Europe; 
she  hires  foreigners  to  come  and  teach  in 
the  Chinese  colleges;  she  is  starting  schools 
to  teach  her  own  people  the  new  knowledge. 
Not  far  from  Shanghai  there  is  even  a college 
to  teach  tea-growing.  The  Chinese  govern- 
ment has  adopted  a new  alphabet  of  thirty- 
six  letters  to  take  the  place  of  the  Chinese 
writing,  which  has  thousands  of  word 
signs.  With  this  new  alphabet  the  type- 
writer can  be  used,  and  a new  school  has 
been  started  at  Peking  to  train  teachers  in 
the  new  way  of  writing. 

Many  of  the  people  are  cutting  off  the  long 
queue,  or  plait  of  hair,  sometimes  called  a 

11-17 


© E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  502.  Native  Chinese  taxicabs  in  Hongkong. 
See  the  raincoat  of  long  coarse  grass,  and  the  grass  hat. 

pigtail.  They  are  even  beginning  to  give  up 
their  native  style  of  clothes  for  the  less  com- 
fortable and  less  satisfactory  kind  that  we 
wear. 

677.  Western  machines. — Steamboats  are 
replacing  the  junks  on  her  rivers  and  canals. 
Automobile  roads  are  beginning  to  replace 
the  old  trails  where  men  trundled  wheel- 
barrows and  donkeys  carried  packs.  Tele- 
graph lines  and  new  railroads  are  being 
built.  Some  Chinese  farmers  are  changing 
from  the  old,  old  plan  of  growing  nearly 
everything  needed  on  each  little  farm. 
Instead,  some  farmers  now  grow  only  two 
or  three  things  and  send  most  of  what  they 
raise  to  market.  Factories  are  being  built 
and  equipped  with  European  and  American 
machines.  There  are  even  large  modern  iron 
works  at  Hankow  on  the  Yangtze  which 
sometimes  send  iron  to  San  Francisco. 

678.  Government  and  army. — After  hav- 
ing been  an  empire  for  thousands  of  years, 
China  has  become  a republic  in  name  at 
least.  It  is  a misfortune  that  China  has 
as  yet  a very  poor  government.  The  Peking 
government  has  little  power.  In  some  of 
the  provinces  the  people  are  ruled  entirely 
by  military  usurpers,  and  sometimes  there  is 
a rival  government  at  Canton. 

After  despising  the  soldier  for  centuries, 
China  is,  unfortunately,  beginning  to  build, 
train,  and  equip  an  army,  like  the  armies  of 


330 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  503.  A street  scene  in  the  older  section  of  Canton.  (Fig.  474.) 


Europe  and  America.  She  did  this  only  after 
she  had  seen  Russia  take  a part  of  Manchuria 
from  her,  Japan  take  Formosa,  England  take 
Wei-hai-wei  and  Hongkong,  Germany  take 
Shantung,  and  France  take  a corner  of  South 
China.  If  China  should  become  organized 
and  armed  as  Japan  is,  she  might  be  much 
the  most  powerful  military  nation  in  the 
world.  The  United  States  has  taken  nothing 
from  China,  but  has  helped  her  all  she  could, 
and  is  regarded  as  her  great  friend.  It  is  not 
only  a duty  of  decency,  but  it  is  to  the  best 
interest  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
to  see  to  it  that  China  is  so  treated  that 
she  shall  not  become  a militaristic  nation. 

679.  Trade. — When  the  Chinese  farm  and 
home  were  so  nearly  self-supporting,  the 
country  had  but  little  foreign  trade.  Before 
the  World  War  the  exports  and  imports 
were  less  than  two  dollars  a year  for  each 
person,  while  in  the  United  Kingdom  they 
were  over  seventy  dollars.  (See  Appendix.) 
Chief  of  all  the  exports  is  raw  silk.  Then 
come  beans,  bean  cake,  bean  oil,  and  hides. 
Among  their  curious  exports  are  firecrackers, 
which  the  Chinese  are  very  fond  of  using, 
and  dried  eggs,  which  will,  of  course,  keep  a 
long  time  and  can  be  carried  easily. 


The  chief  Chinese  im- 
ports are  cotton  and  cot- 
ton cloth,  tobacco,  iron, 
machinery  to  make  manu- 
factures, and  oil  for  the 
family  lamp.  Even  the 
Chinese  peasant  is  willing 
to  pay  for  a bright  light. 
Most  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
China  is  with  Japan,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States. 

680.  Cities. — Shanghai, 
at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yangtze,  is  the  greatest 
trade  center  — the  New 
York  of  China.  Ocean 
steamers  go  to  Hankow, 
600  miles  up  the  Yangtze. 
Why  should  Hankow  be  a 
great  city?  Why  is  it  called 
the  Chicago  of  China? 

The  island  city  of  Hongkong,  now  a British 
possession,  is  the  center  of  the  trade  of  south 
China  and  the  Li  Valley.  Much  of  this 

trade  comes  by  way  of  Canton,  which,  next 

to  New  York,  is  said  to  be  the  most  crowded 
city  in  the  world.  Here  thousands  of  people 
live  in  boats.  Tientsin,  the  port  of  Peking, 
is  the  center  of  trade  for  North  China.  China 
has  many  large  cities,  most  of  which  are  in  the 
district  served  by  boats.  Name  the  imports 
and  exports  of  each  port  city.  (Fig.  474.) 

681.  Future. — Some  parts  of  China  are  so 
well  cultivated  that  the  land  cannot  be 
made  to  produce  another  thing.  In  parts, 
especially  in  the  west,  there  is  still  unused 
land,  and  there  may  be  some  increase  in 
Chinese  agriculture.  The  great  change  in 
China  will  be  in  the  growth  of  factories  and 
in  manufacture.  Most  of  the  things  used  in 
China  are  still  made  on  the  hand  loom  and 
the  hand  spinning  wheel,  and  by  other  hand 
tools;  but  there  are  already  100,000  factory 
workers,  and  an  American  official  says  that  in 
a few  more  decades  there  may  be  40,000,000 
factory  workers.  That  would  be  only  the 
proportion  that  we  now  have  to  the  total 
population  in  the  United  States. 

China  is  rich  in  resources  for  manufacturing. 


THE  CHINESE  REGION 


331 


China  has  more  coal  by  far  than  all  Europe, 
of  which  a supply  is  found  in  each  one  of  the 
eighteen  provinces  of  China  Proper.  Where 
there  is  coal,  there  is  often  oil;  indeed,  the 
Chinese  have  used  a little  petroleum  for  a 
long  while.  She  also  has  iron,  which  has 
supported  a primitive  iron  industry  for  many 
centuries,  but  the  resources  are  almost  un- 
touched, and  are  said  to  be  very  rich.  An 
iron  mine  on  the  Yangtze  sends  Japan  some 
of  the  iron  used  in  that  country.  The  moun- 
tainous southwestern  province,  Yunnan,  is 
famous  for  its  mines  of  gold,  copper,  zinc, 
and  other  metals.  She  has  so  many  people 
that  they  have  never  been  counted;  thus 
320,000,000  is  only  an  estimate. 

With  all  these  raw  materials  and  all  these 
workers  at  hand,  and  with  a new  education 
started,  we  may  expect  to  see  great  changes 
in  China  in  our  own  lifetime.  The  chief 
difficulty  is  a political  one.  Can  China  have 
a good  government?  Can  she  have  peace? 
In  this  age  of  science  and  machinery,  peace 
and  good  government  are  more  important 
than  ever  before.  American  and  European 
engineers  are  ready  to  help  China  with  plans. 
American  machinery  is  ready  to  chug  in  the 
mines,  quarries,  and  fields,  and  to  whirr  in 
the  factories.  If  China  develops  riches,  it 
means  riches  for  us  too,  through  our  trade 
with  her.  There  is  nothing  to  be  gained  from 
poor  neighbors,  and  much  to  be  had  from 
rich  ones.  The  lack  of  prosperity  in  Europe 
after  the  World  War  soon  made  hard  times 
in  the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  great  river  of  the  United  States  resembles 
the  Yangtze?  of  Egypt?  of  Austria?  of  Mesopotamia? 
How?  2.  Of  what  value  is  the  Yangtze  to  China? 
3.  Why  are  flood  plain  and  delta  soils  so  rich?  4. 
What  rivers  of  southwest  China  have  deep  valleys? 

5.  Why  is  the  labor  of  rice  culture  much  more  difficult 
in  China  than  in  Louisiana  and  Texas?  (Sec.  51.) 

6.  What  is  meant  by  different  grades  of  rice?  7. 
Why  has  it  become  a staple  food  used  by  people  almost 
everywhere?  8.  Why  is  it  said  to  be  a luxury  in 
some  parts  of  China?  9.  Why  is  winter  wheat  grown 
in  this  region?  10.  Where  are  the  largest  cities  of 
China  located?  Why?  Find  a city  near  the  Yangtze 
that  might  have  been  on  the  coast  at  one  time. 
11.  What  opportunities  are  there  in  China  for  an 
ambitious  young  American?  12.  Why  has  China  not 
become  a modern  nation  like  Japan? 


13.  Compare  transportation  facilities  in  China,  as 
pictured  in  this  chapter,  with  those  with  which  you 
are  familiar.  14.  Imagine  you  had  traveled  in  China 
and  taken  the  pictures  shown  in  this  chapter.  What 
interesting  thing  about  that  nation  would  you  tell  from 
each  picture?  15.  Why  are  the  great  powers  of  the 
world  so  much  interested  in  China?  16.  America  and 
England  have  great  coal  fields.  Of  what  importance 
are  China’s  coal  fields  to  them?  17.  What  countries 
have  shared  in  the  partition  of  China?  18.  Name 
some  modern  discoveries  in  science  that  had  been 
long  known  in  China.  19.  How  has  China  been 
able  to  develop  an  ancient  and  an  advanced  civiliza- 
tion without  foreign  aid?  20.  From  the  history  of 
China,  would  you  say  that  there  is  any  reason  for 
Europeans  or  Americans  to  look  down  on  China? 

21.  What  is  a houseboat?  Why  do  so  many  people 
in  China  live  on  them?  22.  Take  the  shortest  journey 
from  Peking  to  London.  Tell  what  countries  and 
cities  are  passed  through.  23.  Why  is  not  all  trade 
with  Europe  by  railroad?  24.  Take  machinery  from 
Philadelphia,  and  oil  from  Texas,  to  Tientsin.  What 
would  each  ship  carry  on  its  return  trip?  25.  The 
great  Chinese  famine  of  1921,  in  the  region  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  Hwang  Valley,  was  caused  by  both 
drought  and  flood — drought  in  the  upper  region  and 
flood  in  the  lower  region.  Can  you  explain  these 
conditions?  26.  Explain  how  the  same  wind  can 
bring  death  to  China  both  by  coming  and  by  not 
coming.  Also  how  it  is  the  cause  of  her  dense  popula- 
tion along  the  southeast  coast. 


Courtesy  Hollister  Sturges 


Fig.  504.  A native  Chinese  boat  on  the  Woosung,  a 
river  of  the  Yangtze  delta,  on  which  Shanghai  is 
situated. 


382 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  505.  A temple  at  Calcutta  showing  the  wonderful  development  of  native 
Indian  art  and  workmanship.  In  very  early  times  the  Indians  built  entirely 
of  wood  and  when  they  began  to  use  stone  they  continued  the  same  forms 
of  architecture.  Does  your  home  county  have  any  buildings  as  beautiful? 


THE  MANCHURIAN  REGION 

682.  A region  like  parts  of  North  America. 
— How  wide  is  the  Manchurian  region?  (Fig. 
469.)  How  long?  What  countries  own  ter- 
ritory in  it?  (Fig.  471.)  If  we  could  move 
it  over  to  eastern  North  America,  in  the 
same  latitude,  where  would  its  bounds  be? 

In  climate,  this  part  of  Asia  is  much  like 
the  part  of  North  America  bounded  by  the 
Great  Northern  Forests,  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
latitude  40°,  and  the  Great  Plains.  The 
Manchurian  Region  is  not  quite  so  wide  as 
this  American  region,  but  Hokushu  and 
southern  Sakhalin  have  the  climate  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  the  plains  of  Manchuria  have  the 
climate  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Prairie 
Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt,  and  of  our 
Northern  Wheat  Region.  The  harbor  of 
Vladivostok  is  frozen  in  winter,  but  Dairen 
is  open. 

The  islands  of  the  Manchurian  region 
and  the  parts  near  the  ocean  are  for  the 
most  part  forest-covered  mountains.  Central 
Manchuria  is  a great  treeless  plain,  like 
the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  valley 
of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  North  of 
the  Amur  are  more  mountains  and  forests, 
much  like  the  forests  of  Ontario. 


683.  A new  frontier. — 

The  Japanese,  accustomed 
for  centuries  to  the  warm 
Rice  Region,  do  not  like 
cold  climates.  Therefore 
they  only  began  to  settle 
Hokushu,  which  means 
“northland,”  in  the  last 
twenty  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  This  was 
about  the  time  the  Cana- 
dians began  to  settle  Man- 
itoba, and  Americans  were 
rushing  into  North  Dakota. 

Hokushu  is,  therefore,  a 
real  frontier,  and  quite 
unlike  the  Rice  Region. 
Settlers  are  clearing  the 
forests  to  make  homes, 
and  sawmills  and  paper- 
mills  are  using  the  timber. 
To  aid  the  settlers,  Japan  has  established, 
in  Hokushu,  one  of  the  finest  agricultural 
experiment  stations  in  the  world.  The  farms 
here  are  four  times  as  large  as  they  are  in  the 
southern  islands.  This  development  is  a 
part  of  the  New  Japan. 

684.  A region  of  riches. — The  mainland 
of  the  Manchurian  region  is  also  a frontier 
and  a land  of  great  resources.  Its  coasts 
are  rich  in  fish;  its  mountains  are  rich  in 
forests.  The  Japanese  are  cutting  much 
lumber  along  the  Yalu  River  in  northern 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  506.  First  the  elephant  is  crane  to  load  the 
wagon;  then  he  is  tractor  to  pull  it  away.  The 
“chauffeur”  guides  him  by  talking  to  him  and  by 
tapping  him  with  the  stick. 


THE  MANCHURIAN  REGION 


333 


Courtesy  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

Fig.  507.  Chinese  grain  elevator.  Do  you  see  how  these  workmen  in 
South  Manchuria  are  raising  the  sacks  of  beans  to  the  top  of  the  heap? 


Chosen  (Korea) . The  sec- 
tion near  the  coast  and 
near  the  Amur  has  vast 
forests  and  very  few  peo- 
ple indeed. 

Great  riches  of  coal,  iron, 
gold,  and  other  minerals 
seem  to  be  there,  and  coal 
mining  is  increasing  rap- 
idly, since  Japan  has  had 
control  of  South  Man- 
churia. Most  of  the  wide 
plain  of  Manchuria  has 
a climate  that  is  good  for 
beans  and  millet.  It  has 
cold  winters,  hot  summers, 
and  moderate  summer  rain 
in  the  south,  like  Iowa;  in  the  north  the 
climate  is  like  that  of  North  Dakota  and 
Saskatchewan.  (Sec.  93.)  Corn  grows  well 
in  the  south,  and  spring  wheat  in  the  north 
grows  as  it  does  in  Minnesota  and  the  Cana- 
dian wheat  provinces.  As  yet  but  little  of 
the  land  is  used.  How  long  is  the  plain  from 
the  Gulf  of  Pechili  to  the  Amur  River? 

Trade  is  easy  on  this  plain.  Steamboats 
travel  for  hundreds  of  miles  up  the  Amur  and 
up  its  branch,  the  Sungari,  even  to  Kirin  in 
the  midst  of  the  wide  plain,  which  is  crossed 
by  two  railroads.  There  are  large,  rich  coal 
fields  in  this  plain. 

685.  Who  owns  Manchuria? — Manchuria 
is  a great,  rich,  almost  empty  land,  for 
which  three  peoples,  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  Russians,  have  striven.  China  has  long 
claimed  Manchuria  as  one  of  her  dependen- 
cies, but  most  of  the  time  she  ruled  it  about 
as  we  rule  the  Indians  of  Alaska.  While 
China  has  become  populous,  Manchuria  has 
remained  almost  empty,  because  it  was  be- 
yond the  Great  Wall  and  exposed  to  nomads 
and  bandits  from  Mongolia.  Robber  bands 
made  Manchuria  an  unsafe  place  for  a 
farmer  and  his  goods.  When  Russia,  push- 
ing her  armies  through  Asia,  reached  Man- 
churia, she  obtained  permission  to  build 
railroads  through  Manchuria  and  to  police 
them.  As  policemen,  she  sent  in  armies  and 
settlers.  Then  in  1904-1905  came  the  Russian  1 


war  with  Japan,  in  which  Japan  won.  As  a 
result,  Japan  now  owns  and  polices  the  rail- 
roads of  South  Manchuria,  and  manages  affairs 
there  as  though  she  owned  the  country.  Most 
of  the  people  are  Chinese,  but  both  Chinese 
and  Japanese  are  going  there,  railroads  are 
being  built,  and  industry  is  thriving. 

686.  Future. — Will  the  rich  resources  of 
this  promising  land,  which  is  larger  than 
England,  France,  and  Germany  combined, 
be  used?  That  depends  upon  government. 
If  the  people  can  have  peace  and  good 
government,  the  land  may  become  the  home 
of  as  many  people  as  are  in  Japan.  It  is 
the  only  large  region  of  good,  unused  land  in 
eastern  Asia.  Russia  does  not  need  this 
territory  because  she  has  the  great  and  almost 
unused  wheat  region  of  central  Siberia. 
Both  China  and  Japan  need  the  land  as  a 
place  to  which  their  people  can  emigrate. 
China’s  government  is  not  well  organized  and 
she  is  not  strong  enough  now  to  secure  this 
land.  Japan  would  like  to  have  it  and  she 
may  take  it.  She  can  keep  order  and  she 
can  use  the  land.  She  has  shown  this  by 
the  way  the  Japanese  people  are  now  settling 
the  cold  Japanese  island  of  Hokushu,  a 
land  of  forests,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and 
potatoes.  Since  Japan  took  Russia’s  place  in 
South  Manchuria,  the  export  to  Europe  and 
America  of  soy  beans  grown  by  the  Chinese 
farmers  has  increased  enormously. 


334 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  northern  Korea  and  the  highlands  north 
of  it  with  New  England,  in  coast  line,  rivers,  and 
industries.  The  industries  here  are  most  like  those  of 
which  New  England  state?  2.  Compare  the  cities 
with  those  of  New  England  in  number,  size,  and 
industries  as  carried  on.  3.  Do  you  think  it  will  ever 
become  the  rich  manufacturing  country  New  England 
is?  Why?  4.  What  natural  resources  has  Manchuria 
that  are  lacking  in  Japan?  What  resources  are  there 
in  Manchuria  that  Japan  needs  more  than  China? 

5.  Why  is  Mukden  an  important  place?  What  kind 
of  a place  do  you  imagine  it  to  be?  Compare  the  cities 
of  the  Plain  of  Manchuria  with  those  of  Nebraska  and 
Dakota  in  size,  number,  and  characteristics.  6.  What 
southern  port  is  coveted  by  Russia?  Why?  Under 
which  of  the  three  nations  contending  for  it  would 
Manchuria  be  best  developed?  Which  one,  if  any,  do 
you  think  should  have  it?  Why?  7.  What  export  of 
Manchuria  comes  to  America? 

8.  If  Manchuria  is  developed,  what  kind  of  towns 
would  you  expect  to  grow  up  in  the  extreme  northern 
part?  What  kind  on  the  western  boundary?  Why? 
9.  Question  for  discussion:  Fifty  years  from  now  the 
plain  of  Manchuria  will  be  as  productive  as  the 
Dakotas.  Give  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion. Compare  Newchwang  as  it  is  to-day  with  what 
it  may  be  fifty  years  from  now.  10.  Compare  the 
effects  of  bad  government  and  war  in  China,  Man- 
churia, and  the  Balkans  with  good  government  in 
Denmark.  Would  Japan  rather  own  a country  like 
Denmark,  or  Manchuria?  Give  reasons  for  answer. 

INDIA 

687.  Almost  a world  apart. — The  peninsula 
of  India  pushes  its  great  wedge  of  land  into 
the  warm  Indian  Ocean.  On  each  of  the 
two  sides  of  the  peninsula  which  lie  along  the 
Indian  Ocean  is  a range  of  mountains,  and 
between  the  ranges  is  enclosed  a large  plateau. 
Name  the  mountains.  Arched  around  this 
plateau  on  the  north  is  a long,  wide  area  of 
low  plain  drained  by  three  great  rivers,  all 
of  which  rise  in  Tibet.  Name  them.  Beyond 
the  plains  three  highlands  wall  India  off  from 
the  rest  of  Asia:  (1)  the  plateau  of  Iran  is 
on  the  west;  (2)  the  mountains  of  Burma  are 
on  the  east;  and  (3)  on  the  north  are  the 
towering  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains, so  high  and  cold  that  no 
man  has  ever  been  near  their 
tops.  One  party  of  explorers 
was  driven  down  from  one  of 

Fig.  508.  Total  populations  in  mil- 
lions : 

A.  British  India  (1911) 315 

B.  United  States  (1920) 105 


the  Himalaya  peaks,  in  the  summertime,  by 
a snowstorm  that  lasted  for  thirteen  days. 
By  distant  observations  surveyors  have  cal- 
culated the  height  of  Mt.  Everest,  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world.  (Fig.  468.) 

What  a difference  there  is  between  the 
north  and  the  south  side  of  these  mountains! 
On  the  north  side  lies  Tibet,  the  highest 
plateau  in  all  the  world,  cold,  dry,  and  with 
but  few  people.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
Himalayas  in  India,  one  hundred  miles 
away,  there  is  quite  another  world.  It  is  a 
low  plain,  very  hot,  very  moist,  and  very 
green  with  growing  things,  and  the  people 
seem  to  be  as  thick  as  flies.  You  wonder 
how  they  all  can  make  a living.  India  is 
only  half  as  large  as  the  United  States,  but 
she  has  three  times  as  many  people. 

688.  Climate  and  famine. — How  can  India 
feed  so  many  people?  India  is  a monsoon 
land.  (Sec.  646.)  All  summer  long,  nearly 
every  year,  the  southwest  monsoon  sweeps 
across  the  peninsula,  carrying  clouds  and 
much  rain,  and  making  the  air  moist  and 
the  ground  wet.  In  India,  as  in  China,  the 
monsoon  adds  the  gift  of  moisture  to  the 
heat  of  summer,  which  maxes  it  possible  for 
the  people  to  raise  abundant  crops  on  the 
fertile  soil,  and  thus  to  support  a population 
so  large  that  India  seems  like  a human  hive. 
The  damp,  muggy,  burning  hot  weather 
during  the  monsoon  makes  people  from 
Europe  or  America  think  they  are  going  to 
melt.  In  winter  the  prevailing  wind  is  from 
the  northeast.  It  blows  from  the  land  and 
brings  but  little  rain ; so  there  is  a long  season 
of  winter  drought.  At  this  time,  the  air  is 
dry,  many  of  the  trees  shed  their  leaves,  and 
the  grass  is  brown  and  dead. 

It  is  terrible  for  India  when  the  monsoon 
fails,  or  is  late,  or  stops  for  a time,  as  it  some- 
times does.  Crops  may  then  fail  completely; 
famine  comes.  For  centuries  these  famine 
years  have  come  from  time  to  time,  especially 
in  northwestern  India.  Then  millions  and 
millions  of  people  have  starved  for  want  of 
even  the  cheapest  food. 

689.  People. — Like  China,  Egypt,  and 
Mesopotamia,  India  is  a land  of  very  ancient 


INDIA 


335 


Fig.  509.  The  summer  rainfall  of 
India.  How  does  this  map  show  the 
need  for  irrigation,  and  the  water  supply 
for  irrigation  in  the  Lower  Indus 
Valley? 


civilizations. 
Forages  one 
set  of  invad- 
ers  after 
another 
have  set  up 
kingdoms  in 
different 
parts  of  the 
country. 
These  kings 
have  made 
India  a land 
of  wonderful 


buildings.  But  so  many  hundreds  of  years 
have  passed  since  then  that  many  of  their 
palaces  and  tombs  have  become  ruins. 

About  seventy  per  cent  of  the  people  are 
Hindus.  Since  they  came  down  from  central 
Asia  their  skins  have  become  very  dark,  but 
they  still  have  straight  hair  and  features  like 
those  of  their  European  cousins.  The  people 
in  the  Indus  Valley  were  the  last  to  arrive 
from  Central  Asia,  and  because  they  have  not 
lived  long  in  India  their  skins  are  nearly 
white.  In  southern  India  are  the  original 
natives  and  their  skins  are  very  black  indeed. 

Each  succeeding  conqueror  always  re- 
garded those  whom  he  was  able  to  conquer 
as  inferior.  As  one  race  after  another  thus  be- 
came conquered,  the  people  gradually  formed 
into  groups  called  castes.  Those  in  one 
caste  will  not  associate  with  those  in  another 
caste,  and  a child  must  stay  in  the  caste 
of  his  father.  The  caste  idea  became  the 
style.  Consequently  people  of  different  trades 
are  in  castes;  the  blacksmith  may  not  speak 
to  the  shoemaker,  or  the  shoemaker  to  the 
ditch-digger.  This  caste  system  is  a great 
bother,  especially  now  when  it  is  easy  for 
people  to  travel  and  trade  with  each  other. 
It  keeps  people  from  doing  many  things  that 
we  can  do  in  America,  where  we  believe  that 
everyone  should  have  an  equal  chance. 

Many  of  the  people  of  India  were  highly 
civilized  long  before  the  people  of  North 
Europe  were.  As  workers,  they  have  amazing 
skill,  and  make  wonderful  carvings  of  wood, 
metal,  and  ivory,  and  many  other  beautiful 


things.  Their  country  still  contains  some 
of  the  most  gorgeous  and  beautiful  buildings 
in  the  world.  (Fig.  505.) 

690.  Government. — Just  as  Europe  has 
many  small  countries,  such  as  Switzerland 
and  Holland,  so  India  has  many  kingdoms 
and  empires.  Thirty  languages  are  spoken. 
Since  1774  England  has  ruled  over  India,  and 
has  kept  the  native  states  from  fighting  each 
other.  Many  of  the  native  states  still  keep 
their  own  rulers,  just  as  each  of  our  own  states 
has  a governor;  but  the  King  of  England  sends 
out  a governor-general,  or  viceroy.  This  gov- 
ernor-general and  his  council  really  rule  India, 
for  the  native  princes  must  obey  them.  But 
the  native  princes  attend  to  local  govern- 
ment, and  make  much  show  with  palaces 
and  processions,  jewelry  and  bright  clothing. 

Since  England  began  to  keep  order  in 
India,  many  railroads  have  been  built,  and 
the  country  has  some  factories  and  a heavy 
foreign  trade. 

691.  India  has  four  natural  divisions: 

First,  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas; 

Second,  the  moist  plains  of  the  lower 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra; 

Third,  the  drier  plains  of  the  Indus 
Region ; 

Fourth,  the  plateau  of  Hindustan,  and 
the  island  of  Ceylon. 

692.  The  Himalaya  slopes. — The  Himalaya 
slopes,  too  small  to  show  on  the  map,  have  all 
kinds  of  climate,  from  stifling  tropic  heat  at  the 
base,  to  glaciers  and  unending  snow  at  the  top. 
These  slopes  have  a terrific  rainfall.  As  the 
moist  monsoon  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  goes 
up  the  steep 
slopes,  the 
water  fairly 
pours  out  of 
the  clouds. 

Forty  inches 
of  rain  have 
been  known 
to  fall  at 
one  place  in 
a single  day, 
and  900  Fig-  510.  The  winter  rainfall  of  India. 
. . What  is  remarkable  about  the  rainfall 

inches  in  a Of  Ceylon?  (Fig.  509.) 


336 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Courtesy  Ludlow  Manufacturing  Associates 

Fig.  511.  Weighing  jute  in  a Calcutta  warehouse. 
What  is  the  chief  use  for  this  fiber? 


single  year;  the  average  for  some  districts 
is  over  400  inches  a year.  In  some  places 
the  mountain  is  just  bare  rock,  because  all 
the  soil  has  been  washed  down  into  the 
Ganges  plain.  Like  the  Great  Valley  of 
California,  the  Ganges  plain  is  made  up  of 
soft  earth  thus  washed  down  by  the  moun- 
tain streams. 

693.  The  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  val- 
leys.— The  monsoon  seems  to  swing  around 
the  plateau  of  Hindustan  and  up  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges,  making  it,  too,  a land  of 
heavy  rain  (Fig.  509),  but  not  so  heavy 
as  the  rain  of  the  Himalaya  slopes. 
The  lower  Ganges  valley  is  called  Bengal. 
Millions  of  dark-skinned  farming  people 
make  their  living  on  this  plain  as  the  people 
do  on  the  plains  of  China.  Two  crops 
suited  to  wet  land  are  the  leaders  here: 
rice  to  eat,  and  jute  to  sell.  The  rice  is  grown 
as  it  is  in  China  and  Japan  (Secs.  654, 
672).  Juteisa  tall,  reed-like  plant  which  has  in 
its  stalk  the  cheapest  of  all  important  fibers. 
It  is  made  into  burlaps  and  gunny  sacks, 
the  coarse  sacks  and  bags  which  are  much 
used  throughout  the  world  to  hold  grain 
and  coarse  materials.  In  Calcutta,  the  great 
city  of  the  Ganges  delta,  many  factories  are 
making  burlap,  and  many  ships  go  down 


the  Hoogli  River  (Fig.  527)  carrying  bales  of 
burlap  and  bales  of  raw  jute  to  every 
continent.  The  lowlands  of  the  Brahmaputra, 
in  a section  called  Assam,  are  much  like 
those  of  the  Ganges. 

On  the  higher  lands  of  Assam,  English 
companies  have  developed  many  large  tea 
plantations  with  the  aid  of  native  workers. 

694.  The  Indus  region. — In  northwestern 
India,  a part  of  which  is  called  the  Punjab, 
the  plain  between  the  Himalayas  and  the  sea 
is  much  wider  than  the  plain  in  Bengal. 

The  Indus  plain  is  level,  wide,  and  hot. 
The  monsoon  does  not  blow  here  as  strongly 
as  it  does  farther  east,  and  it  makes  but  little 
rain  until  it  reaches  the  Himalayas.  (Fig. 
473.)  The  wide,  almost  rainless  stretch 
east  of  the  Indus  is  called  the  Thar,  or 
Indian  desert,  but  streams  flow  down  from 
the  deluged  mountains  and  form  the  Indus, 
which  flows  through  a land  of  little  rain. 

Instead  of  the  rice  and  jute  of  the  lower 
Ganges  valley,  the  Indus  region  produces 
wheat  and  barley.  These  crops  grow  between 
November  and  March,  but  the  scanty,  irregu- 
lar rainfall  makes  the  crop  uncertain.  In 
good  seasons,  the  fields  of  the  upper  Indus 
produce  wheat  for  export  from  the  wheat 
port  of  Karachi. 

For  thousands  of  years  people  have  irri- 
gated land  in  the  Indus  valley.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  farmers  are  working  year 
in  and  year  out,  irrigating 
their  little  bits  of  land 
from  wells,  as  they  do  in 
the  M’zab.  (Sec.  579.) 

Under  the  English  govern- 
ment, large,  ancient  irriga- 
tion works  along  the  rivers 
have  been  rebuilt,  new 
ones  have  been  made,  and 
still  others  are  planned. 

695.  The  plateau  of  Hin- 
dustan makes  up  most  of 

Fig.  512.  Tropic  monsoon 
rain,  Calcutta,  India,  61.76  in. 
per  year.  "Winch  season  has 
the  land  wind?  Which  the 
sea  wind?  Why  is  this  a good 
rice  region? 


INDIA 


337 


Fig.  514.  Adding  sections  to  a ferryboat  of  inflated  bullock  skins  on  one 
of  the  headwaters  of  the  Indus  River.  Compare  with  Fig.  501. 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


the  peninsula.  It  is 
deluged  with  rain  where 
the  monsoon  strikes  the 
Ghats  Mountains  on  the 
southwest  coast.  (Fig. 

473.)  Farther  inland  it 
is  dryer,  and  the  plain  is 
covered  with  grass.  Here 
the  farmers  grow  the 
drought-resisting  crops  of 
sorghum  and  millet.  These 
grains  (Sec.  108)  have  tall 
stalks  and  small,  round 
seeds.  They  are  grown  on 
millions  of  acres  of  ground, 
for  they  are  the  main  food  of 
millions  of  men  and  millions 
of  cattle.  This  partially 
dry  region  furnishes  a large 
partof  theworld’ssupplyof 
goat  skins,  many  of  which 
go  to  the  American  tanneries  and  shoe  factories. 

Inland  from  Bombay  is  a large  area  with 

a rich  black 
soil  made  of 
decayed  lava. 
(Sec.  130.) 
Because  of  the 
climate  of 
India,  this  lava 
plain  becomes 
a land  for  cot- 
ton, and  India 
is  second  only 
to  the  United 
States  as  a 
cotton  export- 
er. The  cot- 
ton is  shipped 
from  Bombay, 
the  chief  trad*1 
center  of  the 
western  part 
of  the  plateau, 
and  from 
Madras,  the 
trade  center  of 
the  east  coast. 
Many  peo- 


ple on  this  plateau  make  their  living  by  rais- 
ing crops  that  require  much  labor,  such  as 
drying  the  fruits  of  jthe  myrobalan  tree  to 
make  tanning  material,  gathering  gums  from 
the  trunks  of  forest  trees  to  make  varnish, 
and  picking  castor  beans  to  make  oil.  Much 
castor  oil  is  now  used  in  airplane  motors. 
Bombay  has  a great  export  of  oil  seeds. 

696.  Ceylon. — Ceylon  differs  from  most 
parts  of  India  in  having  heavy  monsoon 
rains  on  one  side  and  trade  wind  rains  over 
on  the  other  side  when  the  monsoon  is  not 
blowing.  The  well-watered  highlands  of  the 
interior  are  tilled  by  scientific  farming  on  a 
large  scale.  The  farming  is  managed  by 
white  men,  but  the  work  is  done  by  dark- 
skinned  Ceylonese,  and  also  by  thousands 
of  very  black  workers  from  southern  India. 
Coffee  was  raised  in  Ceylon  until  blight  killed 
the  trees.  Then  tea  was  raised,  but  the 
crops  were  so  large  that  the  price  went  down. 
Rubber  was  tried  next,  and  so  much  was 
raised  that  the  price  for  it,  too,  has  gone  down. 

On  the  coast  lowlands  of  both  Ceylon  and 
the  mainland  of  India  are  vast  quantities 
of  coconuts.  They  come  to  Europe  and 
America  as  coconut  oil,  as  dried  meats 
(copra)  ready  for  crushing,  or  as  shredded 


Photo.  Doubleday,  Page  & Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  513.  Tapping  rubber  trees 
on  a Ceylonese  plantation. 


838 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Fig.  515.  Hauling  iron  pipe  in  India  ninety  miles  from  a railway. 

cart,  going  ten  miles  a day,  give  a cheap  freight  rate? 

coconut.  Many  steamships  stop  at  Colombo 
on  the  voyage  between  Singapore  and  Europe 
and  America. 

697.  Animals. — India,  with  its  many  kinds 
of  climate,  has  a great  variety  of  animals.  In 
the  dry  parts  of  India  the  camel  is  used.  In 
the  wetter  sections  the  water  buffalo  does  the 
work,  because  he  will  work  in  the  mud. 

Whenever  the  buffalo  gets  a chance,  he  will 
lie  down  in  the  mud  and  bury  himself  in  it 
up  to  his  eyes,  in  order  to  keep  cool  and 
escape  the  flies.  Most  of  the  plowing  in 
India  is  done  by  zebus,  a kind  of  cattle 
(Fig.  520).  Can  you  tell  why?  (Sec.  527.) 

These  animals  are  white,  with  large  humps 
on  their  necks.  In  some  places  the  ele- 
phant plows  and  pulls  wagons,  but  he  is  most 
useful  at  lifting  heavy  logs  in  lumber  yards. 

'The  Indian  jungles  have  many  wild 
animals,  including  the  elephant  and  the 
tiger.  The  latter  sometimes  kills  people. 
Thousands  of  people  are  killed  each  year  by 
the  cobra,  the  deadliest  of  the  many  poison- 
ous snakes  of  India. 

698.  Trade  of  India. — The  chief  import 
of  all  India  is  cotton  cloth,  most  of 
which  comes  from  England.  The  United 
States  supplies  some  iron,  hardware, 
machinery,  and  petroleum.  Ceylon  is  a 
heavy  importer  of  rice,  but  in  ordinary  years, 
except  for  the  import  of  sugar,  the  rest  of 
India  feeds  herself.  What  are  the  exports? 

(Secs.  693  to  696.) 

699.  Future. — Agriculture,  which  is  the 
occupation  of  most  of  the  people  of  India,  is 


of  the  intensive  kind,  but 
there  are  still  large  stretches 
of  forest  and  jungle  where 
tigers  and  wild  elephants 
live.  This  land  may  be 
made  into  fields.  If  the  land 
is  rough,  it  can  grow  various 
tree  crops  in  which  hot 
countries  are  already  rich. 
Rubber,  tea,  coffee,  coconut, 
nut-yielding  palms,  myro- 
balans,  and  various  spice 
trees  are  now  used.  There 
are  also  many  others  as  yet 
but  little  used,  which  will  yield  large  crops. 

India  might 
use  much  better 
methods  of  grow- 
ing crops.  On 
the  Indus  alone, 


Can  this 


five  new  irriga- 
tion enterprises 
now  planned  will 
provide  water  for 
six  million  acres 
of  rich  desert 
land,  an  area  as 
large  as  Mary- 
land. 

India  is  be- 
ginning to  manu- 
facture. Native 
companies  have 
built  great  stor- 
age reservoirs  in 
the  Ghats  Moun- 
tains. These 
furnish  water 
power  at  all  sea- 
sons for  many 
cotton  mills  in 
Bombay.  Ad- 
ditional water 
power  may  be 
developed  in  the 
Ghats  and  also  in 
the  Himalayas, 
where  the 
streams  come 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  516.  Giant  bamboo  grown 
as  a crop  in  Ceylon.  Compare 
this  with  Fig.  164. 


INDIA 


339 


down  thousands  of  feet  from  the  plateaus 
of  Tibet. 

Although  India  is  beginning  to  manu- 
facture, it  must  be  remembered  that  she 
is  in  the  part  of  the  world  that  be- 
longs naturally  in  the  zone  for  producing 
raw  materials.  India  is  hot.  It  is  not  so 
easy  to  work  where  it  is  hot  as  where  it  is 
cool.  So  the  people  do  not  do  as  many 
things  as  people  in  the  stimulating  climate 
of  colder  lands.  (Secs.  207,  416.)  One  sea- 
son the  rice  growers  of  a district  in  Ceylon 
had  a crop  big  enough  to  last  two  seasons; 
so  they  did  not  plant  rice  the  next  season, 
but  loafed  the  whole  year  and  ate  up  what 
they  had.  In  the  third  season  the  crop 
failed,  and  the  people  had  to  beg  the  gov- 
ernment to  save  them  from  famine.  In 
such  a country  one  of  the  great  problems 
of  the  government  is  to  prevent  famines. 
(Fig.  550.)  Irrigation  is  helping  to  do  this,  and 
so  are  the  railroads  which  carry  food  from 
regions  of  good  crops  to  regions  where  crops 
have  failed.  India  has  many  railroads,  but 
they  are  so  far  apart  that  she  needs  many  more. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Point  out  the  thickly  populated  centers  and  tell 
why  they  are  so  located.  Why  is  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges  a more  densely  populated  region  than  the 
valley  of  the  Indus?  What  cities  of  India  would  you 
like  to  visit?  Why?  2.  Locate  on  the  product  maps 
of  India  (Figs.  517-519)  the  chief  producing  regions. 
3.  Compare  a wheat-harvest  scene  in  India  with  one 
in  Dakota  under  the  following  topics:  time  of  year; 

farming  im- 
p 1 e m e n t s; 
workers;  ship- 
ping. 4.  What 
are  the  natives 
doing  in  Fig. 
513?  Why  is 
it  necessary  to 
do  this  with 
great  care?  5. 
If  India’s 
caste  custom 
s h o u Td  be 
changed  into 
Denmark’s 
cooperative 
system,  what 

Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  ^ r ^ * 6 f+o 

Fig.  517.  India’s  cotton  acreage.  See  TTU  ^ result, 
how  it  avoids  the  wet  Ganges  Plain  (Com  pare 
as  it  avoids  the  wet  Gulf  Coast  Secs.  689  and 
(Fig.  30).  465.) 


6.  Of  what 
country  do  the 
thickly  popu- 
lated river  val- 
leys of  India 
make  you 
think? 

7.  Why  does 
India  export 
her  raw  ma- 
terial and  im- 
port cotton 
cloth?  Why 
so  much  cot- 
ton cloth? 
8.  To  what 
city  of  Scot- 
land does  Cal- 
cutta  send 
large  quan- 
tities of  jute? 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  518.  Acreage  of  India’s  rice,  a 
wet-land  crop.  (Fig.  509.) 


(Sec.  423.)  Show  the  journey  on  the 
map  by  way  of  the  Suez.  Is  any  product  of  India  used 
in  your  neighborhood?  9.  Describe  a forest  scene  in 
India.  Compare  it  with  a scene  in  the  Great  Northern 
Forest  of  North  America  from  the  following  points  of 
view:  kinds  of  trees;  nature  of  forest  growth;  flowers, 
birds,  and  animals.  What  modern  invention  has 
raised  the  value  of  one  of  India’s  resources?  10. 
Compare  the  four  sections  of  India,  using  the  follow- 
ing chart  as  a guide: 


Topic. 

Ganges 

Region. 

Indus 

Region. 

Slopes  of 
Himalayas. 

Soil 

Climate  

Rainfall 

Amount 

Time  of  year . 
Surface 

Crops  

Transporta- 
tion facilities 
Chief  city .... 

11.  Give 
two  reasons 
why  the  effect 
of  the  mon- 
soons is  more 
noticeable  in 
India  than  in 
any  other 
place  in  the 
world.  12. 
Why  does  the 
southeastern 
tip  of  India 
have  winter 
rain?  13.  Have 
people  in  your 
neighborhood 
ever  given  any 
money  to  aid 
famine  suf- 
ferers in  In- 
dia? What 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  519.  Acreage  of  grain  sorghum 
and  pearl  millet.  Compare  the  loca- 
tion of  these  drought-resistant  crops 
with  the  rainfall  (Fig.  509)  and  with  the 
rice  areas  (Fig.  518). 


340 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


causes  the  famine?  What  might  be  done  to  prevent  so 
much  distress?  14.  Why  have  the  people  of  India 
allowed  their  country  to  become  a colony?  Compare 
them  in  this  respect  with  the  Chinese;  with  the  Jap- 
anese. 15.  Since  India  has  been  under  British  rule, 
which  has  gained  more,  India  or  England?  Give 
arguments  on  both  sides.  16.  Compare  the  expenses  of 
living  in  India  with  living  in  the  United  States  from  the 
standpoint  of  clothes,  houses,  food,  and  wages  of  a 
cook.  Why  is  there  any  difference?  In  which  place 
would  you  prefer  to  live?  17.  There  is  much  unused 
water  power  in  the  Himalayas.  Would  you  rather 
own  a power  plant  there  or  one  near  Niagara  Falls? 
18.  What  writer  of  English  literature  has  caught  the 
spirit  of  this  hot  jungle  land  as  no  one  else  has?  19. 
Dramatize  sections  of  the  story  of  Mowgli  from  The 
Jungle  Book.  20.  Suppose  you  were  a jungle  boy  in 
India,  what  would  you  do  to  become  happy  and 
prosperous? 

FARTHER  INDIA  AND  INDO-CHINA 

696.  Bounds  and  area. — Farther  India  and 
Indo-China  comprise  the  southeastern  cor- 
ner of  Asia  east  of  India,  south  of  Tibet  and 
China,  and  north  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 
How  long  is  this  region?  How  wide?  Com- 
pare it  in  size  with  New  England;  with  the 
United  States.  It  does  not  look  large  on  the 
map,  but  it  has  one-third  as  many  people  as 
the  United  States.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
are  dark  brown  or  black,  and  they  are 
worshippers  of  Buddha. 

Burma,  in  the  west,  belongs  to  England, 
and  is  ruled  by  the  governor-general  of 


India.  Burma  is  larger  than  the  whole 
United  Kingdom. 

The  French  possessions  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  region  are  larger  than  France  and  have 
nearly  half  as  many  people.  Between  the 
French  and  the  English  colonies  is  the  inde- 
pendent kingdom  of  Siam,  from  which  both 
England  and  France  have,  from  time  to  time, 
taken  large  slices  of  territory.  Siam  is,  never- 
theless, larger  than  the  United  Kingdom, 
with  about  as  many  people  as  Pennsylvania. 

697.  Climate,  character,  and  trade. — The 
northern  part  of  this  region  has  many 
mountains,  from  which  four  big  rivers  flow 
down  through  wide,  hot,  tropic  valleys,  hav- 
ing stretches  of  forest  here  and  there.  Like 
the  Plateau  of  Hindustan,  much  of  this 
region  is  grassland,  for  it  has  the  same  kind 
of  rainfall  as  India.  What  is  that?  Much 
of  the  land,  even  in  the  valleys,  is  unused, 
and  many  strange  animals  are  caught  here 
for  our  zoological  gardens.  Most  of  the 
people  live  along  the  streams  and  especially 
on  the  deltas,  where  they  can  irrigate  the 
land  to  grow  rice,  as  the  people  do  along 
the  Ganges  and  the  Yangtze.  This  is  an 
easy  place  in  which  to  live.  People  do  not 
need  fire  except  for  cooking.  A grass  house 
is  warm  enough.  Little  children  go  naked, 
and  grown-ups  need  but 
few  clothes.  There  are 
quantities  of  fish  in  the 
rivers.  The  warm  weather 
makes  food  grow  easily; 
so  why  work,  or  why 
worry?  It  is  no  wonder 
the  people  are  not  as 
industrious  as  they  are  in 
Scotland,  or  Sweden,  or 
the  United  States.  The 
chief  exports  of  this  land 
of  easy  living  are  rice  and 
teakwood.  Teakwood  is 
much  used  for  the  wooden 
parts  of  steel  ships.  These 
exports  are  of  the  kind 
that  come  from  places  with 
scanty  population  and 
plenty  of  resources.  This 


Fig.  520.  Logs  of  teakwood  in  the  streets  of  Bombay.  Where  is  the 
dinner  for  the  hump-necked  zebus  (Indian  cattle)? 


THE  MALAY  PENINSULA,  EAST 

corner  of  Asia  furnishes  nearly  all  of  the 
world’s  exported  rice.  It  goes  out  by  ship- 
loads each  year  from  four  ports,  each  at  the 
mouth  of  a southward-flowing  river.  Name 
the  ports  and  the  rivers.  (Fig.  474.)  This 
rice  is  grown  by  natives  and  floated  in  native 
boats  down  the  muddy  rivers  to  the  big  rice- 
cleaning mills  owned  by  Europeans  or  C hinese. 

702.  Future. — This  region  is  like  Man- 
churia in  having  room  for  many  more  people, 
provided  some  one  can  give  good  govern- 
ment, and  build  and  operate  railroads,  large 
irrigation  works,  and  other  big  enterprises. 
The  English  and  French  are  already  doing 
this  in  their  parts  of  this  region.  Apparently 
things  will  have  to  be  managed,  for  a time  at 
least,  by  people  from  some  cooler  climate,  for 
such  people  like  to  do  active  things.  Per- 
haps the  energetic  Chinese  will  help.  Already 
they  have  gone  to  Siam  by  hundreds  of 
thousands,  and  have  taken  possession  of 
nearly  all  the  industries  of  the  country, 
because  the  easy-going  natives  are  not  so 
willing  to  work  as  are  the  Chinese. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  greatest  rice  exporting  ports  in  the 
world.  2.  What  in  Siam’s  location  influenced  her  to 
join  the  Allies  in  the  World  War?  3.  Would  you 
rather  live  in  a tropical  land  where  all  your  needs  are 
easily  supplied  by  nature,  or  in  a frosty  land  where 
you  must  work  hard  to  live?  Why?  In  which  are 
the  great  civilizations  found  to-day? 

4.  Name  the  principal  rivers  of  Indo-China,  the 
countries  in  which  they  flow,  and  the  ports  to  which 
they  carry  freight.  Why  is  the  Brahmaputra  such 
a winding  river?  5.  In  which  part  of  this  region  can 
the  natural  difficulties  of  travel  be  most  easily  over- 
come? 

6.  What  cities  of  the  United  States,  of  Germany,  and 
of  Great  Britain  use  teakwood?  7.  How  does  pleasure- 
travel  in  this  region  compare  with  travel  in  desert 
regions  and  in  the  country  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea? 
Which  would  you  prefer?  Read  Kipling’s  story 
about  Toomi  of  the  Elephants,  in  The  Jungle  Book. 

I THE  MALAY  PENINSULA,  EAST  INDIES, 
AND  THE  PHILIPPINES 
703.  Bounds  and  character.  — Between 
Asia  and  Australia  lies  a world  of  water 
dotted  with  thousands  of  wet  islands,  calm, 
silent,  and  almost  black  with  forest.  Many 
of  them  undisturbed  except  for  the  low  buzz 
of  insects,  the  voices  of  birds,  and  the  mur- 


INDIES,  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES  341 


Courtesy  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

Fig.  521.  Carabao,  or  water  buffalo,  drawing  a bamboo 
sled  on  which  children  are  riding.  At  what  season  is 
this  better  than  a wagon  on  the  level  Philippine  plains? 

mur  of  waves  upon  the  shore.  Some  of  these 
islands  are  no  bigger  than  a hat,  others  are 
larger  than  Texas,  with  rivers  larger  than 
any  on  our  Atlantic  slope.  Heavy  rain  falls 
throughout  most  of  the  year;  so  nature 
everywhere  covers  these  islands  with  rank- 
growing forests,  so  tangled  that  one  often 
has  to  chop  paths  to  get  through.  Along 
these  coasts  are  many  hidden  rivers  creeping 
out  through  swampy  forests.  On  the  hidden 
rivers  are  hidden  villages,  and  men  whom  we 
may  call  “wild”.  There  are  whole  tribes 
here  who  never  saw  a white  man. 

In  this  region  the  hot,  damp  climate  makes 
the  forests  grow  so  quickly  and  so  thick  that 
man  has  used  but  little  of  the  land.  In  all 
Borneo,  an  island  five  times  as  large  as 
New  England,  there  is  not  as  much  land 
under  cultivation  as  in  two  counties  of 
Illinois,  although  in  some  other  parts  of  the 
East  Indies  an  intensive  agriculture  has 
been  developed. 

704.  People  and  history. — A long  while 
ago  this  was  a region  of  the  black  man,  but 
the  ancestors  of  the  brown  Malays  sailed 
out  from  Asia  and  took  possession  of  most 
of  the  coasts  west  of  New  Guinea.  In  some 
of  the  islands,  tribes  of  black  men  still  live 
in  the  interior.  In  New  Guinea,  the  people 
are  very  black,  and  have  kinky  hair  like  the 
natives  of  Australia  and  central  Africa. 
This  island  is  larger  than  Borneo,  but  we 

TI 


n 


THE  MALAY  PENINSULA,  EAST  INDIES,  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES  343 


© Publishers'  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  523.  Rafts  of  unhusked  coconuts  floating  down  a Philippine  river. 


know  little  about  it,  partly  because  it  is 
densely  forested  and  unhealthful  for  white 
men,  and  partly  because  of  an  unpleasant 
habit  of  the  natives,  who  sometimes  eat 
explorers  who  come  to  their  country.  The 
Malays  have  never  settled  in  New  Guinea. 

While  Japan,  China,  India,  and  Europe 
were  building  great  cities  with  beautiful 
temples,  the  Malays  were  satisfied  to  live  in 
villages  along  the  river  banks.  Their  houses 
are  grass  huts  erected  on  poles  so  as  to  be 
away  from  mosquitoes  and  wet  earth.  They 
live  by  fishing,  hunting,  and  tending  small 
gardens.  The  chief  recreations  are  boating, 
swimming,  and  fierce  tribal  wars.  The  vic- 
torious warriors  often  carry  home  the  heads 
of  the  defeated  and  offer  them  as  sacrifices 
to  their  gods,  or  hang  them  up  in  the  house 
as  ornaments. 

What  European  nations  now  control  parts 
of  this  wide  region?  (Figs.  10,  471.) 

705.  The  Dutch  East  Indies. — For  over  a 
hundred  years  the  Dutch  government  has 
ruled  or  claimed  more  than  half  of  the  East 
Indian  Islands;  but  most  of  their  attention 
has  been  given  to  Java,  where  the  European 
rulers  have  kept  peace  among  the  different 
Malay  tribes  and  have  really  ruled  the 


country.  Each  tribe  still  has  its  own  native 
sultan,  who  is  clothed  in  gorgeous  raiment 
and  lives  in  much  pomp  and  style;  but 
there  is  a Dutch  “adviser,”  who  wears  a 
white  duck  suit  and  lives  very  quietly,  but 
who  really  rules  through  the  sultan.  With 
the  Dutch  keeping  order,  the  population  of 
Java  has  increased  almost  as  fast  as  that  of 
the  United  States,  and  this  island,  but  little 
larger  than  New  York  State,  has  three  times 
as  many  people. 

Nearly  all  the  Javanese  are  farmers.  They 
cultivate  small  patches  of  land  almost  as 
carefully  as  the  Chinese  do.  The  chief 
export  of  the  island  is  sugar.  The  govern- 
ment compels  the  people  to  raise  rice  for 
two  years  and  sugar  for  one  year,  so  that 
there  may  be  plenty  of  food  as  well  as  some- 
thing to  sell.  (Secs.  672,  383.) 

The  next  great  export  is  tobacco.  The 
other  products  of  Java,  like  the  products  of 
Japan  and  China,  are  the  result  of  much 
labor.  Tea  and  rubber  are  grown,  and  rat- 
tans and  varnish  gums  are  gathered  in  the 
dense  forests.  Two  other  important  prod- 
ucts are  pepper,  the  hot  seed  of  a climbing 
vine,  and  cinchona,  the  bark  of  a small  tree 

that  is  grown  on  hillside  plantations. 

ii 


344  (VI 


Fig.  524 


THE  MALAY  PENINSULA,  EAST  INDIES,  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES  345 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  525.  A Philippine  mountainside  turned  into  giant  water  steps,  or  terraces, 
by  a remarkable  series  of  ricefields  made  by  the  Igorrotes,  one  of  the  moun- 
tain tribes  whom  some  people  call  savages. 


Quinine  is  made  from 
ground  cinchona  bark. 

No  other  large  part  of 
the  East  Indies  is  at  all 
densely  peopled.  Sumatra, 
three  times  as  big  as  Java, 
has  less  than  one-sixth  as 
many  people.  If  you  have 
seen  many  automobiles 
you  have  seen  some  of  the 
rubber  that  is  grown  in 
Sumatra  and  used  in  the 
tire  factories  in  America. 

One  American  company 
owns  plantations  reaching 
farther  than  you  can  see, 
and  worth  many  millions 
of  dollars.  The  work  on 
these  rubber  plantations 
of  Sumatra  is  done  by 
immigrants  from  Java  and 
China,  working  under  Chi- 
nese and  Dutch  foremen. 

The  Dutch  part  of  New  Guinea  is  as  little 
used  as  any  other  part  of  New  Guinea.  The 
large  islands  between  Borneo  and  New 
Guinea  are  for  the  most  part  uninhabited, 
although  many  coconuts  are  produced  along 
their  shores.  At  Makassar  in  the  Celebes 
is  a great  European-owned  coconut  oil  mill, 
where  oil  for  the  European  market  is 
crushed  from  nuts  brought  in  by  native 
boats  and  small  steamers. 

706.  British  possessions. — The  chief  Brit- 
ish possessions,  called  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, are  Singapore,  Penang,  and  some  other 
little  spots  of  land  along  the  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  But  England  also  rules, 
indirectly,  the  native  states  of  this  penin- 
sula, very  much  as  the  Dutch  rule  Java. 

The  native  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  cannot 
be  hired  to  do  a day’s  work  for  any  money. 
He  catches  a few  fish,  and  his  wife  raises  rice 
and  vegetables  in  the  garden  and  has  a little 
surplus  to  sell.  The  money  so  gained  is 
enough  to  buy  the  few  things  the  Malay 
wants;  so  he  swims,  paddles  about  in  his 
canoe,  and  sits  in  the  shade  watching  the 
Chinese  work. 


England  has  let  the  Chinese  come  to  these 
colonies  freely.  They  do  nearly  all  the  work 
that  is  done  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  in  the 
tin  mines  and  the  rubber  and  pepper  planta- 
tions, and  they  also  run  nearly  all  the  retail 
stores.  With  the  money  they  save  they  buy 
land,  and  now  own  many  of  the  large  rubber 
plantations.  There  are  many  rich  men 
among  their  number,  for  the  Chinese  are 
both  good  workers  and  good  business  men. 

Singapore  (Sec.  438)  is  a great  center 
for  the  rubber  trade  of  Sumatra  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  also  for  pepper  and 
the  other  spices  that  are  grown  in  this 
region.  For  the  first  two  or  three  years 
while  the  trees  are  getting  started,  pineapples 
are  often  grown  in  the  young  rubber  planta- 
tions. This  industry  makes  Singapore  a 
great  center  for  the  export  of  canned  pine- 
apples grown  by  Chinese  workmen,  usually 
under  the  employ  of  Englishmen,  but  some- 
times under  Chinese  management. 

707.  The  Philippines  are  America’s  chief 
foreign  possession.  Altogether  there  are 
7,083  of  these  islands,  and  both  their  area 
and  their  population  are  greater  than  those 


346 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


Courtesy  U.  S.  War  Dept. 


Fig.  526.  An  advanced  class  in  stenography  in  the 
Philippine  School  of  Commerce. 

of  all  the  West  Indian  Islands  combined. 
(Fig.  524.)  Find  the  place  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America  having  the  same 
latitude  as  the  northern  and  southern  ends 
of  the  Philippine  group.  Compare  Luzon 
and  Pennsylvania  in  length.  Most  of  these 
islands  are  mountainous,  many  of  them  are 
volcanic,  and  the  heavy  rainfall  makes  them 
naturally  forest  covered.  In  Luzon,  which 
is  nearly  as  large  as  Virginia,  there  is  a large 
low  plain  north  of  Manila.  It  is  crossed 
by  a railroad  120  miles  long,  and  has 
many  ricefields  and  sugar  plantations.  The 
valley  of  the  Cagayan  River  at  the  north  end 
of  Luzon  has  an  important  tobacco  industry. 

708.  The  Philippine  people. — The  people 
calling  themselves  Filipinos  are  of  Malay 
stock,  but  many  tribes  of  dark-skinned  people 
live  in  the  forested  mountains  of  the  interior. 
Some  of  these  tribes  are  wild  people  of  the 
forest,  but  others  are  farmers,  who  show  great 
skill  at  terracing  their  hillsides.  (Fig.  525.) 
There  are  also  enough  Chinese  to  take 
charge  of  most  of  the  buying  and  selling  in 
the  cities  and  towns. 

Spain  had  the  Philippines  for  three  centu- 
ries, and  during  this  time  the  Filipinos  became 
a civilized  people,  speaking  Spanish.  The 
islands  became  a United  States  possession  in 
1899.  The  American  Congress  has  tried  to 
help  the  Philippines  by  (1)  giving  a just 
government  in  which  the  Philippine  congress 
makes  most  of  the  laws;  (2)  establishing 
many  public  schools,  where  English  is 


taught;  (3)  building  railroads  and  roads; 
(4)  organizing  a department  of  agriculture 
to  teach  the  people  how  to  grow  crops. 
These  four  things  have  greatly  increased 
the  prosperity  and  comfort  of  the  people 
of  these  islands.  The  Philippines  probably 
have  more  people  who  can  read  and  write 
than  all  the  other  East  Indian  islands  com- 
bined. There  is  a university  at  Manila,  and 
many  intelligent  Filipinos  also  come  to  Amer- 
ica every  year  to  complete  their  education. 

The  city  of  Manila,  with  a population 
larger  than  any  city  between  Baltimore  and 
New  Orleans,  has  many  wholesale  stores, 
factories  making  things  for  local  use,  and 
coconut  oil  mills  and  cigar  factories  making 
products  for  export. 

709.  Philippine  agriculture. — Most  of  the 
people  are  farmers  who  cultivate  small  tracts 
of  land  near  their  houses,  which  are  often  of 
grass.  A small  plot  with  sweet  potatoes,  ba- 
nanas, beans,  and  vegetables  furnishes  nearly 
all  the  food  a family  needs.  Many  of  these 
farmers  have  groves  of  abaca  plants.  This 
is  a cousin  of  the  banana,  "and  has  in  its 
pithy  stems  the  very  long,  strong  fibers 
called  Manila  hemp,  much  used  for  rope 
and  for  binding  up  the  sheaves  of  wheat. 
Abaca  grows  well  in  rainy,  damp,  hot  places, 
with  well-drained  soil,  of  which  the  mountain- 
ous Philippines  have  many,  because  they  have 
the  monsoon  rains  in  summer  and  the  trade 
wind  rains  in  winter.  Abaca  is  a fine  money 
crop  for  the  Philippine  farmer,  and  so  is  the 
coconut.  This  most  useful  tree  lives  for  a hun- 
dred years  without  cultivation , and  yields  good 
crops  of  oil-giving  nuts  that  will  keep  for 
weeks  after  they  have  fallen  from  the  tree. 

The  farmer’s  wife  often  makes  money 
weaving  by  hand,  from  native  fibers,  hats' 
much  like  panama  hats. 

710.  Foreign  trade — Exports. — The  Philip- 
pine exports  have  increased  severalfold  since 
America  took  possession.  The  chief  exports 
are  Manila  hemp,  or  abaca,  coconut  prod- 
ucts, sugar,  tobacco,  and  hats. 

711.  Imports. — In  this  region,  as  in  India, 
the  chief  import  is  cotton  cloth,  needed  by 
all  for  clothing.  Next  come  machinery  and 


THE  MALAY  PENINSULA,  EAST  INDIES,  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES  347 


hardware  necessary  for  their  simple  agri- 
culture, and  oil  to  light  up  the  long  evenings, 
where  the  night  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  day. 
While  rice  grows  throughout  this  region, 
some  parts  do  not  grow  enough  for  their 
own  use,  and  the  Philippines  regularly  pay 
for  rice  from  Indo-China  with  money  that 
comes  from  hemp,  copra,  sugar,  and  tobacco 
sold  in  the  United  States.  (For  trade,  Fig.  522.) 

712.  Future. — The  teeming  millions  living 
comfortably  in  Java  show  that  this  little- 
used  East  Indies,  a land  of  heavy  rain  and 
dark  forests,  is  one  of  the  places  where  many 
resources  may  be  developed  and  where  many, 
many  more  people  may  live.  Even  in  Java, 
with  its  heavy  population,  the  land  is  by  no 
means  all  used.  It  still  has  forest  areas  so 
large  that  the  wild  elephant  and  the  wild 
rhinoceros  roam  in  them.  Some  authorities 
think  Java  might  support  a hundred  million 
people  as  comfortably  as  it  now  keeps  thirty 
million. 

The  rapid  increase  of  people  and  of  trade 
in  Java,  in  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  in  the 
Philippines  shows  what  may  be  done  in  this 
region  if  someone  keeps  order  and  provides 
government  that  is  more  just  and  more  help- 
ful than  the  natives  have 
provided  for  themselves. 

The  trade  of  the  settled 
parts  of  this  region  shows 
that  if  population  in- 
creases, the  things  that  we 
may  buy  will  increase,  such 
as  rubber,  hemp,  sugar, 
spices,  coconut  oil,  and 
many  other  tropic  prod- 
ucts which  the  fruitful 
soil  and  climate  will  help 
men  to  grow  if  they  will 
work  two-thirds  of  full 
time. 

If  these  people  have 
things  to  sell  to  us  they 
also  will  buy  things  from 
us.  One  of  the  surest 
ways  to  make  life  easier 
in  our  own  country  is  to 
have  other  countries  pros- 


perous, so  that  they  will  have  things  to  sell 
to  us,  and  thus  get  money  with  which  to 
buy  things  from  us. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  respect  are  the  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  the  Philippines  similar  to  the  North 
American  Indians?  How  are  they  different?  2. 
Which  of  the  sports  here  would  you  enjoy?  Which 
would  you  prefer  not  to  take  part  in?  3.  For  what 
three  reasons  has  exploration  been  slow  in  the  East 
Indian  Islands?  4.  Name  the  most  important  islands, 
and  tell  to  what  country  they  belong.  5.  What  is  the 
secret  of  Dutch  success  in  Java?  What  product  might 
you  see  in  the  United  States  transported  as  coconuts  are 
in  Fig.  523?  6.  Which  island  would  you  most  enjoy 

visiting?  What  would  you  do  there?  7.  Why  are 
England’s  possessions  in  this  region  very  important? 
8.  Name  the  uses  to  which  Manila  hemp  may  be  put. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  ruling  these  island  people 
“indirectly”?  Give  an  example.  10.  Why  is  Java 
the  most  thickly  populated  island?  11.  In  what 
season  do  the  trade  winds  blow  upon  the  Philippines? 
What  is  its  direction?  12.  Use  the  following  dia- 
gram to  tell  the  locations  of  and  the  exports  from 
Singapore,  Batavia,  Manila,  Surabaya,  Makassar: 


City. 

Country. 

On  What 
Waterway  ? 

Ruling 

Nation. 

Exports. 

13.  Why  is  there  so  much  rainfall  in  this  region? 

14.  What  other  regions  that  you  have  studied  have 
climate  most  nearly  like  that  of  the  East  Indies? 


Courtesy  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

Fig.  527.  Shipping  at  Calcutta  on  the  Hoogly  River,  one  of  the  mouths 
of  the  Ganges.  To  what  use  do  you  think  each  kind  of  boat  is  put? 


348 


EASTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  ASIA 


15.  Look  up  East  Indies  in  an  encyclopedia.  Find 
out  how  these  islands  were  formed.  16.  Give  all  the 
evidence  of  progress  in  the  Philippines  since  1899. 
(Fig.  526.)  17.  If  you  were  a Filipino  would  you 

rather  be  free,  or  a subject  of  the  United  States? 
Give  three  good  reasons  for  your  answer. 

THE  TRADE  OF  ASIA  AND  THE 
EAST  INDIES 

713.  Barriers  to  travel. — Europe  (Sec.  608) 
is  favored  with  natural  waterways  and  with  a 
surface  which  makes  it  easy  for  ocean  steam- 
er, river  boat,  or  railroad  to  reach  the  heart 
of  the  continent.  Asia  is  quite  different. 
Most  of  her  vast  area  is  a big  block  of  land, 
shut  off  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  ice, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  awful  barrier  of 
mountains  and  high,  wide,  and  dry  plateaus. 

714.  Caravan  trade. — For  thousands  of 
years,  while  the  people  of  Europe  have  been 
skirting  the  shores  of  their  continent  in  ships, 
and  boating  on  the  rivers,  the  natives  of  Asia 
have  been  climbing  mountain  canyons  and 
following  desert  trails  with  caravans  of 
camels,  donkeys,  and  mules,  making  long, 
slow,  hard  journeys,  such  as  those  from  India 
to  Persia,  from  India  to  China,  from  Peking 
to  Moscow,  or  from  the  upper  Yangtze  valley 
to  Tashkend.  Indeed  the  camel  has  been  a 
common  sight  from  Peking  to  the  plains  of 
India  and  westward  to  the  Crimea,  to  Con- 


V 


© Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  528.  Why  are  these  two  natives  of  India  making 
signs  to  each  other  about  the  fruit?  (Sec.  689.) 


stantinople,  and  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
Even  the  sheep  that  come  down  from  Tibet 
to  India  to  market  sometimes  bear  twenty- 
five-pound  bundles  on  their  backs. 

715.  Canal  boat  trade. — The  caravans 
have  carried  the  articles  of  trade  to  the  most 
distant  places,  but  we  must  not  forget  that 
the  greatest  trade  of  all  Asia  has  been  carried 
in  the  thousands  and  thousands  of  Chinese 
junks.  For  several  thousand  years  the 
patient  Chinese  have  been  tugging  these 
boats  up  the  rapids  of  rivers  and  along  the 
hundreds  of  canals  that  have  been  dug  in  the 
plains  of  China. 

Asia  had  also  an  ancient  sea  trade. 
In  the  time  of  King  Solomon  the  Arabs 
sailed  eastward  to  India  with  the  southwest 
monsoon.  They  learned  much  from  the  Hindu 
while  they  traded  and  waited  for  the  north- 
east trade  wind  that  would  take  them  home 
to  Arabia.  Even  now  we  call  the  seasonal 
winds  of  India  the  “monsoon,”  from  an 
Arabic  word  meaning  season.  The  trade 
wind  also  got  its  name  because  it  brought 
these  ancient  Arabs  home  from  trading  trips. 
The  figures  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  that  we  use  in  arith- 
metic, are  called  Arabic  figures,  but  the 
Arabs  learned  them  from  the  Hindus  on 
those  ancient  visits.  Asia  is  old  and  she 
has  given  us  much. 

716.  Railroads. — Asia  was  slower  than 
Europe  in  starting  railroad  building,  but  she 
is  already  possessed  of  the  longest  route  in  the 
world,  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad.  It  gives 
service  in  times  of  peace  from  Dairen  and 
Vladivostok  to  Irkutsk,  Omsk,  Moscow, 
Leningrad  (Petrograd),  Berlin,  and  Paris. 
It  is  as  far  from  Vladivostok  to  Omsk  as 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  and  that 
is  but  little  over  half  way  to  Leningrad 
(Petrograd).  What  parts  of  Asia  have  the 
best  system  of  railways?  (Fig.  529.) 

717.  The  great  ship  route. — The  chief 
trade  route  of  Asia  is  the  ship  route  skirting 
her  southern  shores  from  Suez  to  Yokohama. 
(Fig.  9.)  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  (1869) 
helped  the  trade  of  Asia  by  giving  a shorter 
route  to  Europe  and  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America.  The  Panama  Canal  opened 


THE  TRADE  OF  ASIA  AND  THE  EAST  INDIES 


349 


Fig.  529.  The  railways  and  leading  navigable  rivers  of  Asia. 


(1914)  a similar  gateway 
for  the  trade  of  eastern  Asia 
with  the  eastern  coasts  of 
the  United  States.  Vessels 
now  go  around  the  world 
freely,  going  from  Europe 
and  eastern  North  America 
to  Japan  by  way  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Panama  Canal  and  return- 
ing by  way  of  southern 
Asia  and  the  Suez  Canal. 

718.  Character  of  Asia’s 
trade.1— Asia  sells  chiefly 
the  things  that  men  pro- 
duce with  much  labor  rather 
than  with  much  land.  Such 
are  tea  and  silk,  the  chief 
exports  of  Japan  and  China; 
jute,  from  India;  rubber 
and  spices,  from  Ceylon 
and  the  East  Indies;  hemp 
and  tobacco,  from  the  Philippines.  The 
oil  seeds,  nuts,  bark  and  other  tanning 
materials  from  India  can  be  produced  only 
by  much  labor.  Only  in  a few  places  do  we 
get  the  products  of  the  wide  fields,  such  as 
the  wheat  of  Siberia  and  of  the  Indus  Valley, 
the  sugar  of  Java  and  the  Philippines,  and 
the  cotton  of  India,  the  rice  of  Indo-China, 
and  the  beans  of  Manchuria. 

In  the  wool,  sheepskins,  and  goatskins 
we  see  the  products  of  dry  lands  and  high 
lands,  and  in  the  great  export  of  India’s 
hides  and  cotton  we  see  the  lack  of  manufac- 
turing industry  in  that  country. 

In  return  for  these  things  Asia  gets  first 
of  all  cotton  cloth,  chiefly  from  England, 
for  simple  clothing;  and  raw  cotton,  chiefly 
from  the  United  States,  to  be  used  in  their 
new  cotton  factories.  Second  in  importance 
come  iron,  machinery,  hardware,  and  tools. 
Even  the  simplest  farmer  needs  a hoe  and  a 
knife.  Almost  every  Asiatic  would  like  to 
ride  a bicycle,  and  many  already  listen 
with  pleasure  to  the  phonograph.  Kerosene 
for  the  family  lamp  is  another  great  import 
of  Asia. 

719.  Future  trade  of  Asia. — There  is 


every  prospect  that  Asia  and  the  East  Indies 
will  advance  in  both  agriculture  and  manu- 
facture. When  she  does,  Asia’s  trade  with  us 
will  increase,  for  her  factories  will  be  equip- 
ped with  modern  machinery  and  as  the  people 
increase  in  riches  and  wealth  they  will  more 
and  more  buy  from  us  the  things  that  they 
do  not  grow  or  make,  and  more  and  more 
will  they  send  to  us  the  things  that  we  do 
not  grow  or  make.  The  greatest  trade  in 
the  world  is  the  trade  between  rich  manu- 
facturing countries,  such  as  that  between 
England  and  the  United  States,  England 
and  France,  and  the  United  States  and  Japan. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  articles  in  each  of  the  following  classes 
do  we  get  from  Asia:  food;  clothing;  medicine;  con- 
diments; machinery;  tools?  2.  Are  there  any  articles 
in  any  of  these  lists  for  which  we  are  entirely  dependent 
upon  Asia?  3.  Make  the  same  kind  of  a list  for 
the  things  which  Asia  must  get  from  us. 

4.  Compare  the  canals  of  Asia  with  those  of  Europe; 
of  the  United  States.  5.  A ship  from  New  York  is 
making  a trip  around  the  world.  Name  the  port  or 
ports  at  which  she  might  gather  freight  from  each  of 
the  regions  of  Asia  of  which  at  least  a part  of  the  area 
drains  into  the  Pacific  or  Indian  ocean.  (Fig.  9.) 

6.  In  which  country  of  Asia  would  you  prefer  to 
travel?  to  live?  7.  Do  you  think  Asia’s  trade  will 
increase  or  decrease?  Why?  8.  What  imports  may 
increase?  What  exports?  WTiat  may  decrease? 


11-18 


© Publishers'  Photo  Service. 

Fig.  530.  Ostriches  in  a pasture  field  in  South  Africa.  The 
ostrich  is  one  of  the  most  recently  domesticated  animals. 
For  what  are  these  birds  chiefly  raised?  (Sec.  774).  How 
do  changing  fashions  affect  the  ostrich  farmer? 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 

AFRICA  — THE  CONTINENT,  PEOPLE,  AND  HISTORY 


720.  The  separateness  of  North  Africa. — 
You  remember  that  we  have  already  studied 
North  Africa  when  studying  Europe  and 
the  Mediterranean  regions  (Secs.  540-567). 
Africa,  north  of  the  Sahara,  is  really  a part 
of  the  Mediterranean  world  in  peoples, 
history,  government,  and  trade.  We  com- 
monly think  of  Africa  as  the  continent  of  the 
black  race,  but  black  man’s  Africa  really  does 
not  begin  until  we  get  south  of  the  Sahara. 
This  desert  is  one  of  the  greatest  barriers  in 
the  world.  It  has  always  been  hard  for  men 
to  get  into  North  Africa  from  Central  Africa, 
but  very  easy  to  get  there  from  both  Europe 
and  Asia. 

721.  Neglected  Africa. — Since  the  time  of 
Columbus  the  white  man  has  sailed  all  seas 
and  settled  all  continents,  but  he  has  made 
less  change  in  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara, 
than  in  any  other  continent.  He  left  most 
of  it  unexplored  and  called  it  the  “Dark 
Continent”  until  long  after  he  had  made 
populous  states  in  North  America  and  South 


America.  It  remained  unknown  because  the 
continent  was  hard  to  enter.  When  men  go 
into  a new  continent,  they  usually  sail  up  the 
rivers.  But  African  rivers  have  falls  not 
far  from  their  mouths,  so  explorers  cannot 
take  their  ships  to  the  interior. 

Another  difficulty  is  the  scarcity  of  good 
harbors.  See  how  smooth  the  African  coast 
line  is.  It  is  much  easier  to  enter  a conti- 
nent like  Europe,  where  an  irregular  coast 
line  makes  many  good  harbors.  Even  worse, 
the  coasts  of  Africa  near  the  equator  are 
wet  and  swampy  and  unhealthful.  Such 
coasts  long  kept  men  out  of  Central  Africa. 

The  interior  of  the  continent  also  presented 
barriers  to  the  explorers.  There  were  terrors 
to  be  encountered  in  the  belt  of  thick  forests 
near  the  equator.  In  this  unhealthful  tropi- 
cal jungle,  wild  beasts,  poisonous  insects, 
and  strange  tropical  fevers  waited  to  attack 
the  traveler.  The  Sahara  Desert,  stretching 
from  sea  to  sea,  was  most  difficult  to  cross. 
Perhaps  the  worst  barrier  of  all  was  the 


(350) 


M 


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\ ST.  H ELENA  1. 

\ (Br.) 

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1 Cape 

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40 


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O C E 1 X 1 S SOUTHWEST 

SWtRitoBnat? Windhoek  BEOUOANALANE^ 

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lx  Pretoria  vXIl  , 

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Ijl^gPl^f^retennaritzburg, 


POLITICAL  MAP 

OF 

AFRICA 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

0 200  400  000  800  1000  1200 

20°  Longitude  10°  West  0° 


Cape  Towns* 

1 Cape  of  Good  Hope 


MAURITIUS  I 

/ (Br.)  o 


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OCEAN, 


London 
Port  Elizabeth, 


EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS 


C opy r ighl,  The  John  C.  Winston  Co. 

10°  Longitude  20°  East 


Great  Britain 

Italy 

40° 

France 

Spain 

Belgium 

Portugal 

30°  from  40°  Greenwich  50° 


60° 


Fig.  531 


352 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  532.  A native  African  field  meet.  The  marksman, 
dressed  in  his  best  suit  of  bark  cloth,  winning  the 
archery  championship. 

nomad  Arab  of  the  deserts.  He  was  a slave 
trader  and  was  as  ready  to  trade  white 
slaves  as  any  other.  He  was  very  hostile 
to  the  people  of  Europe  during  the  time  when 
America  was  being  explored. 

At  last,  by  about  1880,  when  the  other 
continents  were  all  taken,  Europeans,  hungry 
for  land,  faced  the  perils  of  Africa  and  made 
the  hard  journeys  which  were  necessary  to 
enter  and  take  the  land. 

722.  Dividing  up  Africa. — Sometimes, to  get 
territory,  the  white  men  made  presents  to  a 
native  chief.  Having  pleased  him  with  beads, 
brass  wire,  bright  handkerchiefs,  and  other 
trinkets,  they  would  then  make  a treaty  with 
him.  He  would  promise  to  recognize  England 
or  France  or  Germany  as  his  protector,  and 
the  protecting  country  was  permitted  to 
develop  resources  and  open  up  routes  of 
trade.  There  were  some  small  wars,  but 
most  of  the  tribes,  armed  only  with  spears 
and  bows  and  arrows,  were  too  weak  to  resist 
the  good  rifles  of  the  Europeans.  Only  the 
Abyssinians  are  entirely  independent.  The 
Basutos,  whom  we  shall  study  about  later, 
have  remained  almost  independent. 

723.  How  white  men  rule  Africa. — On  the 
maps  great  areas  of  Africa  appear  to  belong 


to  various  European  countries,  but  in  fact 
most  of  the  people  of  Africa  are  still  ruled 
by  their  native  chiefs.  For  example,  in  the 
large  British  colony  of  Nigeria  there  is  only 
one  white  man  to  every  six  thousand  black 
men,  but  these  few  white  men  have  somehow 
managed  to  rule.  They  stop  most  of  the  wars 
between  tribes.  Gradually  the  white  men  get 
more  and  more  power.  They  run  steamboats 
on  the  rivers.  They  direct  the  work  of  making 
hundreds  of  miles  of  railroad  and  telegraph 
lines.  (Fig.  563.)  They  establish  post  offices 
and  develop  a large  and  growing  foreign  trade. 

724.  Trade  and  tribal  life. — Railroads  and 
steamboats  have  the  same  effect  upon  house- 
hold industries  in  Africa  as  they  do  elsewhere. 

The  Africans  are  rapidly  giving  up  their 
old  tribal  industries,  which  provided  all  the 
things  they  used. 

Many  of  them  are  now  selling  a few  things 
and  buying  many  other  things  much  as  the 
rest  of  us  do.  They  are  as  fond  of  phono- 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  533.  The  African  woman  does  most  of  the  work. 
These  women  are  returning  from  their  garden  patch 
with  native  hoe  and  baskets  of  produce.  Most  of 
Africa’s  burdens  are  carried  on  the  heads  of  the  bearers. 


AFRICA— THE  CONTINENT,  PEOPLE,  AND  HISTORY  353 


graphs  and  toys  as  are  any 
other  people.  When  a peo- 
ple joins  in  world  trade,  the 
trade  wipes  out  the  house- 
hold industries.  (Sec.  3.)  It 
is  also  easier  for  the  white 
men  to  rule  the  natives 
when  they  depend  upon 
the  foreigner  for  a market 
for  their  goods,  and  upon 
the  white  man’s  store  for 
their  supplies. 

Railroads  now  go  into 
Africa  from  every  coast. 
(Fig.  562.)  Steamboats 
are  on  most  of  the 
navigable  rivers  and  lakes. 
In  many  cases,  these  boats 
were  sent  from  Europe  in 
Fig.  534.  Equatorial  pieces,  and  were  thus  car- 

type  rainfall  of  rjed  around  waterfalls  and 
Gabun,  West  Africa, 

African  coast  at  over  plateaus. 

equator,  90.88  725.  Interesting  animals, 

inches  per  year.  , . ° , 

When  does  the  — Though  Africa  has  about 

forest  man  bum  the  ag  many  people  as  North 

brush  in  his  new  . , ' n 

garden?  When  does  America,  and  though  most 


the  sun  cross  the 
equator?  (Sec.  746.) 


of  them  are  farmers  (Secs. 
734,  751),  there  is  still  so 
much  unused  land  in  Africa  that  many  wild 
animals  are  found  there.  Among  them  are  the 
elephant,  lion,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus, 
zebra,  giraffe,  and  gorilla,  and  many  antelope 
and  other  large  grass-eating  animals.  It 
is  no  wonder  that  naturalists  and  hunters 
like  to  go  to  Africa. 

726.  The  climate  of  Africa. — What  are  the 
latitudes  of  the  northern  and  southern  tips 
of  the  continent?  The  climates  of  Africa 
show  how  much  the  northern  hemisphere  is 
like  the  southern.  If  we  start  from  the  forest- 
clad  equator  and  go  north  or  south  along 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  we  find  the  same 
three  belts  of  climate  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
north  of  the  equator  and  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  south  of  the  equator.  These  regions 
having  similar  climates  are  alike  because  the 
laws  of  climate  work  in  the  same  way  in 
both  northern  and  southern  hemispheres. 
We  shall  understand  the  climate  of  Africa 


as  we  study  the  regions  of  Africa.  This  is 
the  way  they  are  arranged : 

3.  Californian -Mediterranean  (Morocco, 
Algeria). 

2.  Northeast  Trade  Wind  Desert  (Sahara). 

1.  North  Tropic  Grasslands  (Sudan). 

0.  Equatorial  Forests  (Belgian  Congo). 

1.  South  Tropic  Grasslands  (Angola). 

2.  Southeast  Trade  Wind  Desert  (Kala- 
hari). 

3.  Californian-Mediterranean  (Cape  Col- 
ony). 

We  shall  study  about  these  belts  as  we 
study  Africa. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  Africa  called  the  Dark  Continent? 
2.  Suppose  Africa  could  be  cut  in  two  at  the  equator, 
and  the  southern  part  pushed  25  degrees  south. 
What  differences  would  be  made  in  the  industries  and 
civilizations  of  this  southern  part?  3.  And  suppose 
the  northern  part  could  be  placed  out  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  between  the  United  States  and  China.  What 
would  you  expect  to  find  there  in  fifty  years?  4.  Name 
all  the  countries  that  have  colonies  in  Africa.  WTiich 
have  been  forced  to  give  up  their  possessions?  Why? 
5.  Why  were  some  of  the  battles  of  the  World  War 
fought  on  African  soil? 

6.  Why  do  you  think  the  Abyssinians  have  remained 
independent?  (Sec.  505,  Fig.  445.)  7.  Wkat  names 
do  we  connect  with  the  first  knowledge  of  the  in- 
terior of  Africa?  Find  evidence  of  them  on  the  map. 

8.  By  what  factor  are  the  seasons  determined  in 
Africa?  in  the  United  States?  9.  Can  you  find  out 
why  the  grasslands  have  one  rainy  season,  but  the 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  535.  Dar-es-Salaam  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  with 
its  grass  huts  and  towering  coconut  palms.  It  is 
typical  of  villages  on  many  tropic  shores. 


354  AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

Fig.  536.  African  carriers  or  porters  resting  beside  a path  in  a forest  open- 
ing. The  bales  of  goods  are  wrapped  in  banana  leaves. 


forest  belt  two  rainy  and  two  dry  seasons?  (Secs. 
747,  748.)  What  effect  do  you  think  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  has  upon  the  climate  of  the  land  north  of  it? 
10.  If  you  had  ten  thousand  acres  of  land  on  the 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  what  would  you  do  with 
it?  11.  Fill  in  the  blanks  below: 


Topic. 

Trip  from  Mouth 
to  Source  of  the 
Kongo. 

Trip  from  Mouth 
to  Source  of  the 
Nile. 

Unhealthy  coast. . . . 
Ciimate 

Mountains 

Desert: 

Arabs 

Jungle: 

Wild  beasts 

Poisonous  insects . 
Tropical  fevers . . . 
Food 

Shelter 

Which  trip  would  you  prefer  to  take?  12.  Can  you 
name  some  early  civilizations  in  Africa?  Why  did 
not  civilization  extend  to  embrace  the  whole  of 
the  continent,  as  it  did  in  Europe? 

THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 

Part  I. — The  Congo  and  Guinea  Coast 
Forest 

727.  Location  and  climate. — Persons  sail- 
ing along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  from 
Senegal  to  Angola  will  see  three  thousand 
miles  of  ocean  waves  breaking  on  the  white, 
sandy  beach  that  lies  stretched  at  the  foot  of 
a dark  green  forest.  The  forest  extends  from 
the  coast  eastward  to  the  Central  African 
plateau,  near  Lake  Tanganyika  and  Lake 
Albert.  (Al,  Fig.  445.) 

Twice  each  year,  once  in  the  fall  and  once 


in  the  spring,  the  Congo 
Forest  has  a rainy  season. 
(Fig.  534.)  Two  short,  drier 
seasons  come  in  between. 
Each  afternoon  during  the 
rainy  season  thick  clouds 
arise,  followed  by  lightning, 
crashing  thunder,  and  beat- 
ing rain.  The  tangled  jungle 
drips;  the  earth  is  soaking 
wet ; water  often  lies  in  pools 
underneath  the  trees;  the 
rivers  rise  in  flood.  (Sec.  748.) 

There  is  so  little  wind 
that  the  place  is  called  the 
Zone  of  Calms  or  Doldrums. 
On  land  and  sea  the  climate  is  hot  with  a 
damp,  muggy  heat — a breezeless,  stifling  heat. 

728.  The  dark  forest. — So  much  rain 
makes  plenty  of  moisture  for  the  forest.  The 
foliage  of  the  trees  is  so  thick  that  the 
forest  is  dark  and  gloomy.  The  branches  of 
the  trees  are  often  tied  together  with  the 
tangling  vines  of  the  jungle.  Chattering 
monkeys  run  up  and  down  this  tangle,  and 
serpents  climb  the  trees  and  crawl  from 
branch  to  branch.  If  a traveler  in  this 
forest  is  skilful  enough,  he  may  see  the  terri- 
ble man-like  gorilla,  or  the  even  more  man- 


Fig.  537.  African  boys  spinning  cotton  by  hand.  The 
spinners  loop  the  twisted  thread  over  the  end  of  the 
stick.  Then  they  spin  the  stick  like  a top  and  that 
twists  the  thread.  They  regulate  the  size  of  the  thread 
by  pulling  more  or  less  of  the  cotton  out  of  the  mass. 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


355 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  538.  The  end  of  the  elephant  hunt  beside  a water  course  in  the  Congo 
forest.  Is  this  the  rainy  season  or  the  dry  season? 


like  chimpanzee.  With  the 
forest  people  the  word 
“arrive”  is  “to  come  out 
of  the  forest”;  their  word 
for  “depart”  is  “to  go  into 
the  forest”.  If  a village  is 
abandoned,  vines  soon 
climb  over  the  huts  and 
the  forest  quickly  swallows 
up  the  little  clearing.  Man 
must  fight  this  great  forest 
for  his  very  life.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  so  few  white 
men  have  gone  to  this 
country,  and  that  the  few 
who  have  gone  have  lived 
only  a few  years?  Only 
the  native  negro,  who  has 
been  there  for  ages,  seems 
able  to  endure  the  climate. 

729.  Pests.  — The  heat 
and  the  moisture  make  a 
climate  where  man  has  less  help  and  more 
trouble  from  animals  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  heavy  rains  make 
ponds  and  swamps  in  which  mosquitoes 
breed  in  countless  millions.  But  mosquitoes 
do  not  buzz  and  bite  alone.  They  are 
accompanied  by  biting  gnats  and  flies,  and 
by  stinging  insects  that  burrow  themselves 
into  one’s  flesh  until  it  smarts  like  fire. 
One  of  these  little  pests  may  burrow  under 
a toenail  and  perhaps  make  such  a bad  sore 
that  the  nail  comes  off.  The  worst  of  all 
the  insect  pests  is  the  tsetse  fly.  Its  bite 
carries  to  men  and  animals  the  disease 
called  sleeping  sickness.  Sometimes  al- 
most all  the  people  in  certain  districts  die  of 
this  dreadful  disease,  which  also  kills  cattle, 
horses,  mules,  and  sheep,  leaving  much  of 
the  forest  region  without  any  beasts  of 
burden  whatever.  Therefore,  not  having 
tamed  the  elephant  which  lives  in  this  forest, 
man  must  become  his  own  burden  bearer 
(Fig.  533). 

730.  The  carriers. — There  are  no  roads 
here,  but  only  little  paths  through  the  forest, 
and  along  these  paths  move  the  human 
freight  trains  of  the  jungle.  Lines  of  sweating 


black  men  and  boys,  walking  barefooted  and 
almost  naked,  but  singing  as  they  go,  follow 
the  forest  paths.  On  his  head  each  carries  a 
bundle  of  freight  weighing  fifty  or  sixty 
pounds. 

The  train  of  carriers,  creeping  along  the 
forest  paths  as  ants  creep  through  the  grass, 
comes  at  last  to  a clearing,  where  the  sun 
glares  down  on  a village  of  grass  houses.  The 
village  is  surrounded  by  a stockade,  or  strong 
fence  of  logs.  Black  men  are  on  guard  at  the 
gate  to  keep  out  possible  enemies. 

731.  Village  life  in  the  equatorial  forest. — 
The  village  is  beside  the  deep,  still-flowing 
Congo,  where  the  hippopotamus  bellows  in 
the  night.  By  day  the  flat-bottomed  river 
steamboat  chugs  along  nature’s  great,  wind- 
ing water  road  beside  the  overhanging  forest. 

The  forest  path  ends  at  the  river  bank,  and 
there  the  carriers  put  their  bales  of  rubber, 
palm  kernels,  and  ivory  into  the  corrugated- 
iron  warehouse  of  a Belgian  merchant.  Soon 
the  goods  will  be  taken  down  to  the  sea  by 
river  boats,  and  trains  that  go  around  the 
falls.  The  earners  return  along  the  forest 
path  to  their  distant  village  home.  This 
time  their  burden  is  cotton  cloth,  knives,  and 


356 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  “Travel  Magazine” 

Fig.  539.  A native  with  a climbing  rope  walking  up  the 
oil  palm.  See  the  clusters  of  fruit. 


copper  wire,  also  bright  colored  glass  beads 
for  the  women  and  children.  These  things 
have  come  up  the  Congo  by  boat  and  train. 
From  what  port? 

732.  The  jungle  school.  — The  jungle 
people  have  neither  books  nor  schools, 
but  the  children  study  living  things  and 
learn  from  the  parents.  The  jungle  boy 
knows  the  animals  and  trees  of  his  forest 
better  than  the  average  American  boy  knows 
anything,  except  possibly  baseball.  Jungle 
fathers  teach  the  boys  how  to  hunt  and  fish, 
and  how  to  make  all  the  things  they  need. 
The  mothers  and  grandmothers  teach  the 
girls  how  to  make  a garden,  to  cook,  and  to 
take  care  of  the  children.  The  jungle  peo- 
ple have  long  known  how  to  make  iron,  to 
tan  leather,  to  spin,  and  to  weave  a little 
cloth. 

733.  Jungle  food. — What  do  these  black 
people  eat?  They  have  the  same  nourish- 
ment that  we  have,  but  they  get  it  from 


food  that  is  different.  They  eat  cake  made 
from  cornmeal  or  cassava  meal  (Fig.  551), 
palm  oil,  smoked  flesh  of  game,  bananas,  and 
vegetables,  such  as  tomatoes  and  cucumbers. 

734.  The  forest  garden. — The  natives  are 
farmers  and  also  hunters.  On  a piece  of 
well-chosen  land,  down  a forest  path,  is 
the  village  garden.  Every  two  or  three 
years  the  people  make  a new  clearing  to  get 
new  soil.  When  all  the  good  garden  sites 
have  been  used,  they  move  the  village. 
When  the  natives  want  to  make  a new 
garden,  they  chop  down  the  trees  with  the 
machete,  and  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season 
they  burn  all  the  trees  they  can.  They  use 
the  ashes  as  fertilizer  for  corn,  beans,  peanuts, 
cucumbers,  tomatoes,  bananas,  the  yam  (a 
kind  of  sweet  potato),  and  the  manioc  or 
cassava  (Figs.  551,  553).  The  up-springing 
bushes  must  be  kept  chopped  down  or  they 
will  overwhelm  the  crops.  Villagers  usually 
take  turns  watching  the  garden  by  night 
and  day  to  keep  the  elephants  and  wild  hogs 
away.  The  elephant  is  a terror  to  the  African 
farmer  because  it  will  go  ten  or  twenty 
miles  in  a night  to  eat  up  a garden.  These 
people  do  not  use  beasts  of  burden  as  helpers 
in  farming.  Their  crops  are  grown  by  hand 
labor.  Their  only  tools  are  simple  hoes, 
knives,  and  axes. 

735.  Jungle  camping  parties. — Sometimes 
the  natives  make  camps  in  the  forest  and  hunt. 
One  way  to  hunt  is  to  make  a pit  which  is 
carefully  covered  with  leaves.  A fence  is  then 
built,  so  that  animals  wandering  through  the 
forest  follow  the  fence,  walk  over  the  pits 
and  fall  in.  After  the  men  kill  the  game 
and  cut  it  up  (at  which  they  are  very  expert), 


Fig.  540.  The  January  heat  equator  and  rains  in 
Southern  Tropic  Grasslands.  Compare  with  Fig.  541. 
Does  the  physical  map  (Fig.  566)  tell  why  there  is  a 
dry  area  in  the  interior  of  Brazil? 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


357 


Fig.  541.  The  July  heat  equator  and  rains  in  the 
Northern  Tropic  Grasslands.  Compare  with  Fig.  540. 


the  women  smoke  the  meat,  which  they  take 
back  to  the  village.  It  serves  as  flavoring 
for  dishes  of  corn-meal  mush. 

These  people  are  very  fond  of  fishing. 
In  the  dry  season,  when  the  streams  are 
low,  they  go  out  and  camp  by  distant  streams 
to  fish  for  a week  or  two. 

736.  The  oil  palm. — A palm  tree  that 
yields  three  grades  of  oil  grows  throughout 
the  length  of  the  coast  forests  and  far  into 
the  interior.  In  some  places  there  are 
forests  where  these  trees  are  only  five  or  six 
yards  apart. 

For  ages,  the  natives  have  used  palm  oil. 
When  the  white  man  began  to  buy  it,  he 
merely  encouraged  an  old  industry.  The 
native  oil-gatherer  walks  up  the  tree  with 
the  aid  of  a rope  (Fig.  539).  With  his  machete 
he  cuts  off  the  bunches  of  fruit  which  grow 
at  the  top  of  the  tree.  Each  bunch  weighs 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds,  and  a good  tree 
should  yield  one  hundred  pounds  of  fruit. 
The  fruit,  which  is  red  in  color,  and  yields 
about  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent  of  oil,  is  carried 
on  the  heads  of  all  the  family  back  to  the 
“factory”  of  the  native.  The  factory  consists 
of  an  iron  pot  and  a section  of  a log  hollowed 
out  to  a depth  of  two  or  three  feet.  The 
members  of  the  family  pick  the  fruits  from 
the  bunch  and  put  them  into  the  pot  to  boil. 
A small  part  of  the  oil  rises  to  the  surface. 
This  oil  which  first  comes  out  is  good  to  eat. 
Much  oil  still  remains  in  the  pulp  of  the 
fruit,  and  can  only  be  obtained  after  the 
fruit  has  been  put  into  the  hollow  log, 
beaten  to  a pulp  with  sticks,  and  again 
boiled.  The  oil  from  the  boiled  pulp  is  soap 
oil.  It  is  skimmed  off  and  put  into  big  casks 
holding  twelve  hundred  pounds.  To  get  the 


casks  of  oil  to  market  the  natives  roll  them 
along  the  forest  trail  to  a boat  landing  or 
to  a railroad.  Have  you  seen  advertisements 
of  soap  made  of  palm  and  olive  oil? 

When  the  oil  has  been  extracted  from  the 
fruit,  the  seeds  are  laid  out  in  the  sun  to  dry. 
When  the  kernels  rattle  inside  the  hard  shell, 
the  women  crack  the  seeds  between  two 
stones  and  pick  out  the  kernels.  Palm  ker- 
nels are  an  important  export  from  the  forest 
region.  It  takes  about  a million  kernels  to 
weigh  a ton.  In  one  year  Africa  sent  three 
hundred  thousand  tons  of  palm  kernels  to 
England.  This  means  that  African  women 
and  girls  do  a great  deal  of  work  with  very 
poor  tools. 

When  crushed  in  European  mills  the  ker- 
nels yield  an  oil  used  for  margarine  (Sec.  442), 
and  a meal  or  cake  that  is  used  for  cattle 
feed,  very  much  as  cottonseed  meal  or  wheat 
bran  is  used. 

737.  A land  of  future  trade. — The  West 
African  coast  between  the  northern  desert, 
Sahara,  and  the  southern  desert,  Kalahari, 
is  divided  into  twenty  colonies  or  states. 
Nineteen  of  them  are  ruled  by  Europeans; 
one,  Liberia,  is  under  the  protection  of  the 
United  States,  because  it  was  set  apart  in 
1847  as  a place  to  which  negro  slaves,  freed 
in  the  United  States,  might  go. 

The  twenty  African  states  of  this  coast 


Courtesy  “Travel  Magazine” 

Fig.  542.  Two  African  hunters  and  the  spears  of  the 
victor.  Do  the  Africans  make  their  own  weapons? 


358 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Bhantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  543.  Native  Grassland  huts  and  garden  with 
tobacco,  castor  oil,  dasheen  (elephant’s  ears),  banana 
and  other  food  plants,  all  grown  by  hand  labor. 

have  forty  seaports.  In  the  year  1919  their 
total  trade  was  more  than  $40,000,000.  This 
is  a more  valuable  trade  than  the  United 
States  had  in  its  early  years.  The  cocoa 
industry  of  the  little  forested  colony  called 
the  Gold  Coast,  gives  us  an  idea  of  what  the 
future  trade  of  the  African  forest  region  may 
become.  A few  years  ago  one  of  the  English 
governors  of  the  Gold  Coast  planted  a few 
cocoa  trees.  The  trees  grew,  and  before  long 
a hundred  pounds  of  beans  were  exported. 
More  trees  were  planted,  and  to-day  the 
export  of  cocoa  beans  amounts  to  one  hun- 
dred thousand  tons  a year.  The  country  is 
especially  well  suited  to  the  cocoa  tree, 
which  needs  the  windless  climate  of  the  Zone 
of  Calms,  so  that  the  big  fruits  will  not  be 
blown  to  the  ground  before  they  are  ripe. 
The  growing  of  cocoa  is  very  simple.  It 
suits  the  native.  He  merely  cuts  the  bushes 
away  from  the  young  cocoa  trees  that  are 
already  growing  there,  and  keeps  the  jungle 
down  with  the  machete.  No  other  work  is 
needed  until  the  fruit  is  ready  to  pick. 

738.  Changes  in  trade. — Since  the  white 
man’s  ships  have  been  going  to  Africa,  one 
new  industry  after  another  has  come  there — ■ 
come  even  to  the  equatorial  forest.  First, 
the  white  men  wanted  ivory,  for  which  the 
natives  had  but  little  use.  Then  he  wanted 
rubber.  So  the  black  men  first  hunted 
elephants,  and  then  they  hunted  rubber  trees. 
The  white  man  now  wants  palm  oil  and  palm 
kernels  and  cocoa,  besides  ivory  and  rubber. 


739.  The  new  transportation. — English  en- 
gineers and  native  workmen  have  built  a 
railroad  inland  from  Akkra,  the  port  of  the 
Gold  Coast.  They  are  also  building  many 
wagon  roads,  over  which  they  ran  motor 
trucks.  A truck  with  a capacity  of  one  ton 
carries  as  many  cocoa  beans  as  do  thirty-six 
native  carriers.  The  truck  makes  several 
trips  while  the  carrier  is  making  one.  Thus 
we  see  how  the  white  man’s  machines  can 
increase  African  production. 

The  steamboats  of  the  Congo  now  give  a 
good  freight  service  to  the  heart  of  the  African 
forest.  In  the  western  part  of  the  forest 
region,  the  Niger,  the  Senegal,  and  the  con- 
necting railroads  are  the  arteries  of  trade. 

740.  Cleaning  up  in  jungle  land. — The 
white  man,  often  assisted  by  black  police- 
men, helps  to  keep  order.  The  tribes  now 
rarely  kill  each  other  in  war,  or  sell  each 
other  as  slaves,  or  eat  each  other,  as  they  used 
to  do.  Swamps  are  being  drained;  physi- 
cians are  improving  conditions  of  health. 
We  may,  therefore,  expect  the  population 
of  the  African  forest  region  to  increase  per- 
haps as  rapidly  as  that  of  Java  or  of  the 
United  States  has  increased.  In  the  decades 
to  come  these  people  may  produce  and  send 
to  us  in  trade  enormous  amounts  of  cocoa, 
palm  oil,  banana  meal,  peanuts,  tapioca, 
rubber,  and  other  products  of  their  little 
farms.  If  the  population  becomes  more 
dense,  and  if  the  people  grow  accustomed  to 
steady  work,  they  may  grow  sugar  cane  and 
rice,  to  which  the  country  is  well  suited. 

Part  II. — East  African  Lowland  Forest 

741.  A rainy  trade  wind  coast. — Like  the 
Guinea  coast  and  the  Congo  basin,  the  east 
coast  of  Africa  south  of  the  equator  is  a forest- 
covered  tropic  lowland.  (A2,  Fig.  445.)  We 
saw  in  the  West  Indies  (Sec.  379)  that  where 
the  trade  wind  blows  against  islands  and 
mountains,  it  brings  rain  which  supports  for- 
ests. South  of  the  equator,  the  southeast 
trade  wind,  blowing  in  from  the  Indian  Ocean, 
makes  the  coast  of  East  Africa,  all  the  way 
down  to  Natal,  wet  and  forest-covered  like 
the  Caribbean  shore  of  Central  America,  and 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


359 


like  the  region  along  the  equator  (Fig. 
540).  This  forest  extends  right  up  to  the 
equator.  North  of  the  equator,  the  summer 
monsoon  of  India  (Sec.  688)  takes  the  wind 
toward  Asia.  Thus  the  eastern  point  of 
Africa  is  much  drier  than  it  would  be  if  Asia 
were  not  so  placed  as  to  steal  these  winds. 

Along  most  of  this  coast  it  is  but  a short 
distance  across  the  hot  lowlands  to  the 
plateau.  Only  in  the  valleys  of  the  Limpopo 
and  the  Zambezi  rivers  do  the  low  plain  and 
the  forest  extend  far  inland. 

An  officer  in  the  English  army  says  that 
the  East  African  coast  has  “a  fairly  plentiful 
rainfall,  and  a temperature  which,  combined 
with  humidity,  contrives  to  make  this  area 
uninhabitable  for  white  folk  for  long  periods 
at  a time,  and  even  people  in  the  best  of 
health  should  return  frequently  to  a tem- 
perate climate,  to  enable  them  to  withstand 
the  rigors  of  the  tropical  life.” 

Part  III. — Madagascar  and  its  Neigh- 
boring Isles 

742.  Islands  with  Tropic  Lowland  forests. — 
The  eastern  and  northern  coasts  of  Mada- 
gascar, and  the  small  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  including  Reunion  and  Mauritius, 
have  the  same  rainy  climate  as  other  trade 
wind  coasts,  and  are,  therefore,  forest- 
covered. 

Madagascar  is  a valuable  possession  of 
the  French.  As  it  is  twice  as  large  as  Colo- 
rado, it  offers  possibilities  of  rich  production. 
Its  wet  low  plain  (A3)  has  the  same  great 
agricultural  possibilities  as  has  the  Congo, 
and,  like  the  Congo  and  the  East  Coast  Low- 
land, it  is  mostly  unused.  The  small  island 
of  Mauritius  shows  what  this  land  might  do. 
Mauritius  is  ruled  by  the  British,  has  many 
Chinese  and  Hindu  people,  and  exports 
many  shiploads  of  sugar  each  year,  because 
the  industrious  Hindu  and  Chinese  laborers 
work  on  the  plantations.  The  islands  of 
Zanzibar  and  Pemba,  which  combined  have 
a thousand  square  miles  of  territory,  give  us 
a further  idea  of  how  this  region  might  be 
developed.  These  islands  have  200  white 
people,  10,000  Hindus,  10,000  Arabs,  and 


180,000  negroes.  Many  of  the  negroes  have 
small  farms;  many  Arabs  have  large  planta- 
tions. One-twelfth  of  all  the  land  is  in 
coconuts,  and  one-twelfth  in  cloves.  Much 
copra  and  nearly  all  of  the  cloves  used  in  the 
world  are  exported  from  this  little  British 
protectorate  of  Zanzibar,  where  a British 
“resident”  rules  through  an  Arab  sultan. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  are  Africa’s  cocoa  beans  made  into  cocoa 
and  chocolate?  Have  some  member  of  the  class  write 
to  a chocolate  factory  and  ask  where  their  raw  mate- 
rial comes  from.  2.  Compare  spinning  in  this  region 
(Fig.  537)  with  spinning  in  Bulgaria  (Fig.  412);  with 
spinning  in  England  and  the  United  States  (Fig.  217). 
As  a worker,  which  kind  of  spinning  would  you  prefer 
to  do?  Why?  3.  Of  what  use  to  us  are  the  exports  of 
this  tropical  forest?  How  has  the  automobile  ex- 
tended our  trade  with  the  Gold  Coast?  Where  is 
palm  oil  made  into  soap? 

4.  Why  is  the  banana  important  in  the  Congo  and 
also  in  Jamaica?  5.  Make  a long  list  of  ways  in  which 
the  palm  trees  are  useful  to  natives  of  the  hot  forests 
and  useful  to  us.  6.  Name  the  animals  from  this 
region  that  you  have  seen  in  a circus,  a zoo,  or  a 
picture  book.  7.  Where  is  the  world  market  for  ivory? 
(Sec.  446.)  Why?  8.  Plan  the  three  meals  for  a day 
possible  in  this  region,  making  them  as  much  like 
typical  meals  in  the  United  States  as  you  can. 

9.  Give  two  climatic  reasons  why  this  region 
has  not  progressed  as  much  as  some.  10.  If  you 
had  to  live  in  this  region,  what  occupation  would 
you  prefer  to  engage  in?  11.  What  would  you  do  to 
make  this  region  more  useful  to  man?  Would  pros- 
perity be  possible  in  the  United  States  without  a school 
system?  12.  Why  does  the  African  boy  know  the 
life  of  his  neighborhood  better  than  you  do? 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Fig.  544.  A Greek  trader  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika with  three  assistants,  and  natives,  at  left,  who 
have  brought  in  hides,  cassava  flour,  beans,  oil  nuts 
(palm) , and  butter  wrapped  in  banana  leaves.  The  woman 
wears  “Americana,”  a large  sheet  of  bright  calico. 


360 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Fig.  545.  Curves  to  represent  the  surface  of  the  earth 
between  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  Three 
locations  of  the  belt  of  calms  and  daily  rain  are  shown. 

Compare  this  figure  with  Figs.  540  and  541. 

THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 

Part  I. — The  Sudan 

743.  Appearance. — A traveler  going  south- 
ward from  the  Sahara  at  the  end  of  the  rainy 
season, will  find  that  the  sand  dunes  and  thorn 
bushes  become  less  and  less,  and  that  the 
grass  becomes  more  and  more  abundant  the 
farther  south  he  goes.  (Sec.  568.)  Very  grad- 
ually he  has  entered  a country  where  there 
are  bunches  of  grass  and  scattered  mimosa 
trees.  (Fig.  552.)  As  he  rides  on,  better  grass 
and  more  trees  will  appear,  and  then,  after 
days  of  journeying  by  camel  and  mule,  clumps 
of  forest  will  be  seen.  Still  farther  on,  he  will 
finally  see  the  solid  mass  of  the  equatorial 
forest.  In  making  the  journey,  the  traveler 
has  crossed  the  great  region  of  hot  grassland 
that  is  called  the  Sudan  (Arabic  word  for  black 
people).  It  stretches  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  the  Nile  and  the  plateau  of 
Abyssinia.  It  is  as  broad  as  the  United  States, 
and  two-thirds  as  large.  Most  of  the  Sudan 
is  a low  plain  (less  than  1500  feet),  but  there 
are  some  highlands  in  it. 

744.  Belts  of  climate. — Why  is  it  that  belts 
of  forest  and  of  grass  stretch  east  and  west 
across  Africa?  (Fig.  445,  B1,B3.)  It  is  because 
of  the  unevenness  of  rainfall,  due  to  the  way 
the  winds  blow  in  that  part  of  the  world.  They 
move  very  much  as  the  air  moves  in  a room 
which  has  a stove  or  a lamp  in  the  middle  of 
it.  (Fig.  546.)  The  heat  of  the  stove  or 
the  lamp  expands  the  air  near  to  it.  The 
expanded  air  is  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the 


air;  it  rises  as  heavier  air  pushes  in  from  the 
sides  of  the  room  to  take  its  place. 

The  hot  land  near  the  equator  acts  like  a 
stove.  The  air  above  it  is  heated  and  then 
slowly  rises.  The  zone  at  the  equator,  at 
which  the  air  is  thus  rising,  has  no  wind.  For 
this  reason  it  is  called  the  Zone  of  Calms,  or 
Doldrums.  To  take  the  place  of  the  rising 
air,  air  comes  in  from  the  north  and  south. 
(Fig.  545.)  This  air,  blowing  toward  the 
equator,  makes  what  is  called  a trade  wind. 
(Sec.  364.)  The  one  north  of  the  equator  is 
called  the  Northeast  Trade  Wind,  and  the 
one  south  of  the  equator  is  called  the  South- 
east Trade  Wind. 

After  the  air  brought  in  by  the  trade  winds 
rises,  it  goes  back  northeastward  (or  south- 
eastward in  the  southern  hemisphere)  as  a 
high,  upper  current  (Fig.  547).  The  only 
way  to  study  the  high  currents  is  by  going 
up  in  balloons,  or  by  visiting  the  tops  of  high 
mountains,  such  as  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe 
in  the  Canary  Islands. 

745.  The  Doldrum  climate  and  the  forest 
belt. — When  the  moist,  heated  air  along  the 
equator  rises  and  is  cooled  its  moisture 
forms  clouds  and  falls  as  rain.  Every  after- 
noon, for  weeks  at  a time,  rain  falls.  This 
Zone  of  Calms,  or  Doldrums,  is  one  of  the 
meanest 
places  in 
the  world. 

It  is  breeze- 
1 e s s,  hot, 
sultry,  and 
very  damp. 

These  cli- 
matic con- 
d i t i o n s 
make  that 
part  of  Cen- 
tral  and 
West  Africa 
which  is 
near  the 
equator  a 

great,  Fig.  546.  Try  it  and  see  for  yourself 
damn  hot  that  the  air  circulates  this  way  about 
„ burning  paper,  the  heated  stove  or  lamp, 

forest.  For  or  outdoor  fire. 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 


361 


s<r 


the  same  reasons  we 
find  the  same  kind 
of  a forest  near  the 
equator  in  South 
America,  and  in  the 
East  Indian  Islands. 

746.  The  tropic 
grassland  climate. 
— Let  us  again  con- 
sider the  stove  in 
the  room.  Now 
suppose  you  move 
it  a few  feet  from 
the  center  of  the 
room.  What  effect 
will  this  have  on 
the  direction  of  the 
air  movements  in 
the  room?  Draw 


Fig.  547.  A cross  section  of 
one-half  of  the  earth  and  its 
atmosphere.  The  atmos-  two  diagrams  on  the 
phere  is  much  exaggerated 

in  height  so  that  the  arrows  board  Or  on  a piece 
can  show  the  direction  of  the  0f  paper  and  see  for 
air  on  the  earth  and  above  it.  , „ 

yourself.  I he  air 

will  be  circulating  as  it  did  before  the  stove 
was  moved;  but  since  the  stove  has  moved, 
the  center  of  circulation  or  the  zone  of  rising 
air  will  have  moved  with  it,  and  the  air  will 
now  be  blowing  straight  across  the  place 
where  the  stove  first  stood. 

Something  very  much  like  that  happens 
in  Africa.  The  Zone  of  Calms,  or  the  Dol- 
drums, follows  the  sun,  just  as  the  calm  place 
in  the  room  followed  the  stove.  (Fig.  545.) 
In  the  time  of  our  summer,  the  sun  moves 
north  of  the  equator  and  shines  straight 
down,  so  the  center  of  rising  air,  or  Zone  of 
Doldrums,  moves  north.  Land  that  before 
had  the  trade  winds  now  has  the  doldrums. 
Since  the  doldrum  belt  is  the  rain  belt  the 
grasslands  of  the  Sudan  receive  a good 
soaking  at  this  time. 

When  our  winter  season  comes,  the  sun 
has  moved  southward,  and  shines  directly 
down  on  the  land  to  the  south  of  the  equator. 
The  heat  center,  or  Zone  of  Doldrums,  then 
goes  south  of  the  equator.  At  this  time  the 
hot  trade  wind  from  the  Sahara  again  blows 
over  the  northern  grasslands  and  dries  them 
up,  but  the  doldrum  belt  is  making  down- 


pours of  rain  on  the  grasslands  south  of  the 
equator.  The  climate  of  the  African  grass- 
lands seems  to  act  like  a kind  of  see-saw: 
while  heavy  rains  are  falling  south  of  the 
equator,  everything  north  of  it  dries  up;  up 
and  down,  up  and  down,  the  seasons  shift. 
The  hot  tropic  grassland  regions  have  but 
two  seasons:  rainy,  when  the  sun  is  over- 
head (summer);  dry,  when  the  sun  is  on 
the  other  side  of  the  equator  (winter). 

747.  The  dry  season. — When  the  grass- 
lands are  receiving  the  hot  sun  and  the  desert 
wind,  there  are  months  when  no  rain  falls; 
most  of  the  streams  dry  up;  the  ground 
becomes  so  hard  and  dry  that  it  cracks  open. 
The  grass  is  turned  into  natural  hay  without 
being  cut.  Unless  burned,  it  stands  there, 
making  good  forage  for  the  animals.  At  this 
season  water  is  often  hard  to  find.  Travelers 
sometimes  see  hundreds  of  animals  standing 
around  a mud  hole  where  they  have  drunk  up 
the  last  of  a pond  of  water.  (Fig.  557.)  If 
a stretch  of  grass  has  been  burned,  grass- 
eating animals  stand  in  the  burned-over 
space  when  they  are  not  feeding.  There 
they  are  safe  from  lions  that  would  sneak  up 
through  the  tall  grass,  and  spring  upon  them. 

748.  The  rainy  season. — In  the  time  of  our 
summer,  which  is  the  Sudan  summer  also, 
the  trade  wind  from  the  dry  desert  stops 
blowing  across  the  Sudan.  Light  breezes 
may  blow  in  any  direction.  The  Zone  of 
Calms  has  now  come,  bringing  a sultry  damp- 
ness to  the  air.  The  mornings  are  bright 
and  clear,  but  the  heat  fair- 
ly bites.  Then  big  white 
clouds  rise,  and  in  the  after- 
noon heavy  showers  of  rain 
fall,  accompanied  by  much 
lightning  and  thunder. 

Water  runs  in  the  dry  gul- 
lies. Swamps,  ponds,  and 
lakes  form  in  the  lowlands. 

Grass  grows  so  fast  that  it 
almost  seems  to  jump.  Leaf-  Fig.  548.  Tropic 
less  trees  put  out  new  GFa.s,?la.ndi 
leaves,  as  our  trees  do  m mie,  Sudan,  22.12 

spring.  Birds  build  nests  inches.  When  does 

. . . the  grassland  wom- 

and  rear  their  young.  anplanthergarden? 


362 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  “Travel  Magazine” 

Fig.  549.  A dead  rhinoceros  with  its  head  propped  up  on 
a stone.  What  animal  is  stronger  than  the  rhinoceros? 


This  season  of  rain  is  shorter  near  the 
desert  than  it  is  near  the  forest.  Sometimes, 
near  the  desert,  it  lasts  only  a few  weeks  in 
the  whole  year,  leaving  many  long  months  of 
burning  sunshine;  sometimes  only  a little 
rain  falls  and  famine  comes.  People  pray  for 
a long  rainy  season.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  equatorial  forest  some  tribes  pray  for  a 
short  rainy  season. 

749.  Swamps. — In  the  rainy  season  the 
Nile  overflows  and  large  swamps  form  along 
the  upper  Nile  and  about  Lake  Chad.  Since 
this  lake  has  no  outlet,  it  rises  every  rainy 
season  and  floods  large  areas  of  flat  land; 
then  in  the  dry  season  it  dries  up  again. 

750.  Grassland  animals. — The  broad 
stretch  of  the  Sudan  is  the  home  of  grass- 
eating animals.  Here  live  the  antelope,  of 
which  there  are  many  kinds,  and  the  giraffe, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  the  ostrich.  Here  also 
are  the  meat-eating  animals  that  prey  upon 
the  grass-eating  animals.  This  is  the  home 
of  the  lion  and  the  leopard;  of  the  hyena  and 
the  jackal.  The  elephant,  a grass-eater,  lives 
in  the  more  bushy  parts  of  the  grasslands. 
It  is  not  long  since  elephants  were  found  all 
the  way  from  the  Sudan  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  lions  from  the  Cape  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

751.  People  and  agriculture. — The  Suda- 
nese are  large,  strong,  black  people.  They 
have  different  ways  of  making  their  living 
in  different  parts  of  the  region.  On  the 
northern  or  desert  side,  where  the  dry  season 


is  long  and  the  rainy  season  is  short,  and 
where  the  rains  are  uncertain,  the  people 
are  nomads,  with  flocks  of  camels,  sheep,  and 
cows.  They  raise  camels  to  sell  to  the  cara- 
van traders.  The  light  and  irregular  rains 
sometimes  cause  dreadful  famines,  which 
make  the  hungry  people  raid  and  plunder 
their  more  prosperous  neighbors.  These  tent- 
dwellers  do  not  enjoy  the  rainy  season. 
When  it  comes  they  sometimes  run  away  from 
it  and  move  out  into  the  edge  of  the  desert, 
where  they  camp  by  some  stream  which  is  fed 
by  the  rains  to  the  south  of  their  camps. 

South  of  the  nomad  belt,  where  the  rain- 
fall is  greater,  the  people  can  grow  crops  of 
grain.  Here  the  Sudanese  are  farmers.  They 
live  in  villages  of  houses  that  have  mud  walls 
and  grass  roofs.  Close  to  each  village  is  the 
hand-cultivated  garden.  It  contains  cassava 
(Sec.  369)  and  durra,  which  are  the  great 
breadstuffs,  and  beans,  peanuts,  pumpkins, 
and  other  vegetables.  Instead  of  bread,  the 
native  of  the  grasslands  and  often,  too,  the 
native  of  the  Congo  eats  corn-meal  mush,  and 
boiled  leaves  of  the  cassava.  Meat  is  a lux- 
ury which  is  often  used  as  seasoning  for  the 
mush ; some  natives  eat  no  meat  at  all.  Some 
natives  of  central  Sudan  keep  flocks  and  herds 
and  raise  a little  cotton  for  their  own  use. 
In  this  farming  country  there  are  many 
towns.  The  largest,  Kano,  on  one  of  the 
higher  sections  of  British  Nigeria,  had  a 
hundred  thousand  people  even  before  white 
men  built  the  railroad  to  it. 

752.  Native  rulers. — In  this  part  of  the 
Sudan  there  have  been  many  small  kingdoms, 
each  ruled  by  a native  king.  Parts  of  the 
Sudan  often  have  been  conquered  by  nomads 
from  the  desert.  The  conquerors  would 
then  protect  a certain  territory  from  other 
nomads,  and  take  a part  of  the  grain  and 
flocks  as  a tax. 

753.  Foreign  rulers. — Most  of  the  Sudan 
is  a part  of  the  great  African  possessions  of 
England  and  France.  The  people  of  the 
European  countries  are  becoming  more  and 
more  interested  in  their  African  colonies,  and 
we  may  expect  many  changes  to  take  place 
in  the  future.  (Sec.  723.) 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 


363 


754.  A great  future  trade.  — European 
rule  will  insure  more  peace  for  this  region 
and  an  increase  of  population.  The  Arabs 
have  carried  slaves  out  of  the  Sudan  for 
so  many  centuries  that  one  can  almost 
find  the  way  to  the  Mediterranean  coast 
by  following  the  trail  of  human  bones, 
where  the  poor  negroes  have  died  by  the 
wayside.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of  tribal 
wars  was  to  take  prisoners  to  sell  as  slaves. 
Now  that  the  slave  trade  has  been  stopped 
and  Europe  sends  rulers,  there  are  but  few 
instances  of  tribal  wars. 

Will  foreign  rule  increase  the  population? 
In  1881,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  had  eight 
and  one-half  million  people.  By  1903,  wars, 
famines,  and  diseases  had  killed  over  six 
millions  of  them,  and  the  total  population 
was  less  than  two  millions.  In  1903,  the 
English  took  charge.  They  have  kept  peace 
and  have  done  what  they  could  to  teach  the 
natives  better  methods  of  living.  In  eighteen 
years  the  population  has  about  doubled. 
Northern  Nigeria  has  nine  millions  of  people 
The  whole  Sudan  has  twenty  millions  and 
may  soon  have  fifty  or  seventy-five  millions. 

< This  region  of  hot  African  grasslands,  more 
than  half  as  large  as  the  United  States,  may 
some  day  produce  quantities  of  peanuts  and 
beans,  much  cotton  and  corn,  and  many 
cattle.  Its  millions  of  big,  strong  black 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  550.  Because  of  the  danger  of  famine  from 
drought,  the  governor  of  British  Uganda  makes  the 
natives  deposit  100  pounds  of  grain  per  person  in  these 
native  storehouses.after  every  good  crop,  - 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  551.  A native  Grassland  woman,  her  home,  her 
garden  and  her  bread-making,  near  Lake  Tanganyika. 
(A)  Cassava  growing  plant;  (B)  fresh  roots;  (C) 
fermenting  roots;  (D)  drying  before  pounding; 
(E)  pounding  to  flour  in  mortar  made  of  hollowed 
tree  trunk;  (F)  cassava  flour  ready  to  bake. 

people  are  not  very  fond  of  work.  Who 
would  be  ambitious  in  a country  as  hot  as 
theirs?  But  they  would  like  to  have  some- 
thing to  sell,  so  that  they  could  buy  some 
of  our  things. 

755.  Cotton. — For  a long,  long  time  even 
the  most  isolated  tribes  in  that  region  have 
grown  a little  cotton,  spun  it  by  hand  and 
woven  it  into  cloth.  (Fig.  537.)  Now  comes 
the  European,  trying  to  teach  better  ways 
of  growing  cotton.  Much  land  can  be  irri- 
gated along  the  Niger,  the  Shari,  and  the 
Nile.  The  English  are  planning  large  reser- 
voirs for  irrigating  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  acres  on  the  plains  south  of  Khartum. 
Passenger  and  freight  steamboats  are  regu- 
larly running  on  2500  miles  of  the  upper  Nile 
River  and  its  branches,  between  Aswan, 
24°  N.,  and  Rejaf,  5°  N.  Some  cotton  is 
being  shipped  each  year  from  the  trade 
center  at  Kano,  Nigeria,  to  Manchester, 
England.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  black  men  in  the  Sudan 
may  not  grow  almost  as  much  cotton  as  their 
cousins  in  the  cottonfields  of  our  own  south. 

756.  Cattle. — The  Sudanese  have  been 
cattle-herders  for  many  generations.  This 
being  the  case,  it  may  be  easy  to  start  the 
export  of  meat.  The  government  of  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  is  fighting  cattle  diseases 


364 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Pkotos  courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Fig.  552.  The  journey  from  the  desert  to  the  forest. 


1.  Very  few  scattered  bushes.  5.  Tall  grass  and  clumps  of  low  forest. 

2.  More  bushes  and  sparse  grass.  6.  Grass  house  village  in  open  forest. 

3.  Short  grass  and  scattered  trees — big-game  country.  7.  ThelastoftheseriesisFig.553,the  equatorial  jungle 

4.  More  trees,  more  grass.  Farmers’  village  of  grass  tied  together  with  vines,  and  the  very  first  is  Fig. 

huts.  Smoke  from  fire  inside  one  of  them.  443,  the  bare  dead  desertproducing  nothing  at  all. 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 


365 


there,  just  as  our  Department  of  Agriculture 
is  fighting  them  in  the  United  States 
(Sec.  44).  The  native  corn,  or  durra,  of  this 
region  is  much  like  our  own  Kafir  corn,  which 
is,  in  fact,  an  African  plant.  Such  corn  is 
good  for  cattle-feed  in  Oklahoma  and  Kansas, 
so  why  not  in  Africa?  Nor  is  there  any  reason 
why  canned  meat  should  not  go  to  the  Lon- 
don market  from  big  packing  plants  at  Kano 
or  Khartum,  as  well  as  from  Omaha, 
Nebraska,  or  Forth  Worth,  Texas.  Costs 
have  much  to  do  with  such  matters.  At 
present,  in  the  interior  grasslands  of  Africa, 
the  tin  can  costs  more  than  the  meat. 

Now  that  this  wide  belt  of  grassy  lowlands 
has  entered  upon  the  age  of  engineering,  of 
railroads,  of  irrigation,  of  tractors,  and  of 
reapers;  of  scientific  agriculture,  of  dry 
farming,  of  new  crops,  and  of  the  new 
methods  of  teaching  farming,  it  will  be 
interesting  to  see  what  the  white  man  as 
teacher  and  policeman,  and  the  black  man  as 
pupil  and  worker,  can  succeed  in  doing  there. 

Part  II. — The  East  Point  of  Africa. 

757.  A region  of  poor  grass. — The  horn 
of  Africa,  east  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  and 
of  the  40th  degree  of  east  longitude,  is  much 
like  the  drier  parts  of  the  Sudan.  (Fig.  445, 
B2.)  What  happens  to  the  summer  winds 
along  this  coast?  (Sec.  741.)  The  annual  rain- 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  5S3.  A Congo  forest  garden.  The  small  growth 
has  been  removed,  and  cassava,  bananas,  and  un- 
irrigated  rice  grow  till  together  beneath  the  tall  trees. 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Fig.  554.  A specimen  of  native  African  grassland  cattle 
and  a grass-roofed  barn  with  mud-plastered  walls. 

fall  is  less  than  twenty  inches,  and  in  most  of 
the  country  there  are  no  streams  that  flow  all 
the  year.  This  region  has  a scanty  popula- 
tion of  big,  strong,  black  people  who  follow 
flocks  and  herds. 

What  nations  claim  parts  of  this  region? 

Part  III— The  Southern  and  East  Cen- 
tral Grassland  Plateaus. 

758.  Southern  grasslands. — While  the  Su- 
dan is  drying  up  in  January,  what  happens 
in  the  southern  grasslands?  (Fig.  445,  B3. 
Sec.  746.) 

Most  of  the  Sudan  is  below  2000  feet  in 
elevation.  Nearly  all  of  the  southern  grass- 
lands or  savannahs  are  above  3000  feet  in 
elevation,  so  that  this  region  is  really  a 
plateau.  It  is  a better  place  for  white  men 
than  is  the  Sudan.  Like  the  Sudan,  it  is 
covered  with  grass  and  scattered  trees,  but 
in  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  draining 
this  region  there  are  many  miles  of  forest. 
The  natives  live  as  do  those  of  the  Sudan. 

759.  Mineral  wealth. — The  southern  grass- 
land region  has  a great  copper  deposit  at 
Katanga.  European  engineers  are  in  charge 
of  the  mines,  and  native  black  men  are  doing 


366 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


the  work.  Thousands  of  tons  of  ore  are 
being  shipped  out  each  year  by  railroad  and 
steamboat,  and  Katanga  promises  to  be  one 
of  the  great  copper  districts  of  the  world. 
In  the  southern  part  of  this  district  are 
many  gold-bearing  rocks;  it  is  said  that 
the  mines  of  King  Solomon  were  there. 
Many  tools  and  remains  in  the  old  workings 
show  that  the  Arabs  dug  gold  there  many 
centuries  ago. 

760.  The  savannahs  of  East  Central 
Africa — a higher  plateau. — East  of  the  28th 
degree  of  east  longitude,  the  plateau,  reach- 
ing from  Lake  Nyasa  to  Abyssinia,  is  from 
4000  to  6000  feet  in  elevation;  nevertheless, 
it  has  areas  of  moist,  hot,  flat,  rich  land  along 
the  lakes.  These  rich  plains  are  densely 
peopled  by  black  natives,  who  live  in  villages 
of  grass  houses  surrounded  by  well-kept  fields 
of  bananas,  cassava,  sweet 
potatoes,  peanuts,  beans,  and 
other  vegetables.  Most  of 
the  upland  is  grassland. 

761.  A land  of  big  game 
and  of  big  men.  — These 
grassy  plains  are  much  like 
the  Sudan  in  appearance. 

Here  Mr.  Roosevelt  hunted 
the  same  kinds  of  wild  an- 
imals that  live  in  the  Sudan, 
and  here  he  found  the  same 
kind  of  native  farmers. 

The  greatest  difference 
between  the  Sudan  and  the 
East  African  grasslands  is  the 
elevation.  The  greater  ele- 
vation gives  East  Africa  a 
cooler,  better  climate,  in 
which  the  white  race  perhaps 
may  be  able  to  live  and 
thrive.  Indeed,  some  British 
fanners  have  already  settled 
in  the  region  between  Lake 
Nyasa  and  Abyssinia  (Fig. 

531),  but  in  the  most  of  the 
high  grasslands  the  number 
of  black  men  is  many  times 
greater  than  the  number  of 
white  men. 


Explorers  report  that  part  of  this  grassy 
plateau  is  a very  fine  country  of  beautiful, 
rolling  land.  The  native  men  have  splendid 
physique.  Doctor  H.  L.  Shantz,  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  tells  of 
seeing  whole  tribes  whose  men  were  all 
over  six  feet  tall,  and  some  were  over  seven 
feet.  One  tribe  has  a rule  that  a young  man 
cannot  marry  until  he  has  gone  out  alone, 
armed  only  with  shield  and  spear,  and  killed 
a lion.  Dr.  Shantz  saw  these  big  black  fel- 
lows in  their  sports.  Some  of  them  ran  and 
jumped  over  the  backs  of  four  or  five  cows 
that  stood  side  by  side.  They  jumped 
over  a string  held  eight  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  only  help  they  had  was  an 
ant  hill,  six  or  eight  inches  high,  from  which 
they  jumped  o ff . Can  anyone  in  your  school 
jump  to  a height  of  eight  feet? 

In  this  part  of  Africa  there 
are  snowlands  close  to  the 
equator.  The  peaks  of  Kil- 
imanjaro and  Ruwenzori  rise 
nearly  three  miles  above  this 
plateau,  to  the  height  of  per- 
petual snow. 

762.  A distant  meat  supply 
for  Europe. — For  the  future, 
as  at  present,  the  chief  prod- 
uct, other  than  minerals, 
from  these  eastern  and  south- 
ern grasslands,  will  be  animal 
products.  In  the  interior  of 
Rhodesia,  one  thousand  miles 
from  the  sea,  English  com- 
panies are  building  miles  of 
wire  fence,  and  are  making 
dipping  vats  for  cattle  (Fig. 
594).  Packing  houses  for 
the  manufacture  of  beef  ex- 
tract and  canned  meat  have 
also  been  built. 

Nearly  all  of  this  region  is 
under  the  control  of  England, 
and  will,  therefore,  probably 
have  peace  and  order.  Euro- 
peans have  gone  there  to  di- 
rect the  natives  as  they  begin 
to  carry  on  industries,  as  the 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  555.  A baby  chimpanzee  clinging 
fo  the  native  hunter  who  has  caught 
Mm.  The  baby  is  covered  with  red  hair. 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 


367 


white  man  does.  The  trade  of  this  country 
will  be  much  like  that  of  our  own  Great  Plains. 

Part  IV. — The  Abyssinian  Plateau, 
Africa’s  Highest  Country. 

763.  A land  with  vigorous  climate. — Most 
of  Abyssinia  is  a plateau  more  than  eight 
thousand  feet  in  elevation.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  high  plateaus  do  not  descend  below 
3200  feet  during  the  rainy  season,  because 
the  depths  of  the  valleys  are  so  unhealthful 
and  the  plateau  is  so  healthful. 

Like  the  Sudan,  it  is  grassland  because 
it  has  a dry  season  and  a season  of  summer 
rain.  This  plateau  furnishes  most  of  the 
water  and  rich  volcanic  mud  with  which 
the  Nile  Valley  is  flooded  and  made  fertile. 
(Sec.  587.)  It  has  a rich,  volcanic  soil,  and 
much  level  upland,  in  which  the  rivers  have 
cut  deep  valleys  and  sometimes  even  canyons. 

764.  A vigorous  people.— Because  of  the 
cool  climate  of  the  plateau,  the  eight  million 
people  of  Abyssinia  are  the  most  vigorous 
natives  of  Africa.  In  all  Africa,  Abyssinia 
is  the  only  country  not  claimed  or  pro- 
tected by  some  nation  which  lives  in  the 
land  of  frost.  Italy  tried  to  conquer  Abys- 
sinia in  1896,  but  the  invaders  were  driven 
out  and  the  country  remains  independent, 
with  an  empress  as  ruler.  Europeans  have 
started  European  schools,  but  they  only 
have  100  pupils,  and  they  do  not  study  much. 

For  fifteen  hundred  years  the  Abyssinians 
have  been  called  Christians,  and  have 
belonged  to  the  Church  of  Alexandria,  just 
as  many  people  in  Europe  and  America 
belong  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  or  to  the 
Greek  Church.  The  Church  of  Alexandria 
was  founded  in  Roman  times. 

The  Queen  of  Sheba,  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  is  supposed  to  have  come  from 
Abyssinia. 

765.  Abyssinian  industries  and  trade. — 
These  people  make  flour  from  their  own 
wheat,  barley,  and  durra.  They  weave 
cloth  of  cotton  and  wool,  and  make  leather 
and  soap,  but  they  have  none  of  these  things 
for  export.  The  Abyssinians  buy  cotton 
cloth,  hardware,  sugar,  and  kerosene  from 

11-19 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  556.  Native  boys  in  the  market  square  of  a 
Grassland  village.  What  articles  are  in  the  market? 


white  men,  and  pay  for  them  with  hides  and 
skins.  There  are  large  forests  of  wild  coffee 
trees  from  which  some  coffee  is  gathered, 
but  only  a little  is  exported.  There  are  large 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  donkeys,  mules, 
and  horses.  No  one  knows  how  long  these 
people  have  been  tending  livestock.  They 
are  beginning  to  export  animals  by  way  of 
the  five  hundred  miles  of  French  railroad 
from  Jibuti  on  the  Red  Sea  to  Addis  Abeba, 
the  capital  of  Abyssinia.  This  city  has  an 
elevation  of  6000  feet  and  a population  of 
40,000.  How  would  you  compare  the  climate 
of  Abyssinia  with  that  of  Mexico? 

Part  V.— The  Madagascar  Grasslands. 

766.  The  island  of  Madagascar  is  in  the 
latitude  of  the  southeast  trade  wind.  This 
location  gives  it  a wet,  forest-clad  coast  on 
the  windward  side  of  the  mountains,  and 
grasslands  in  the  interior  and  on  the  south- 
west coast,  where  the  trade  winds  do  not 
blow.  Much  of  the  interior  (Fig.  445,  B6) 
is  a grass-covered  plateau,  like  that  of  Rho- 
desia. The  southwest  coast  (Fig.  445,  B5) 
is  lower  and  hotter. 


368 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Compare  Madagascar  in  size  and  popula- 
tion with  Texas.  The  island  is  a French 
possession,  and  its  low  grasslands  and  high 
grasslands  are  like  the  other  tropic  African 
grasslands  of  similar  elevations  in  climate, 
in  appearance,  and  in  the  way  in  which 
people  live.  (Secs.  758,  762.)  Tananarivo, 
the  capital,  and  several  other  towns  in  Mad- 
agascar already  have  meat-packing  plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  is  the  larger,  the  African  grasslands  or 
the  African  desert?  2.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers 
of  travel  in  the  Sudan?  Who  supports  the  family  in 
the  Sudan?  3.  What  parts  of  Africa  may  be  made  to 
supply  European  mills  with  raw  cotton?  Discuss, 
under  the  following  heads,  the  advantages  of  this 
region  for  raising  cotton: 


Climate. 

Tempera- 

ture. 

Moisture. 

Transpor- 

tation 

Facilities. 

Laborers., 

4.  How  would  canned  goods  be  carried  from  Khartum 
to  London?  from  Kano  to  Bergen?  5.  Why  do  we 
consider  such  scattered  parts  of  Africa  as  one  region? 
6.  In  order  to  marry,  what  things  does  a man  in  the 
United  States  prove  himself  capable  of  doing  that 
might  be  compared  with  the  task  of  the  lion  hunters 
of  East  Central  Africa?  7.  Describe  the  journey  of 
a bundle  of  hides  from  Abyssinia  to  Philadelphia. 
What  may  these  hides  pay  for?  Could  Abyssinia 
buy  goods  from  other  countries  if  she  did  not  sell 
goods?  Could  she  sell  goods  without  buying  some- 
thing in  return? 

8.  What  great  lake  of  the  East  African  Savannah  is 
crossed  by  the  equator?  Is  it  hotter  there  or  at  a place 
north  of  Kano?  Why?  Is  it  possible  to  have  snow  at 
the  equator?  Explain.  9.  How  is  Abyssinia  the  gift- 
giver  of  the  cotton  which  England  buys  in  Egypt? 
10.  How  is  the  Grassland  climate  a hindrance  to 
progress?  11.  Compare  this  great  plain  of  the  Sudan 
with  the  great  plains  of  North  America  from  the  fol- 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept  Agr. 

Fig.  557.  An  African  river  in  the  dry  season.  The 

sand  is  tracked  by  animals  that  have  come  to  drink. 


lowing  standpoints:  extent  east  and  west  compared 
with  extent  north  and  south;  crops;  homes;  animals; 
distribution  of  rain  throughout  the  year.  12. 
Compare  difficulties  in  the  journey  of  the  gold  which 
was  sent  to  Jerusalem  for  Solomon’s  temple  with 
those  which  a similar  shipment  would  meet  to-day. 
Can  things  be  sent  to-day  that  were  not  sent  in 
Solomon’s  time? 

13.  What  is  a canyon?  Why  are  there  so  many 
more  in  Abyssinia  than  elsewhere  in  Africa?  Where 
else  in  Africa  would  you  expect  to  find  some  canyons? 
14.  Are  the  monsoons  of  India  an  advantage  to  the 
east  point  of  Africa?  Give  reasons.  15.  Why  has 
Lake  Chad  no  outlet,  while  Lake  Victoria  has?  16. 
Why  is  it  dry  in  the  Sudan  when  the  trade  winds  are 
blowing?  17  . What  people  of  the  United  States 
would  be  best  fitted  by  their  occupation  to  live  in 
the  grasslands  of  Africa?  Which  of  Madagascar’s 
grasslands  will  suit  white  men  best? 

THE  WHITE  MAN’S  SOUTH  AFRICA 

767.  Location. — That  part  of  South  Africa 
in  which  white  men  can  live  and  be  healthy 
we  call  “The  White  Man’s  South  Africa.” 
This  region  is  bounded  on  the  northeast 
by  the  hot  lowlands  of  the  Limpopo  Valley, 
and  on  the  northwest  by  the  dry  lands  of  the 
Kalahari  Region.  Most  of  the  region  is  a 
high  plateau  with  very  narrow  low  plains 
along  the  seashores. 

768.  Another  California. — The  western  tip 
of  South  Africa,  called  the  Cape  Section,  is  in 
latitude  similar  to  that  of  southern  California, 
and  it  has  the  climate  and  therefore  the 
crops  of  that  region.  It  so  happens  that 
western  coasts  of  continents  in  that  lati- 
tude always  have  that  kind  of  climate.  We 
found  it  in  Spain  and  in  Italy.  We  shall 
find  other  such  coasts  in  South  America  and 
Australia.  This  is  the  climate  of  the  winter 
rains,  and  of  the  dry  summer  when  fields 
are  brown  and  bare  and  roads  are  dusty. 

While  the  Cape  Section  is  another  Califor- 
nian-Mediterranean region,  it  is  a very  small 
one  and  the  water  supply  is  poor.  The 
mountain  ranges  have  little  snow  and  are 
parallel  to  the  southern  coast,  and,  therefore, 
they  catch  very  little  rain  from  the  west  wind. 
All  of  the  few  streams  are  used  for  irrigation. 
There  are  some  very  valuable  orchards  of 
peaches,  plums,  oranges,  and  other  fruits. 
The  grapes  are  especially  fine.  The  fruit 
can  be  sent  to  the  markets  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  when  it  is  winter  in  the  north- 


369 


THE  WHITE  MAN’S  SOUTH  AFRICA 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  JN.  Y. 

Fig.  558.  Equipment  for  handling  ore,  and  vats  for  soaking  the  gold  out  by 
the  cyanide  process.  This  process  enables  men  to  make  profitable  use  of 
ore  that  contains  very  little  gold. 


em  hemisphere,  but  the 
freight  makes  it  very  costly. 

How  would  South  Africa 
be  helped  if  its  mountains 
were  like  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada in  direction  and 
height? 

769.  Another  Florida. — 

We  have  found  that  the 
west  coasts  of  continents 
just  outside  of  the  tropics 
are  like  California.  The 
climates  of  eastern  coasts 
of  continents  in  the  same 
latitude  are  also  much 
alike.  They  all  have 
moist  summers.  Thus 
the  coast  of  South 
Africa,  called  the  Natal 
Coast,  has  the  moist  sum- 
mer climate  which  we 
have  already  seen  on 
the  southeast  coasts  of  Georgia,  Florida,  and 
South  China.  (Sec.  668.)  We  shall  find  this 
climate  again  in  the  same  latitudes  in  South 
America  and  Australia.  (Secs.  804,  882.) 
These  sections  have  more  rain  in  summer 
than  in  winter,  so  that  forests  cover  the  land, 
and  com,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  oranges,  and 
even  bananas  can  grow  there. 

The  South  African  Florida,  like  the  South 
African  California,  is  small.  The  hot,  damp 
plain  by  the  sea  is  narrow.  A series  of  ter- 
races or  step-like  plateaus  reaches  upward 
one  after  the  other  toward  the  high  Drakens- 
berg Mountains.  On  the  low  plain,  sugar 
cane,  bananas,  and  oranges  are  grown  for 
the  South  African  market.  A little  tea  is 
raised  with  the  help  of  workers  from  India. 
The  summer  rainfall  helps  corn,  which  is 
the  chief  crop,  to  grow  on  several  of  the 
plateau  steps.  The  good  pastures  on  the 
cool  upper  slopes  of  these  mountains  sup- 
port a dairy  industry;  but  this  cool  dairy 
section,  like  the  coast  plain,  is  small  in  area. 

770.  Another  New  Mexico. — West  of  the 
crest  of  the  Drakensberg  Mountains  is  a 
wide  plateau,  sloping  gently  away  across  the 
Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal,  toward 


the  Kalahari  Desert  Region  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  mountains  shut  most  of  the 
moist  winds  away  from  these  plains,  causing 
a dry  interior  climate,  such  as  we  found  in 
New  Mexico  (Sec.  143)  and  the  edges 
of  the  Sahara  (Sec.  576),  and  that  we  shall 
find  again  in  South  America  and  in  Australia. 

At  the  inner  edge  of  the  mountains  the 
rainfall  is  thirty  inches  per  year.  Some  corn 
can  be  grown  there,  and  the  plain,  or  “veldt,” 
as  the  Dutch  call  it,  is  covered  with  fine 
grass.  As  we  go  away  from  the  mountains 
and  descend  the  slope  of  the  veldt,  the  rain- 
fall becomes  less,  farming  becomes  impossible 
and  the  pasture  poorer,  as  is  the  case  when 
one  goes  southward  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains into  New  Mexico.  Here,  as  in  our 
southwestern  plateaus,  are  ranches,  with 
millions  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  the  long-haired 
goats  that  yield  mohair.  The  chief  exports 
of  South  Africa,  except  gold  and  diamonds, 
are  skins,  wool,  and  mohair. 

771.  People  and  government. — This  region 
was  well  settled  by  cattle-keeping,  grain- 
growing blacks  when  the  first  white  settlers 
came.  Even  yet  there  are  four  blacks  to 
one  white  person.  Cape  Town  and  the 


370 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


'~A  Fig.  559.  Gold  production — five  lead- 
ing nations  (1913):  Million 

dollars 

A.  South  Africa 207 

B.  United  States,  including  Alaska  88 

C.  Australasia 53 

D.  Russia,  Finland,  and  Siberia  . . 26 

E.  Mexico 19 

"Ib 

region  near  the  tip  end  of  South 

Africa  have  many  British  people, 
J but  the  Dutch  were  the  first 

white  settlers.  A great  many  of 
the  white  people  of  the  interior  are  Dutch 
and  are  called  Boers,  a Dutch  word  that 
means  farmer. 

In  1910,  the  four  British  colonies  of  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  Orange  Free  State, 
and  Transvaal  formed  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  very  much  as  the  Canadian  colonies 
formed  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  is 
really  a kind  of  United  States  of  South 
Africa,  with  its  capital  at  Cape  Town. 

772.  Another  Abyssinia. — The  highest  part 
of  the  South  African  plateau  is  a high,  rugged 
region  about  the  size  of  Maryland  and  is 
called  Basutoland.  This  is  the  best  part  of 
South  Africa  for  grass-growing  and  for  grain. 
Its  four  hundred  thousand  black  people  are 
almost  independent;  they  are  farmers,  and 
raise  sheep,  cattle,  corn,  Kafir  corn,  and 
wheat. 

In  1883,  the  Basuto  army  defeated  a Brit- 
ish army,  and,  though  victorious,  they  had 
the  surprising  wisdom  to  sue  for  peace  at 
once.  They  permitted  the  British  to  have  the 
appearance  of  victory  by  accepting  a British 
commissioner  as  their  governor,  who  serves 
as  a kind  of  governor-general  to  the  Basuto 
chiefs.  They  kept  for  themselves  the  real 
fruit  of  victory — that  of  getting  the  white 
men  to  agree  not  to  settle  in  their  country. 
The  only  white  people  there  are  connected 
with  the  government,  or  are  traders  or  mis- 
sionaries. When  the  first  British  governor 
came  to  take  charge,  the  Basutos  met  him 
at  their  boundary  and  escorted  him  to  the 
capital  with  a guard  of  ten  thousand  armed 
men,  each  mounted  on  a good  horse. 

773.  Gold  and  diamonds. — In  1867  a set- 
tler’s wife  near  the  Vaal  River  was  dressing  a 
chicken  one  day  and  found  a diamond  in  the 


chicken’s  crop.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the 
incident  that  led  to  the  discovery  of  great 
beds  of  clay  containing  diamonds.  Then 
arose  Kimberley,  a city  now  having  50,000 
people,  and  from  the  mines  near  the  city 
come  98%  of  all  the  diamonds  in  the  world, 
$60,000,000  worth  each  year.  The  Kimber- 
ley diamond  companies  have  united  into  a 
trust  that  sets  the  price,  and  decides  how 
many  diamonds  shall  be  sold. 

At  Johannesburg  in  the  Transvaal  is  the 
greatest  gold-mining  region  in  the  world. 
Long  ridges  of  sandstone  rocks  have  enough 
gold  in  them  to  make  it  pay  to  dig  mines  a 
mile  deep.  Johannesburg  was  founded  in 
1886,  and  had  100,000  people  ten  years  later. 
It  has  grown  faster  than  Winnipeg,  Mani- 
toba, and  is  now  the  largest  city  of  South 
Africa.  Mining  is  by  far  the  most  important 
industry  in  South  Africa. 

The  gold  and  diamond  mines  are  owned 
by  the  English;  some  of  the  engineers  who 
plan  the  work  are  Americans;  but  nearly 
all  the  work  is  done  by  natives  who  come  down 
from  the  hotter  parts  of  Africa  to  work  for 
a time  in  the  mines,  and  who  then  go  back, 
each  with  a bag  of  money. 

774.  Trade. — Most  of  the  trade  of  South 
Africa  is  with  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and 
the  United  States.  Gold  and  diamonds 
stand  far  above  all  other  exports.  Next  come 
wool,  mohair,  skins  from  the  ranches,  meat 
from  the  packing  plants,  and  ostrich  feathers 
from  the  farms  where  ostriches  are  kept  to 
supply  these  ornamental  plumes.  Since  the 
ostrich  cannot  fly,  it  can  be  kept  in  a field 
surrounded  by  a wire  fence,  where  it  may  be 
fed  grass  and  grain.  (Fig.  530.) 

This  is  a new  country,  like  West  Canada, 
but  it  does  not  export  much  grain  because 
only  a small  part  of  the  country  has  rainfall 
enough  to  make  it  a good  grain  country. 
South  Africa  imports  clothes,  machinery,  and 
sometimes  wheat. 

775.  Future. — South  Africa  will  be  pros- 
perous as  long  as  the  mines  of  gold  and  dia- 
monds hold  out.  After  that,  its  prosperity 
can  be  continued  by  scientific  agriculture. 
Irrigation  is  needed,  but  the  necessary  water 


THE  KALAHARI  DESERT  AND  ITS  EDGES 


371 


is  hard  to  find.  Terrible  droughts  sometimes 
starve  the  sheep  and  cattle  on  the  veldt. 
The  future  prosperity  of  South  Africa  lies 
in  some  kind  of  dry  farming.  Perhaps  the 
crop  will  be  olives  (Sec.  556).  Wild  olive 
trees  grow  over  most  of  its  area,  inviting 
man  to  make  of  them  a crop. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  List  the  things  you  would  need  to  find  in  look- 
ing for  a good  place  in  which  to  live.  How  many  of 
them  would  you  find  in  South  Africa?  2.  Compare 
the  industries  of  Natal  with  those  of  Florida.  Is 


stretches  along  the  west  coast  to  about  lati- 
tude 11°.  For  a thousand  miles  no  permanent 
stream  enters  the  sea.  The  trade  wind  blow- 
ing over  the  land  helps,  as  in  the  Sahara,  to 
make  it  dry  and  hot,  but  the  desert  part  is 
very  much  smaller  than  the  Great  Desert. 
Like  the  Sahara,  it  has  a river  crossing  it 
from  the  lands  of  greater  rain,  but,  unlike  the 
Nile,  the  Orange  River  has  but  little  water. 
The  Kalahari  Desert  is  not  so  dry  as  the 
Sahara.  Most  of  it  has  something  that  ani- 
mals can  eat  at  some  season.  There  are 


wide  stretches  of  scattered  bushes,  and  also 
salt  plains  that  are  covered  with  water  at 
times  of  occasional  rain.  The  greatest 
difficulty  in  using  this  land  is  the  absence 
of  drinking  water  for  months  at  a time. 

777.  The  native  life. — Several  tribes  of 
black  people  live  in  this  country.  Most  of 
them  are  nomadic  followers  of  flocks.  Unlike 
the  Arabs  of  the  north,  they  have  no  camels 
— only  goats,  cattle,  and  fat-tailed  sheep. 
One  of  the  tribes,  the  Bushmen,  keeps  no 
animals  at  all,  but  hunts  game  at  water 
holes.  The  Bushmen  are  ignorant  people. 


for  home  use  and  export.  9.  Why 
is  there  no  city  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Orange  River  for  shipping 
gold?  10.  Which  is  more  valuable 
to  England,  her  coal  mines  in 
Great  Britain,  or  her  other  mines 
in  South  Africa? 

11.  Compare  the  density  of 
population  of  this  region  with  the 
population  of  the  Sudan.  W~hy 
the  difference?  In  population, 
which  will  grow  the  more?  Why? 
12.  Describe  trade  between  Basu- 
toland and  Natal.  13.  Whatindus- 
try  of  South  Africa  is  not  carried 
on  to  any  large  extent  on  any 
other  continent?  14.  How  has  the 
life  of  the  black  man  in  South 
Africa  been  changed  by  the  coming 
of  the  white  man?  15.  Has  the 
black  man  been  helped? 


there  any  other  place  with  which  we  might  compare 
parts  of  Natal?  3.  Is  it  fair  to  say  that  South  Africa 
has  a California?  4.  Give  some  evidences  of  Dutch 
occupancy  in  the  names  of  cities  of  this  region;  evi- 
dences of  English  occupancy.  5.  What  cargo  might 
a ship  sailing  from  Durban  or  Cape  Town  carry? 
Trace  each  product  to  the  part  of  the  region  from 
which  it  comes.  6.  Why  are  not  diamonds  sent  di- 
rectly to  New  York  ? (Sec.  449.)  Tell  just  how  the 
diamond  would  travel  and  where  it  would  stop  on  the 
way  to  a jewelry  store  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

7.  Name  the  uses  to  which  mohair  may  be  put. 
Where  in  the  United  States  is  it  obtained?  Trace 
some  of  the  exported  mohair  of  this  region  to  the  end 
of  its  journey  as  a manufactured  product  in  America. 
8.  Arrange  the  products  of  this  region  in  the  following 
classes:  for  home  use  only;  largely  for  export; 


THE  KALAHARI  DESERT 
AND  ITS  EDGES. 


776.  A dry  region  lies 
west  and  north  of  the  White 
Man’s  South  Africa  and 
south  of  the  high  Tropic 
Grasslands  (Fig.  445, C2).  It 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  560.  Myriads  of  gannets  resting  on  a dry  rocky  islet  off  the  Kalahari  D esert 
coast.  Such  colonies  of  sea  birds  have  also  left  valuable  fertilizer  deposits 
(guano)  on  the  Chincha  Islands,  just  off  the  coast  of  Peru. 


372  AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


and  small  in  size.  They  kill  their  enemies 
with  poisoned  arrows. 

778.  The  coming  of  the  white  man. — In 

the  edges  of  the  desert,  where  the  rainfall  is 
between  ten  and  fifteen  inches  a year,  there 
are  stretches  where,  at  the  end  of  the  rainy 
season,  the  ground  is  almost  covered  with 
a wild  melon  somewhat  like  the  cantaloup. 
During  this  season  the  white  men  sometimes 
drive  across  the  country  in  ox  carts.  If  they 
cannot  find  streams  it  makes  no  difference, 
because  the  melons  furnish  water  for  both 
men  and  beasts.  In  this  region  the  white 
men  are  building  water  tanks  and  digging 
wells.  By  these  means  they  secure  a supply 
of  water,  and  cattle  ranches  thus  become 
possible. 

At  best  the  agriculture  of  this  region  can 
be  like  that  of  Arizona  or  western  Texas, 
chiefly  ranches  where  much  land  is  necessary 
to  support  a single  ox,  sheep,  or  goat.  Irri- 
gation can  only  be  used  in  small,  scattered 
patches  where  a little  water  can  be  found  at 
an  artesian  well  or  a mountain  stream.  Per- 
haps the  better  parts  of  Kalahari  may  sup- 
port the  same  kind  of  dry  farming  that  may 
be  carried  on  in  our  own  Southwestern 
Plateaus.  (Sec.  147.) 

Because  there  are  large  deposits  of  iron 
ore,  copper,  and  gold,  desert  mining  towns 


Fig  562.  A transportation  map  of  Africa.  Remember 
that  the  Sahara  is  as  large  as  the  United  States. 


like  those  of  Nevada  are  beginning  to 
appear.  There  may  be  many  such  towns  in 
the  future. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Even  though  the  continent  were  as  wide  here  as 
in  the  north,  the  Kalahari  Desert  would  not  be  as 
wide  as  the  Sahara.  Why?  2.  Compare  the  sources, 
length,  direction  of  flow  and  usefulness  of  the  Nile 
and  the  Orange  rivers.  3.  What  are  the  exports  from 
this  region?  4.  Compare  in 
appearance,  mode  of  travel, 
and  manner  of  defense,  the 
tribes  of  this  region  with  the 
nomads  of  the  Sahara;  of  the 
Russian  Steppes;  of  the  Sudan. 

5.  In  what  other  place  be- 
sides in  Africa  could  the  picture, 
“African  ostriches  on  their  feed- 
ing ground”  (Fig.  530),  have 
been  taken?  6.  On  what  inter- 
ests is  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
based?  What  other  countries  in 
Africa  could  form  a union  based 
on  common  interests? 

7.  What  is  the  only  thing 
likely  to  increase  the  white 
population  of  the  Kalahari 
region?  What  does  the  history 
of  Leadville, Colorado  (Sec.  119), 
tell  us  about  the  future  of  some 
South  African  towns?  8.  Would 
the  discovery  of  mineral  wealth 
cause  a great  seaport  to  rise  at 
the  western  edge  of  the  desert? 


Courtesy  R.  G.  Dun  & Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  561.  Ships  exchanging  cargoes  at  the  Canary  Islands,  a port  of  call  for 
many  ships  in  the  African  trade.  Why  should  the  leeward  side  of  these 
islands  have  treeless  mountains? 


THE  TRADE  OF  AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


373 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  563.  This  is  the  way  the  white  man  gets  railroads  built  through  the 
African  forest.  Many  valuable  timbers  are  used  for  railroad  ties. 


THE  TRADE  OF  AFRICA 
SOUTH  OF  THE 
SAHARA 

779.  The  steamships. — 

As  the  coasts  of  Africa 
are  smooth  and  straight, 
with  few  bays,  gulfs,  or 
harbors,  it  is  harder  to  open 
trade  routes  into  Africa 
than  into  Europe  or  North 
America.  (Sec.  721.)  It 
is  easy  for  ships  to 
skirt  the  coast  of  Africa 
because  there  are  so  few 
capes,  small  islands,  sand 
bars,  or  fogs.  Lines  of 
steamers  from  Liverpool, 

London,  Antwerp,  and 
Marseille  carry  the  goods 
of  Europe  and  America 
down  the  west  coast  and 
down  the  east  coast.  Some 
steamers  go  entirely 
around  the  continent. 

Now  the  hardest  problem  of 
the  ships  is  to  get  in  touch 
with  the  people  of  the  continent,  because  the 
steamers  must  anchor  beyond  the  surf,  and 
put  their  freight  off  into  small  boats.  The 
obstacles  within  the  continent  that  kept 
men  out  of  Africa  (Sec.  721)  are  now  being 
conquered.  Railroads  have  been  built  to 
carry  freight  around  the  cataracts  of  the 
Nile,  the  Congo,  and  the  Niger,  to  the  steam- 
boats on  the  level  reaches  above.  There  are 
also  steamboats  on  the  great  African  lakes. 

780.  Cape  to  Cairo  railroad. — The  English 
have  been  working  many  years  on  the  big 
plan  for  a railroad  from  Cairo  to  Cape  Town. 
The  map  (Fig.  562)  shows  that  most  of  the 
road  is  built.  It  will  not  be  long  before  one 
can  go  the  whole  length  of  Africa  by  train, 
or  by  trains  and  boats  on  lakes  and  rivers. 
Travel  on  such  a route  will  be  slow,  hot,  and 
costly,  and  there  will  be  few  through  travelers 
and  but  little,  if  any,  through  freight.  The 
British,  however,  will  be  glad  to  tie  together 
by  this  railroad  their  far-extended  African 
territory.  The  map  shows  many  side  lines 


that  have  already  been  built,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  from  the  east  coast  inland  to  join  this 
route.  The  frame-work  of  an  African  railway 
system  is  already  made.  Many  branch  lines 
are  being  built  and  more  are  needed  in  this 
land  of  enormous  distances  and  poor  trans- 
portation. 

781.  Airplanes. — It  may’not  be  long  before 
the  airplane  will  soar  over  desert,  savannah, 
forest,  river,  and  lake,  and  carry  passengers 
and  mail  from  London  to  Cairo  and  Cape 
Town.  It  has  already  been  used  in  wars 
against  the  natives. 

782.  The  exports. — The  first  thing  in 
African  trade  is  to  wake  the  native  up  and 
make  him  willing  to  work  for  the  things 
which  he  is  in  the  habit  of  going  without. 
Africa  has  many  resources.  What  will  she 
send  to  the  world?  First  will  be  the 
valuable  minerals  about  which  we  have 
already  studied.  Even  the  mines  of  Katanga, 
far  in  the  heart  of  Africa  (Sec.  759),  are 
already  sending  several  shiploads  of  pre- 


374 


AFRICA  SOUTH  OF  THE  SAHARA 


Courtesy  H.  L.  Shantz,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  564.  A native  market  in  the  town  of  Ujiji,  where 
Stanley  found  Livingstone.  The  pet  baboon,  who  is 
regarded  as  something  of  a nuisance,  has  just  stolen  a 
small  dried  fish  from  one  of  the  vendors. 

cious  copper  each  year  to  the  factories  in 
other  lands. 

Next  in  importance  are  the  easy-yielding 
tree  crops:  palm  oil,  coconuts,  cacao,  and 
rubber  (if  the  East  Indies  do  not  supply  all 
that  we  need).  It  is  natural  for  the  people 
to  extend  these  home  industries  and  to  begin 
raising  these  valuable  products  instead  of 
gathering  them  wild  from  the  forest. 

[Third  in  value  are  the  products  of  the 
pastured  plain:  hides,  wool,  and  meat. 

Last,  as  the  tribesman  settles  down,  will 
come  the  products  of  the  more  laboriously 
cultivated  annual  crops,  of  which  a great 
start  has  already  been  made  in  peanuts, 
and  a very  small  start  in  cotton.  Many  of 
these  crops  are  old  to  Africa,  but  the  native 
who  in  the  past,  with  the  aid  of  a hoe  or  a 
sharp  stick,  grew  enough  to  eat  in  his  or  her 
(especially  her)  little  patch  of  garden,  will 
have  to  learn  new  ways  of  farming  before 
grain  can  be  exported.  The  white  man  is 
teaching  these  new  ways,  and  also  helping 
to  find  a market  for  the  product. 

783.  The  imports. — The  money  that  these 
exports  bring  to  Africa  will  be  spent  in  buy- 
ing white  men’s  manufactures,  such  as 
needles  and  pins,  pocket  knives,  and  even 
locomotives.  The  African  likes  to  spend 


money,  to  dress  up  in  good  clothes,  to 
listen  to  music,  and  to  ride  in  automobiles. 

The  trade,  once  established,  will  be  per- 
manent. The  Africans  want  our  things. 
And  is  there  a reader  of  this  book  who  does 
not  want  African  chocolate,  or  soap  made 
of  African  palm  oil? 

784.  Future. — Africa,  with  her  hot  climate, 
will  continue  to  produce  raw  materials  to 
exchange  for  our  manufactures.  The  pro- 
duction will  be  largely  under  charge  of  the 
energetic  white  man;  but  the  black  man 
will  prosper  through  helping  to  produce 
the  raw  materials.  The  prosperity  of  the 
black  man  in  the  African  forests  or  grass 
plains  helps  to  make  the  white  man’s  pros- 
perity in  lands  where  snow  flies  and  bliz- 
zards rage. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  there  but  little  attempt  to  use  the  falls 
of  the  rivers  of  Africa  to  manufacture  power?  If  you 
could  use  the  water  of  Victoria  Falls  to  run  a factory, 
and  had  the  people  to  work  on  it,  what  kind  of  a fac- 
tory would  you  open?  Why?  2.  How  has  the  coming  of 
the  white  man  to  Africa  changed  the  life  of  the  black 
man  of  the  forest?  the  men  of  the  grassland?  3.  Show 
by  the  map  two  or  three  routes  by  which  railroads  and 
steamboats  make  it  possible  for  a traveler  to  ride  nearly 
all  the  way  across  Africa  from  east  to  west.  Show 
two  routes  by  which  you  might  buy  tickets  to  Tim- 
buctu.  4.  Would  England  like  to  get  raw  cotton  or 
cotton  cloth  from  Africa?  Why?  Will  Africa  in  the 
future  export  manufactured  or  raw  material?  How 
many  things  are  in  your  neighborhood  that  may 
have  come  from  Africa? 

5.  Write  these  five  African  exports  and  six  others 
in  the  product  column:  gold,  cotton,  dates,  ivory, 
ostrich  feathers.  Tell  the  region  in  which  each  is 
found,  the  country,  and  the  European  nation  con- 
trolling it. 


Product. 

Region. 

Country. 

European 

Nation. 

6.  What  advantage  to  trade  arises  between  continents 
or  parts  of  continents  lying  on  different  sides  of  tne 
equator?  7.  What  regions  of  Africa  have  the  best 
chance  for  future  development? 

8.  Why  did  England  want  to  build  a Cape  to  Cairo 
railroad?  Would  you  want  to  ride  over  it?  How  long 
would  it  take  you  to  ride  the  whole  distance  at  twenty 
miles  an  hour,  ten  hours  a day?  Has  the  road  been 
built  all  the  way?  9.  Trace  out  the  principal  trade 
routes  between  Africa  and  Europe  (Fig.  9) ; between 
Africa  and  America;  between  Africa  and  Asia.  10. 
Compare  the  difficulties  of  the  early  explorers  in 
this  region  with  those  met  by  explorers  in  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  regions. 


© E.  M.  Newman,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  565.  Spreading  coffee  in  the  drying  yard  of  a plantation 
near  Sao  Paulo.  Do  you  see  the  rows  of  coffee  trees  on  the 
distant  hills?  Why  is  it  easier  to  export  coffee  than  bananas? 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


THE  CONTINENT 


785.  Location  and  climates. — If  continents 
xn  the  same  latitude  have  the  same  climate 
belts,  what  African  belts  would  you  expect 
to  find  repeated  in  South  America  south  of 
the  equator?  north  of  the  equator?  If 
South  America  reached  as  far  north  as 
Africa,  what  climate  belts  would  it  then 
have  that  it  does  not  now  have? 

How  many  miles  farther  south  does  South 
America  go  than  South  Africa?  This  southern 
region  is  the  only  part  of  South  America  hav- 
ing a kind  of  climate  not  found  in  Africa. 

786.  A little  used  continent. — South  Amer- 
ica was  settled  by  Europeans  before  North 
America  was  settled,  but,  because  of  its 
surface  and  climate,  most  of  the  continent 
is  yet  almost  unused.  Much  of  this  conti- 
nent is  difficult  of  access. 

Note. — If  anyone  should  find  it  necessary  to  study 
South  America  before  studying  Africa,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  Sections  743  to  748  be  used  as  an  intro- 
duction to  South  America.  They  explain  the  tropical 
climate,  a subject  which  is  comprehended  most  easily 
when  studied  in  relation  to  Africa. 


Back  of  the  jungle  swamp  that  lies  along 
much  of  the  Brazilian  coast,  there  is  a 
steep  mountain  much  like  the  Allegheny 
front  at  Cumberland,  Maryland.  (Fig.  241.) 

Along  the  entire  west  side  of  South 
America,  nature  has  raised  an  immense 
barrier,  the  longest  and  least  broken 
mountain  wall  in  the  whole  world.  The 
Amazon  River  offers  a good  ship  road  far 
into  the  continent,  but  this  river  valley  does 
not  invite  settlers  because  it  is  a hot,  wet 
jungle  of  enormous  size. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  settlement  of 
South  America,  except  along  some  coasts  and 
the  plains  of  Argentina,  has  been  slow. 

Large  areas  in  South  America  have  almost 
no  people  at  all.  In  the  wild  places  of  the 
interior  there  are  many  tribes  that  have 
never  seen  a white  man.  At  least  one  tribe 
has  the  habit  of  using  the  dried  heads  of 
enemies  for  ornaments,  although  these  same 
Indians  have  been  very  kind  to  travelers. 

How  many  railroads  can  you  find  on  the 


n 


(375) 


ddojnj' 


sspiH 


saoj"3  •MjOj.y.  ro^T- 


sai/dang  pun  sunosng 


iVAr5S6J>o3jf'o*H 


Textiles.  MetalGoods^ 


^Coooa.  Hides.  Panama, 


Fig.  566. 


_ ™_0?LC.0F  cap.ric.orn_ 


Fig.  566. 


378 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  567.  Cattle  of  an  English  beef  breed  beside  the  shade  trees  near  a well 
on  an  English-owned  estate  in  the  pampas.  In  what  American  states  do 
we  find  such  land,  good  for  grass,  com,  and  wheat? 


line  between  the  easternmost  and  western- 
most points  of  South  America  (Fig.  566), 
and  between  the  western  point  of  Para- 
guay and  the  northern  point  of  Guiana?  How 
many  miles  between  these  points?  It  is  said 
that  South  America  has  more  unexplored  land 
than  Africa.  It  certainly  has  more  unused 
land  than  Africa.  Compare  the  population 
of  the  two.  (Appendix.) 

787.  The  natives  of  South  America. — 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa  were  settled 
by  many  different  migrating  peoples,  so  that 
now  they  have  many  races.  The  natives  of 
South  America  and  those  of  North  America 
were  all  much  alike  when  Columbus  came. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  stock 
that,  in  the  days  before  history  began,  came 
from  Asia  by  way  of  Alaska. 

When  South  America  was  discovered, 
most  of  the  natives  lived  in  villages  and 
tribes,  much  as  did  the  Indians  of  the  United 
States.  But  in  the  plateau  of  the  central 
Andes  there  was  a real  empire — the  Empire 
of  the  Incas.  Unluckily  for  the  Incas,  they 
had  great  stores  of  gold  and  silver,  and  this 
fact  changed  the  whole  history  of  South 
America. 

788.  The  coming  of  the  white  man. — 

Soon  after  the  time  of  Magellan,  stories  of 
ii 


Inca  gold  and  silver  at- 
tracted bands  of  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  adven- 
turers, — half  conquerors, 
half  pirates, — and  the 
struggle  to  possess  the  riches 
began.  The  Portuguese 
took  Brazil,  and  the  Span- 
iards took  all  the  rest  of  the 
continent  except  Guiana. 
Few  Spanish  women  came, 
and  many  Spanish  men 
married  Indian  wives.  The 
Indian  mothers  raised  their 
children  in  the  Indian  way. 
These  people  of  mixed  In- 
dian and  Spanish  blood  are 
called  “mestizo.”  Even  to 
this  day  most  of  the  people 
of  Colombia, Ecuador,  Peru, 
and  Bolivia  are  pure  Indians  or  mestizo. 

Very  different  was  the  settlement  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  nearly  a hundred 
years  later.  The  stories  that  early  explorers 
took  back  to  Europe  from  North  America 
told  of  a land  good  for  farmers.  Groups  of 
European  people,  who  had  learned  to  govern 
themselves,  came  to  North  America  to  make 
new  homes  in  a land  where  they  could  raise 
their  children  in  their  own  way. 

We  can  now  understand  the  differences 
that  we  shall  find  between  the  people  of 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  568.  A monument  overlooking  the  harbor  of 
Valparaiso. 


Eig.569 


380 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  570. 

Tropic  Grasslands. 

the  United  States  and  Canada  and  those 
living  in  South  America. 

789.  Coming  of  the  negro. — After  the 
Portuguese  had  settled  on  the  east  coast,  and 
had  found  that  the  natives  would  not  make 
good  slaves  to  work  on  their  sugar  planta- 
tions, they  bought  negroes  from  the  slave 
traders  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  To  this 
day  most  of  the  people  of  eastern  Brazil 
between  20°  south  latitude  and  the  Amazon 
River  are  partly  or  wholly  negroes,  with 
here  and  there  a little  Indian  blood.  Most 
of  those  from  the  east  point  south  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro  are  mulattoes.  There  is  no  color 
line  among  the  common 
people  of  Brazil. 

790.  The  climates  for  the 
white  man. — In  one  part  of 
South  America  the  races  of 
Europe  have  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  country.  In 
Chile,  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
and  Brazil  up  to  Rio  de  Jan- 
eiro, the  people  are  nearly 
all  white,  and  here  are  found 
the  best  governments  in  all 
South  America.  This  region 
has  railroads,  large  cities, 
heavy  trade,  and  the  same 
kind  of  crops  and  living  that 
we  find  in  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

ii. 


Spanish  is  the  official 
language  in  all  of  South 
America  except  Guiana  and 
in  Brazil,  which  was  settled 
by  the  Portuguese. 

791.  The  new  immigra- 
tion.— Since  1890  there  has 
been  heavy  emigration  from 
Italy  to  Southern  Brazil 
and  Argentina,  so  that  the 
white  population  south  of 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn  is 
nearly  equally  divided 
among  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  Italians. 

792.  The  population  of 

the  continent. — A good 

census  has  never  been  taken  over  much  of 
South  America,  but  accordingto  estimatesthe 
continent  has  about  half  as  many  people  as 
the  United  States,  and  about  as  many  as  the 
United  Kingdom.  They  are  estimated  to  be: 
8 to  9 million  pure  Indians. 

13  million  mestizos. 

15  million  whites. 

12  million  negroes  and  mulattoes:  10  mil- 
lion of  these  in  Brazil;  the  rest  in 
Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Colombia. 
The  continent  therefore  has  a very  mixed 
population.  Whites  and  mestizos  often  scorn 
the  other  classes. 


© Publishers'  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  571.  A public  square  and  the  capitol,  Buenos  Aires.  Compare  this 
building  with  the  capitol  at  Washington  (Fig.  235). 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

A “port”  on  the  Upper  Parana  River  as  it  flows  through  the 
Trees  line  nearly  all  grassland  stream  banks. 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


381 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  area  of  South  America?  How 
many  countries  with  the  area  of  the  United  States 
could  be  placed  within  the  continent?  What  is  the 
area  of  your  state?  2.  Give  the  population  of  the 
United  States;  of  your  state;  of  South  America. 
3.  How  many  races  can  we  find  in  South  America? 
Where  is  each?  4.  Determine  from  your  world  map 
the  following  table  of  distances:  Para,  Brazil,  to  Lon- 
don; Panama  to  New  York  City;  Montevideo, 
Argentina,  to  Paris,  France.  5.  What  fraction  of  the 
continent  is  within  the  tropics?  6.  Might  parts  of 
South  America  be  said  to  receive  much  more  or  much 
less  rain  than  they  need?  (Figs.  540,  541.)  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer.  7.  What  differences  do  you 
note  between  the  character  of  the  coast  lines  of  South 
America  and  of  Europe?  8.  How  much  of  the 
coast  is  paralleled  by  high  mountains  or  plateaus? 
by  low,  hot  tropical  forests?  9.  Think  carefully  of 
your  answers  to  the  above  questions,  and  give  reasons 
why  the  population  of  South  America  is  but  one-half 
of  that  of  the  United  States. 

10.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  average 
January  and  July  temperatures  in  the  widest  part 
of  North  America?  of  South  America?  Explain  the 
difference.  11.  What  motives  led  the  English  to 
North  America?  the  Spaniard  to  South  America? 
Which  made  the  better  colonist?  Why?  12.  Why 
should  we  not  refer  to  South  America  as  Spanish 
America?  13.  Study  the  elevations  (Fig.  566),  latitude, 
and  rainfall  of  South  America,  and  tell  what  kinds  of 
products  you  think  might  be  grown  on  this  continent. 


© Publishers*  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  572.  An  Andean  “freight  train”  going  down  to  La 
Guaira.  Was  this  picture  taken  in  the  rainy  season? 


14.  Make  the  following  comparisons: 


Extent. 

Average 

Height. 

Chief 

Peaks. 

Which  the 
Barrier? 

Greater 

Why? 

Andes. . . 
Rockies  . 

15.  Show  points  of  difference  and  similarity  between 
North  and  South  America,  using  the  following  outline: 
Location;  Character  of  coast;  Surface;  Climate; 
People;  My  choice  for  a home. 

THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 

Part  I. — The  Amazon  Valley 

793.  The  equatorial  river. — Two  great 
equatorial  rivers,  the  Kongo  in  Africa  and  the 
Amazon  in  South  America,  reach  the  Atlantic 
near  the  equator.  The  Amazon  has  more 
water  than  the  Kongo;  more,  indeed,  than 
any  other  river  in  the  world,  because  its 
valley  has  both  the  northeast  and  the 
southeast  trade  winds  (Figs.  540,  541)  to 
blow  moisture  from  the  Atlantic  into  the 
heart  of  South  America.  What  proportion  of 
South  America  along  the  equator  drains  into 
the  Pacific?  into  the  Atlantic?  (Fig.  566.) 

The  Kongo  has  falls  near  its  mouth,  but 
the  Amazon  valley  is  so  flat  that  large 
steamers  from  New  York  and  Liverpool 
can  go  to  Manaos,  1000  miles  up  the  river; 
and  smaller  ocean  steamers  go  on  to  Iquitos, 
2500  miles  from  the  sea — farther  than 
Denver  is  from  New  York.  Although  the 
Amazon  is  navigable  425  miles  above 
Iquitos,  the  trade  of  the  whole  great 
valley  is  small.  It  has  very  few  people. 

794.  The  jungle. — In  this  river  valley  the 
climate  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  Kongo, 
(Sec.  727).,  and  here,  even  more  than  in  the 
Kongo,  nature  has  thus  far  been  more 
powerful  than  man.  Here  (Fig.  566,  Al) 
the  forest  owns  the  earth.  Nature  builds 
up  forest  faster  than  man  has  been  able 
upon  the  whole  to  cut  it  down.  This 
is  not  a land  of  fields  and  farms.  There  are 
no  roads  except  the  rivers.  The  canoes  of 
the  natives  and  the  gasoline  and  steam 
launches  of  the  white  man  pass  up  and  down 
streams  where  they  are  not  choked  with  fallen 
trees. 

This  forest,  one  of  the  largest  in  all  the 
world,  is  of  little  value  for  lumber.  Most 


382 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Courtesy  Wm.  Farrabee,  The  University  Museum,  Phila. 


Fig.  573.  The  home  of  a chief  of  rubber  gatherers  on  the  Amazon  bank.  How 
many  signs  of  flood  can  you  see?  What  disadvantages  would  the  flood  bring? 


of  the  trees  have  crooked  trunks  and  worth- 
less, soft  wood.  The  good  trees  are  scattered 
far  apart  and  tied  to  many  others  with 
creepers  and  vines,  so  that  the  work  of  get- 
ting them  costs  more  than  the  tree  is  worth. 

795.  Floods. — Each  day  during  the  rainy 
season,  for  weeks  at  a time,  the  rain  comes 
dashing  on  the  forest  leaves  with  a roar  like 
that  of  a railroad  train.  It  beats  into  every 
crack  and  crevice  of  the  houses.  The  rivers 
rise  and  water  creeps  into  the  forest.  Some- 
times the  hunter  may  wade  all  day  long  in 
water  that  covers  the  level  land.  Many  of  the 
houses  in  the  river  towns  are  built  on  poles 
driven  into  the  ground  (Fig.  573).  Even  the 
chicken  houses  are  put  on  stilts,  and  the  poor 
birds  must  spend  the  rainy  season  in  the 
house.  From  some  places  it  is  a hundred 
miles  through  the  forest  to  the  nearest  dry 
land.  In  one  place  an  American  explorer 
traveled  in  his  canoe  among  the  tree  tops, 
marking  his  way  with  a hatchet. 

796.  Tribes  buried  in  the  forest. — Is  it 
any  wonder  that  this  is  a land  of  few 
people?  Some  tribes  live  on  the  higher  land 
between  streams,  in  places  that  are  harder 
to  reach  than  oases  in  the  desert  of  Sahara. 
These  places  are  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  by  the  thick  forests,  and  also  by  low- 
lands flooded  several  feet  deep  for  months  at 
a time.  From  time  to  time  some  explorer 


finds  people  who  have  never 
before  seen  a white  man. 

797.  Pests. — The  tropic 
forests  of  South  America 
are  lands  of  pests.  We 
might  say  that  this  is  the 
land  of  the  insect  rather 
than  of  man.  Mosquitoes 
are  so  thick  that  the  trav- 
eler often  wears  gloves  in 
hot  weather,  and  has  a net 
around  his  face  and  neck. 

The  vampire  is  one  of  the 
many  kinds  of  bats  living  in 
these  woods.  At  night  one 
must  be  careful  to  cover  his 
head  and  feet  with  mosquito 
netting;  otherwise  the  vam- 
pire may  slip  into  the  tent  and  bite  a hole 
in  one’s  nose,  or  perhaps  in  a toe,  and  then 
suckthe  blood.  No  stock  farmer  can  succeed, 
because  the  vampires  kill  all  his  unprotected 
chickens  and  even  his  horses  and  cows. 

Hungry  alligators  lie  in  wait  in  the  rivers. 
One  of  the  eight  hundred  kinds  of  Amazon 
fish  has  teeth  so  sharp  that  it  can  bite  a 
piece  out  of  a man,  after  which  other 
fish,  smelling  blood,  will  come  racing  to  eat 
the  man  alive.  Lovers  of  the  water  are  care- 
ful where  they  swim  in  this  region.  The  boa 


Fig.  574.  Graph  showing  world  production  of  rubber. 
What  does  the  increase  of  plantation  rubber  in  the  Far 
East  tell  you  about  the  prosperity  of  the  city  of  Para, 
or  Belem,  as  compared  with  Singapore?  (Sec.  706.) 
Heavy  line — Plantation-grown,  mostly  in  the  Far  East. 
Fine  line — Grown  in  the  Amazon  Valley.  . 

Dotted  line — All  other  places. 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


383 


© H.  Wimmer 

Fig.  576.  A cacao  bean  harvest  beside  a tropic  stream.  What  are  the  different 
men  doing?  How  are  these  beans  made  into  cocoa  and  chocolate? 


constrictor  climbs  the  forest 
trees,  and  the  jaguar 
crouches  in  the  branches 
ready  to  spring  upon  its 
prey. 

798.  Rubber. — The  only 
important  industry  of  this 
vast  forest  region  is  that  of 
gathering  rubber.  This  is 
done  by  native  Indians, 
mestizos,  and  mulattoes, 
from  the  east  coast  of  Bra- 
zil. In  the  dry  season  they 
work  hard  cutting  paths 
through  the  jungle  to  reach 
the  scattered  rubber  trees, 
from  which  they  gather 
the  sap  each  day.  In  the 
rainy  season  the  people  have  to  leave  the 
rubber  camps,  and  they  gather  in  Manaos 
and  smaller  river  towns.  They  speak  of 
these  towns  as  “end  of  troubles,”  because 
they  go  to  them  in  the  season  when  they  do 
not  work.  While  the  flood  covers  the  forest, 
the  people  loaf  and  often  listen  to  phono- 
graphs, and  thus  they  pass  the  time  pleas- 
antly. A little  of  the  rubber  goes  over  the 
Andes  to  Pacific  ports,  but  most  of  it  goes 
downstream  to  Para,  or  Belem.  A small 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  575.  The  wet  cacao  beans  in  Trinidad,  British 
West  Indies,  are  piled  in  heaps  to  let  the  pulp  ferment. 
They  are  then  polished  by  bare  feet.  Why  does  Trini- 
dad have  the  tropic  forest  climate? 


quantity  of  rubber  is  now  imported  in 
liquid  form,  although  the  major  part  comes 
in  sheets.  Most  of  the  great  Amazon  forest 
belongs  to  Brazil,  but  other  countries  own 
some  of  it.  What  countries  are  they? 

799.  Cacao  and  Brazil  nuts.— The  climate 
of  this  forest  region  is  perfectly  suited  to  the 
cacao  tree.  (Sec.  800).  There  are  a few  cacao 
plantations  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
and  room  for  thousands  more. 

Afewof  the  Brazil  nuts  that  grow  wild  in  the 
forests  are  gathered  for  shipment  to  northern 
lands.  Millions  of  pounds  of  them  rot. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  use  of  the  following  outline  to  write  a 
brief  review  of  conditions  in  the  Amazon  Valley  for 
your  school  paper:  (a)  Surface;  ( b ) Temperature; 
(c)  Rainfall;  (d)  The  rivers;  (e)  Forests;  (/)  Pests; 
( g ) Products;  (h)  Chief  cities.  2.  What  is  the  rela- 
tion of  Para  to  the  rubber  industry?  What  name  do 
we  give  to  the  rubber  of  this  region?  Why?  3.  How 
do  you  think  the  development  of  the  rubber  planta- 
tions of  the  East  Indies,  and  the  resulting  lower  price 
of  rubber,  affected  the  price  of  a building  lot  in  Para? 
How  did  they  affect  you?  4.  Would  you  prefer  to 
depend  upon  wild  or  cultivated  rubber  for  supply? 
Why? 

5.  Compare  the  two  great  “Fathers  of  Waters”  as 
follows: 


Amazon. 

Mississippi. 

Length  of  Navigability. 

Direction  of  Flow 

Trade  

Flood  Problem 

Commercial  Importance 

384 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  577.  The  shell  in  which  a dozen  or  more  Brazil 
nuts  grow.  This  is  one  of  the  many  free  foods  pro- 
duced by  nature  and  mostly  wasted  in  the  tropic  forest. 

6.  Which  is  of  more  commercial  importance,  the 
forests  of  the  Amazon  or  the  forests  of  the  Pacific 
coasts  and  mountains?  Why? 

7.  Locate  the  Rio  Teodoro.  What  interesting 
facts  can  you  find  about  this  river?  8.  Someone  has 
said  that  the  Amazon  Valley  could  raise  food  suffi- 
cient for  the  entire  United  States.  What  changes 
must  take  place  before  this  can  be  possible? 
9.  Make  a chart  for  the  Amazon  and  Kongo  rivers 
similar  to  the  one  in  Question  5. 

Part  II. — The  Coast  Forest  of  Ecuador 
and  Western  Colombia 

800.  Jungle  and  cacao. — From  the  Gulf  of 
Guayaquil  northward  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  is  another  jungle  land.  The 
coast  plain  is  damp,  rainy,  hot,  swampy,  and 
forested,  like  the  Amazon  Valley.  Like  the 
Amazon  Valley  most  of  it  is  unused,  but  the 
section  near  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  has  many 
cacao  plantations,  which  furnish  two-thirds 
of  the  exports  of  all  Ecuador.  (Fig.  608.) 
Guayaquil,  the  seaport,  has  long  been 
known  as  unhealthy.  Conditions  there 
are  better  now,  because  swamps  have  been 
drained,  and  water  no  longer  stands  in  the 
city  streets.  A railroad  from  Guayaquil  goes 
up  to  Quito,  the  capital,  on  the  high  plateau, 
and  there  the  climate  is  cool  and  healthful. 

801,  The  Colombian  section. — Guayaquil 
is  835  miles  distant  from  Panama.  On  the 
swampy  coast  between  these  two  places  there 


is  but  one  port,  Buenaventura,  having  a route 
of  any  importance  to  the  interior,  and  that  is 
only  a mule  road.  Professor  E.  A.  Ross,  who 
made  a journey  inland  from  this  place,  said: 
“ Behind  Buenaventura,  and  reaching  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Coast  Range,  is  a malarious 
jungle,  called  the  Choco,  where  it  rains 
every  day.  Here  no  one  lives  save  the 
descendants  of  the  negro  slaves.  . . . 

“ They  live  in  palm-thatched  bamboo  huts, 
raised  about  a yard  above  the  ground.  The 
bamboos  of  the  frame  are  tied  together  with 
lianas  (vines),  and  the  sides  are  of  bamboo 
split  and  flattened  into  a kind  of  board.  The 
builder  needs  no  hammer,  saw,  nail,  or  screw; 
only  the  machete.  Nor  does  the  jungle  black 
enslave  himself  to  hoe  or  spade  or  plow  or 
clothes.  He  slashes  away  the  jungle,  starts 
a patch  of  plantains,  or  cooking  bananas, 
and  sows  a little  corn.  His  sugar  cane  he 
crushes  in  a hand-mill,  and  boils  the  juice 
down  to  sugar.  He  fishes,  hunts,  converts 
molasses  into  rum,  and  rolls  stalwart  cigars 
of  his  own  tobacco  leaf.  So  he  eats,  drinks, 
smokes,  loafs,  and  lets  time  pass,  with  no 
vanities,  no  interests,  no  ideas,  no  standards, 
no  outlook,  no  care  for  the  future " 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  Mother  Nature  too  good  to  her  children 
who  live  on  this  coast?  She  will  make  you  work  much 
harder  than  they,  but  will  pay  you  well.  Explain. 

2.  What  is  the  only  product  of  commercial  impor- 
tance in  the  coastal  strip?  (Figs.  575,  576.)  What 
products  might  energetic  people  produce  in  this 
region? 

3.  At  one  time  Panama  was  a pest  hole  like  Guay- 
aquil. Tell  how  our  army  physicians  made  Panama 
safe  for  white  men.  (Sec.  376.)  Might  Guayaquil  be 
made  as  healthful?  4.  What  connection  can  you  sug- 
gest between  poor  government  in  Ecuador  and  poor 
health  in  the  coastal  regions? 

5.  How  would  good  schools  help  the  boys  and  girls 
to  be  healthy,  energetic,  and  eager  to  make  their 
homeland  a pleasant  place  in  which  to  live?  When 
such  boys  and  girls  were  grown  up,  what  good  things 
might  they  do  to  improve  their  country? 

Part  III. — The  Forests  of  the  North- 
east Trade  Wind  Coast 

802.  Half-settled  lowlands. — The  north- 
east trades,  blowing  across  the  Caribbean 
and  the  Atlantic,  bring  much  rain  to  the 
northern  lowlands  of  Colombia,  of  Venezuela, 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


385 


and  of  the  three  Guianas.  (Figs.  540,  541.) 
Look  at  the  map  and  see  if  you  can  tell  why 
the  Colombian  section  receives  less  trade- 
wind  rain  than  the  Guiana  section. 

These  hot  lowlands  are  good  for  sugar, 
cotton,  cacao,  rice,  and  many  tropic  crops, 
but  the  climate  is  so  unpleasant  that  little 
of  the  land  is  used.  There  are  villages  of 
grass-roofed  houses,  but  in  all  the  wide  plain 
of  northern  Colombia  there  is  only  one  large, 
modern  sugar  mill.  Rice,  bananas,  and 
coconuts  are  the  chief  food  of  the  people. 
There  are  some  Indians,  and  many  negroes 
whose  ancestors  were  brought  over  as  slaves. 
Only  a few  of  the  people  are  white.  Even 
in  the  cities  of  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena 
less  than  one  person  in  ten  is  white,  but  some 
of  these  are  often  well-educated  and  have 
traveled  in  foreign  lands. 

Near  Santa  Marta  an  American  company 
has  large  plantations,  from  which  bananas 
are  brought  to  this  country.  (Sec.  375.) 

The  natives  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador  use 
a leaf  fiber  and  weave  by  hand  most  of  the 
Panama  hats  that  we  get  in  the  United 
States.  Sometimes  a pack  mule  will  come 
out  of  a forest  path  carrying  several  hundred 
dollars’  worth  of  hats  in  the  two  bundles 
balanced  across  its  saddle. 

In  northern  Venezuela  the  Andes  reach 
directly  to  the  shore  of  the  sea,  leaving  no 
room  for  a coastal  plain.  (Fig.  596.) 

803.  Unexplored  forests. — The  coast  plain 
of  the  Guianas  is  mostly  a great  forest  which 
is  even  less  used  than  the  plain  of  Colombia 
or  western  Venezuela.  Indeed  many  parts 
of  it  are  unexplored,  and  all  of  the  people 
except  a few  forest  Indians  live  along  the 
shore  where  the  trade  wind  blows.  This 
wind  is  so  constant,  so  moist,  and  so  warm 
that  plants  seem  to  grow  almost  everywhere, 
on  the  trunks  of  trees,  on  rocks,  even  on  the 
surface  of  the  rivers.  The  giant  water  lily, 
the  Victoria  regia,  has  its  roots  in  the  mud 
and  spreads  upon  the  surface  of  the  water 
its  leaves  as  large  as  umbrellas,  and  its  beau- 
tiful white  flowers  as  large  as  dinner  plates. 

British  Guiana,  the  chief  crops  of  which 
are  sugar  and  rice,  has  more  agriculture 


than  Dutch  and  French  Guiana  together. 
Yet  all  the  sugar  fields  of  British  Guiana 
would  cover  a space  only  ten  miles  by  twelve; 
and  all  the  rice  fields,  a space  ten  miles  by 
nine.  How  long  and  how  wide  is  this  colony? 
Only  xio-  part  of  it  is  under  cultivation,  and 
most  of  the  work  is  done  by  people  from 
India.  They  have  been  brought  by  the 
British  government  from  their  own  crowded 
country  to  work  in  the  empty  lands  of 
Guiana. 

An  important  export  of  this  district  is 
balata  gum,  gathered  by  the  natives  from 
the  trunks  of  trees  in  the  forest,  and  used 
for  making  insulation  for  electric  wires. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Show  how  the  climate  of  this  coast  is  kind  to 
plants  but  very  unkind  to  white  men.  2.  What 
countries  are  a part  of  the  trade  wind  coast?  Why  do 
the  trades  bring  rain  to  this  region?  3.  What  is 
balata?  Its  use?  How  is  it  gathered?  (Fig.  578.) 
4.  Name  and  locate  the  important  coastal  cities. 


Courtesy  The  University  Museum,  Phila. 


Fig.  578.  A native  of  Guiana  with  his  machete,  bleeding 
a balata  tree.  How  can  he  make  his  ladder  by  using 
only  forest  things? 


386 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  579.  The  Monument  of  the  Republic  in  the  square 
at  Para,  Brazil. 


Part  IV. — The  Forests  of  the  South- 
east Trade  Wind  Coasts 
804.  A coast  with  big  cities. — The  part  of  the 
forested  coastal  plain  over  which  the  South- 
east Trade  Wind  blows  (Fig.  566,  A 4)  has 
many  more  people  than  the  sections  north  of 
the  equator.  On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, some  of  the  land  is  well  drained,  and 
therefore  better  for  farms  than  the  flatter, 
wetter  land  close  to  the  sea.  It  even  has  three 
large  cities:  Pernambuco  (Recife),  as  large 
as  Atlanta;  Bahia,  as  large  as  Seattle;  and 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  larger  than  Cleveland  or  St. 
Louis.  It  was  to  this  coast  district  that  the 
Portuguese  planters  first  brought  negro 
slaves  to  grow  sugar  cane,  more  than  four 
hundred  years  ago.  Since  this  climate  is 
very  much  like  that  of  Africa,  it  is  easy  to 
see  why  the  negroes  here  have  increased  in 
numbers  more  than  have  the  white  people. 
They  are  now  free  and  live  an  easy  and  care- 
free life,  working  as  little  as  they  can.  They 
are  usually  farmers,  who  often  work  patches 
of  ground  very  much  as  their  cousins  do  in 
Africa.  Their  gardens  yield  bananas,  yams, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  many  kinds  of  beans. 
For  bread  a little  corn  is  grown,  but  the 


chief  material  for  bread  is  a kind  of  meal 
made  of  the  dried  root  of  the  cassava,  or 
manioc  as  it  is  called  in  Brazil.  (Sec.  367, 
Fig.  551.)  To  pay  for  cloth,  knives,  pho- 
nographs, and  other  imports,  the  people  ex- 
port some  sugar,  tobacco,  and  a little  cot- 
ton. During  our  Civil  War  and  the  World 
War,  the  cotton  crop  along  this  coast  was 
greatly  increased;  and  during  the  food  scar- 
city of  1918  and  1919,  manioc  flour  and  beans 
were  exported  to  Europe  to  replace  wheat 
and  meat.  In  the  Bahia  district  the  chief 
export  is  cacao. 

805.  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  Brazilian  gov- 
ernment.— Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  Bra- 
zil and  the  trading  place  for  a rich  plateau 
region  behind  it,  is  a large  and  a very  beauti- 
ful city.  The  hills  around  its  harbor  make  it 
one  of  the  wonderful  sights  of  the  world. 
(Fig.  585.)  Recent  improvements  include 
good  water  works,  a good  sewage  system,  and 
the  draining  of  the  swamps  to  destroy  the 
breeding  places  of  mosquitoes.  Once  Rio  de 
Janeiro  was  a very  unhealthful  place,  but  now 
it  has  become  so  healthful  that  the  death  rate 
there  is  no  higher  than  it  is  in  New  York  or 
Chicago.  The  chief  export  of  Rio  and  of 
Santos  is  the  coffee  grown  in  the  plateau 
district  near  by.  (Sec.  818.) 

Brazil  is  a republic  with  states  much  like 
our  own,  and  with  territories  in  the  interior 
where  there  are  very  few  people.  Governors 
for  the  territories  are  sent  out  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro  just  as,  in  our  country,  they  are  sent 
out  from  Washington. 

806.  Conquering  diseases. — These  damp, 
tropic  forest  regions  are  a part  of  the  world 
where  nature  with  her  heat,  moisture,  and 
sunshine  makes  plants  grow  most  abun- 
dantly. They  are,  therefore,  lands  of  great 
possibility  if  man  can  learn  to  live  and  work 
there.  Already  men  have  learned  much 
about  conquering  the  diseases  that  have 
killed  thousands  of  people,  and  that  have 
for  so  long  held  man  terror-stricken.  Yel- 
low fever  is  a good  example.  This  dreadful 
disease  has  been  killing  people  on  the 
coasts  of  tropic  America  since  the  time  of 
Columbus.  In  1880  it  had  much  to  do  with 


THE  TROPIC  FOREST  REGIONS 


387 


stopping  work  on  the  Panama  Canal,  which 
was  not  built  until  yellow  fever  was  con- 
quered. (Sec.  376.)  It  was  so  bad  at  Guaya- 
quil and  Santos  that  people  dreaded  to  go 
there.  Two  things  were  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  of  Santos  every  day ; one  was  the  price 
of  coffee,  and  the  other  was  yellow  fever.  In 
1899  surgeons  in  the  American  army  learned 
that  the  disease  is  carried  from  one  person 
to  another  by  a certain  kind  of  mosquito. 
Men  at  once  began  to  fight  the  fever-bearing 
mosquito,  and  in  fifteen  years  after  1905 
Santos  had  no  yellow  fever  at  all. 

An  American  health  board  has  recently 
discovered  that  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the 
workers  in  the  cacao  plantations  of  Ecuador 
suffer  from  the  hookworm,  a disease  which 
is  curable,  but  which  makes  the  people  who 
have  it  feel  so  weak  and  tired  that  they  want 
to  do  nothing  but  rest. 

We  now  know  that  malaria,  the  greatest 
scourge  of  all  the  tropics  and  of  many  tem- 
perate lowlands,  is  also  caused  by  a mosquito, 
and  we  know  how  to  stop  that  disease,  too. 
(Sec.  45.) 

All  of  these  discoveries  make  it  quite  possi- 
ble that  soon  there  will  be  a great  increase  in 
the  use  of  tropic  coast  lands,  and  that  they 
may  be  made  to  yield  great  quantities  of 
bananas,  banana  meal,  cacao,  Brazil  nuts, 
manioc,  rice,  rubber,  coco- 
nuts, palm  oil,  and  many 
other  crops.  If  people  there 
are  prosperous,  they  will 
help  to  keep  our  farms  and 
factories  busy  making 
things  to  trade  with  them. 

807.  Nature’s  greatest 
dare  to  man. — But  there 
stands  the  vast,  flat  plain 
of  the  Amazon,  with  rivers 
thousands  of  miles  long, 
whose  floods  creep  through 
the  dark,  thorny,  tangled, 
buzzing  jungle.  Man  has 
not  yet  conquered  this  great 
valley.  Perhaps  it  is  one  of 
the  last  places  that  he  can 
conquer.  Certainly  it  is  the 


greatest  dare  that  nature  holds  out  to  him. 
If  the  Amazon  River  and  its  floods  can  be 
controlled  and  made  to  irrigate  ricefields, 
cornfields,  and  banana  plantations,  the  yield 
will  be  enormous.  Doubtless  the  rich  oil 
palm  of  Africa  will  grow  as  well  in  South 
America  as  the  South  American  rubber  tree 
grows  in  other  tropic  lands.  (Sec.  705.) 

Some  day,  perhaps,  we  may  be  running 
automobiles  with  alcohol  distilled  on  the 
Amazon’s  banks,  and  feeding  cows  with  coco- 
nut meal  from  all  the  rainy  coasts  of  tropic 
America.  But  first  man  must  defeat  the 
mighty  defenders  of  the  region.  It  is  still 
the  land  of  the  insect.  Thus  far  the  insect, 
the  flood,  and  the  fever  have  cut  down  man’s 
army  of  invasion,  and  slain  the  children  of 
the  settler,  so  that  his  numbers  have  remained 
small. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  the  natives  produce  to  sell  to  the  out- 
side world?  2.  How  has  trade  with  the  interior 
helped  Santos  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  become  great 
cities,  with  good  schools  and  comfortable  homes? 
(Fig.  584.) 

3.  What  lessons  might  the  people  of  the  Tropical 
Forest  Regions  learn  from  the  healthy  condition  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos?  4.  Compare  the  four 
Tropic  Forest  Regions  as  follows: 


Name  of 
Region. 

Location. 

Bounds. 

Products. 

Cities. 

Courtesy  Wm.  Farrabee,  The  University  Museum,  Phila. 

Fig.  580.  Cowboys  and  their  camp  by  a lone  tree  on  the  great  expanse  of 
the  Brazilian  grasslands. 


388 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


From  “Through  the  Brazilian  Wilderness,"  Courtesy  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons 

Fig.  581.  Theodore  Roosevelt  saw  these  Grassland  Indians  along  the  upper 
Paraguay  River  playing  “football”  with  their  heads.  He  said,  “They  use  a 
light  hollow  rubber  ball,  of  their  own  manufacture.  It  is  about  eight  inches  in 
diameter.  The  ball  is  placed  on  the  ground  to  be  put  in  play  as  in  football.  Then 
a player  runs  forward,  throws  himself  flat  on  his  face  and  butts  the  ball  toward 
the  opposite  side.  An  opposite  player,  rushing  toward  it,  catches  it  on  his 
head  with  such  a swing  of  his  brawny  neck,  and  such  precision  and  address 
that  the  ball  bounds  back  through  the  air  as  a football  soars  after  a drop-kick. 

“The  ball  is  never  touched  with  the  hands  or  feet,  or  with  anything  except  the 
top  of  the  head.  It  is  hard  to  decide  whether  to  wonder  most  at  the  dexterity 
and  strength  with  which  it  is  hit  or  butted  with  the  head,  as  it  comes  down 
through  the  air,  or  at  the  reckless  speed  and  skill  with  which  the  players  throw 
themselves  headlong  on  the  ground  to  return  the  ball  if  it  comes  low  down. 
Why  they  do  not  grind  off  their  noses  I cannot  imagine.”  The  team  whose 
ball  is  not  returned  wins  a point. 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 

808.  Resemblances  to  Africa.  ■ — Examine 
the  maps  of  Africa  and  South  America  and 
compare  the  grasslands  of  the  two  continents 
in  size  and  location.  (Fig.  566,  B1,B2,  B3,  B4.) 
Like  the  African  grasslands,  the  South  Amer- 
ican grasslands  have  two  seasons,  one  of 
which  is  hot  and  dry.  During  this  season  the 
grass  dries  up  and  the  trees  drop  their  leaves. 

The  other  season  is  a hot,  damp,  muggy 
season  of  rains.  Then  the  grass  springs  up, 
the  trees  come  out  in  leaf,  birds  build  their 
nests,  and  streams  run  swiftly.  In  some 
places  the  water  stands  about  in  pools. 
During  the  next  dry  season  the  pools  and  the 
smaller  streams  dry  up.  Then  rivers,  recently 
flooded,  become  shallow  streams,  trickling 
along  their  wide  and  almost  empty  beds,  or 
dry  up  completely.  (Figs.  540,  541,  557.) 

Part  I. — Grasslands  South  of  the 
Equator 

809.  A great,  empty  district. — The  great, 
empty  district  of  Brazilian-Bolivian  grass- 


lands or  savannahs  extends 
all  the  way  from  the  low 
plains  on  the  east  coast  of 
Brazil  to  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains. What  other  regions 
touch  it?  This  is  not  a place 
to  which  people  go  for  pleas- 
ure tours.  There  are  no 
steamers  except  on  the 
upper  Parana,  and,  except 
for  one  railroad  line,  trav- 
elers have  to  go  on  their 
own  horses  or  in  their  own 
canoes,  and  carry  their  own 
supplies  over  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  square  miles. 
After  crossing  this  region 
near  the  source  of  the 
Tapajos  River,  Theodore 
Roosevelt  said  of  it:  “At 
intervals  along  the  trail  we 
came  on  the  staring  skull 
and  bleached  skeleton  of 
a mule  or  ox.  Day  after 
day  we  rode  forward  across 
grass  and  of  low,  open, 


endless  flats  of 
scrubby  forest,  the  trees  standing  far  apart 
and  in  most  places  being  but  little  higher 
than  the  head  of  a horseman.  Some  of  them 
carried  blossoms,  white,  orange,  yellow,  pink; 
and  there  were  many  flowers,  the  most  beau- 
tiful being  the  morning-glories.”  The  Brazil- 
ians call  this  country  of  grassy  plains  the 
campos.  In  all  of  this  wide  savannah,  large 
settlements  can  be  found  only  in  Paraguay 
and  in  a few  small  localities  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  in  Bolivia,  and  near  the  coast  of 
Brazil. 

This  region  is  much  larger  than  all  that 
part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  Most  of  it  is  a vast,  waiting 
land,  peopled  only  by  scattered  tribes  of 
Indians,  and  a few  settlements  of  half-breeds 
and  white  men.  The  natives  live  by  hunting, 
fishing,  or  keeping  cattle,  and  a little  garden- 
ing. They  have  simple  grass  houses,  or  grass 
shelters  on  poles,  but  without  walls. 

810.  High  plains  and  low  plains. — The 
eastern  part  of  the  grassland  in  Brazil  is  a 


THE  TROPIC  GRASSLANDS 


389 


plateau.  (Fig.  566.)  On  its  eastern  edge  is 
the  steep  slope  down  to  the  sea  like  the  one  we 
shall  see  at  Santos.  (Sec.  817.)  In  some  places 
near  the  sea,  the  wall  rises  suddenly  three 
thousand  feet  and  then  slopes  away  gently  to 
the  west.  This  highland  has  less  heat  and  less 
moisture  than  has  New  Orleans  or  Florida, 
and,  therefore,  it  may  become  a land  of  white 
men,  although  as  yet  they  have  not  settled  it. 
The  western  part,  drained  by  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Paraguay,  the  Madeira,  and 
the  Tapajos,  is  much  lower,  and  in  places  is 
so  flat  that  in  the  rainy  season  the  water 
stands  from  three  to  six  feet  deep,  with  never 
a hill  to  be  seen.  Water  thus  covers  twenty, 
thirty,  or  even  forty  thousand  square  miles, 
an  area  several  times  as  big  as  Massachusetts. 
At  this  season  people  must  go  about  in  boats 
or  live  in  houses  on  poles.  The  cattle  must 
be  driven  to  dry  land  miles  away,  where 
they  can  find  something  to  eat. 

There  are  trees  and  even  forests  along 
most  of  the  rivers  of  the  grasslands,  because 
the  moisture  keeps  trees  growing  in  the  dry 
season.  There  are  also  patches  of  forest 
mixed  with  the  grassland  in  many  parts  of 
the  plains.  This  is  the  home  of  the  deer, 
the  jaguar,  and  many  other  wild  animals. 
One  of  the  most  dangerous  animals  here  is  a 
kind  of  small  wild  pig  called  a peccary. 


These  animals  go  in 
great  droves,  and 
will  attack  men  on 
horseback.  They 
hamstring  the  horse 
and  kill  the  man. 

Hamstringing  is  cut- 
ting the  heel  ten- 
don, an  act  which 
makes  men  or  quad- 
rupeds helpless. 

811.  The  begin- 
nings of  settlement. 

— In  1800,  Indians 
and  wild  animals 
roamed  over  Kan- 
sas, Iowa,  and  the 
plains  and  moun- 
tains beyond.  There 
were  only  a few  set- 
tlements along  the  Mississippi  River.  To-day, 
the  interior  grassland  plain  of  South  America 
is  in  almost  the  same  condition.  The  white 
man  with  his  railroads,  his  steamboats,  and 
his  trade  is  at  work  only  on  the  edges  of  this 
district.  The  solitary  rancher  is  very  likely 
to  be  half  Portuguese  and  half  Indian.  He 
lives  in  a one-story  house  with  walls  of  sun- 
dried  brick  and  roof  of  grass.  As  soon  as  a 
baby  boy  can  stand  up,  he  wants  to  ride  a 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  583.  Cattle  in  Argentina, 
Uruguay,  and  Chile.  Why 
such  great  difference  in 
density? 


Courtesy  Armour  & Co. 


Fig.  582.  A slaughter  house  and  freezing  plant  built,  owned,  and  managed  by  an  American  company  at  La  Plata, 
a short  distance  down  the  river  from  Buenos  Aires.  What  signs  do  you  see  of  good  transportation  facilities? 


11-20 


390 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


horse,  for  he  sees  his  father  galloping  about 
on  horseback  after  the  cattle  that  pasture  on 
this  great,  unfenced  plain,  which  has  only 
grass  and  scattered  trees  as  far  as  one  can  see. 

One  of  the  few  built-up  places  of  the  grass- 
lands is  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  in 
Bolivia,  where  needed  food  is  grown  for  the 
miners  at  La  Paz  and  other  towns  on  the 
Andean  plateau,  and  carried  up  to  market  on 
muleback. 

The  Brazilians  have  built  a few  railroads 
to  reach  the  cattle  ranches  in  the  southeastern 
edge  of  their  grasslands,  but  only  in  that  part 
of  Paraguay  between  the  Parana  and  the 
Paraguay  rivers  may  this  region  be  said  to 
be  settled.  Even  then,  Paraguay  has  only 
fifteen  people  per  square  mile. 

812.  Paraguay. — Because  there  are  steam- 
boats on  the  Parana  River,  the  people  of 
Paraguay  have  a better  chance  to  trade  than 
the  people  of  any  other  part  of  this  interior 
region.  Most  of  Paraguay’s  million  people 
are  Indians,  negroes,  or  of  mixed  blood, 
chiefly  Indian.  There  are  a few  Spaniards, 
and  Spanish  is  the  language  of  the  govern- 
ment. Most  of  the  people  can  neither  read 
nor  write,  and  so  their  republic  does  not  have 
a very  good  government. 

Since  Paraguay  is  about  the  same  distance 
from  the  equator  as  Florida  and  Cuba, 
oranges  and  early  vegetables  can  be  grown 
there.  These  go  in  oxcarts  to  the  boat  land- 
ings, for  shipment  to  the  cities  on  the  River 
Plata,  just  as  Florida  sends  similar  products 
by  train  to  the  colder  parts  of  North  America. 

Another  Paraguayan  export  is  mate,  the 
dried  leaf  of  a low  tree  of  the  holly  family. 
Forests  of  it  grow  wild  in  Paraguay  and  in  the 
neighboring  parts  of  Brazil,  where  it  may 
often  be  seen  drying  on  the  grass  near  a 
thatched  house.  The  people  of  this  region 
have  long  used  this  leaf  for  tea,  and  it  is 
now  being  shipped  from  both  Paraguay  and 
southern  Brazil  to  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and 
even  to  southern  Europe.  A little  comes 
to  New  York.  To  prepare  mate  for  market 
is  less  work  than  to  prepare  tea,  so  mate  is 
not  a costly  drink.  In  the  cooler  parts  of 
South  America,  groups  of  people  may  often 


be  seen  gathered  comfortably  around  a gourd 
of  hot  or  cold  mate. 

Most  of  the  money  that  the  people  of 
Paraguay  receive  is  from  hides,  meat,  mate, 
and  the  fruit  and  vegetables  they  send  to  the 
cities  on  the  lower  Plata.  The  Paraguayan 
storekeeper  gets  his  drugs,  knives,  clothes, 
and  other  wares  from  the  wholesale  stores 
of  Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo.  Where 
does  the  wholesale  merchant  get  his  wares? 

813.  The  new  cattle  industry. — The  price 
of  meat  in  Europe  has  been  going  up  steadily 
since  the  year  1900,  and  when  the  people  of 
Argentina  and  Uruguay  began  to  ship  fresh 
meat  to  Europe,  the  price  of  cattle  rose  so  high 
that  makers  of  tasajo,  or  jerked  beef  (dried 
and  salted),  had  to  leave  Argentina  and  Uru- 
guay and  move  their  plants  to  the  tropic 
grasslands  in  Paraguay,  and  to  the  Brazilian 
states  of  Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz,  and  Minas 
Geraes,  where  cattle  are  cheap.  Jerked  beef 
will  keep  in  all  weathers  and  climates,  and  has 
long  been  shipped  from  the  ports  of  the  River 
Plata  to  Cuba  and  many  tropic  countries. 

During  the  World  War,  there  was  a great 
meat-packing  plant  built  in  Paraguay. 
Sheet  tin  was  sent  from  Pittsburgh  to  this 
packing  plant,  to  be  made  into  cans  to  carry 
meat  back  to  France.  Americans  have  built 
meat-packing  plants  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
Santos,  and  Brazil  has  built  a railroad  to 
Goyaz  in  the  savannah  country  where  the 
herds  are  increasing. 

814.  A future  meat  supply. — This  vast 
land  of  the  savannahs,  or  tropic  grasslands, 
more  than  half  as  large  as  the  United  States, 
is  one  of  the  few  places  where  the  world’s 
market  may  possibly  get  a new  supply  of 
cheap  beef  and  hides.  It  is  unlike  the 
African  grasslands  in  not  having  a strong 
native  people,  but  there  are  some  Indians 
there,  and  immigrants  are  going  into  the  Bra- 
zilian section.  Among  the  immigrants  are 
some  Japanese.  There  is  every  reason  to 
expect  that  energetic  men  from  somewhere 
will  push  their  cattle  ranches  into  these  grass- 
lands during  this  century,  just  as  ranches 
were  pushed  into  the  grassy  plains  of  the 
middle  of  North  America  in  the  last  century. 


THE  TROPIC 

Part  II. — The  Grasslands  North  of  the 
Equator 

815.  The  South  American  Sudan. — Within 
what  degrees  of  latitude  does  the  Sudan 
lie?  (Fig.  445.)  the  northern  grasslands  of 
South  America?  (Fig.  566,  B3,  B4).  Com- 
pare the  size  of  the  two.  What  river  valley 
and  what  uplands  comprise  most  of  the 
north  tropic  grasslands  of  South  America? 

Like  the  savannahs  of  Africa,  Brazil,  and 
Bolivia,  the  northern  grasslands  have  a season 
of  drenching  rains  and  up-springing  grass, 
followed  by  a season  of  sunshine,  drought, 
and  dead  grass.  Then  fires  often  bum  the 
dead  grass  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  great 
clouds  of  smoke  darken  the  skies. 

816.  High  grasslands  and  low  grasslands. 
— We  have  just  seen  (Sec.  810)  that  the 
southern  grasslands  are  low  in  the  west  and 
high  in  the  east.  The  same  is  true  in  the 
north,  with  the  Orinoco  Valley  in  the  west, 
and  the  highlands  of  Guiana  in  the  east. 
These  highlands  are  unused  by  civilized 
man.  They  are  not  even  well-explored. 
They  are  hard  to  reach  and  hard  to  cross. 
The  hot  jungle  plain  between  them  and  the 
coast  is  wider  than  it  is  in  Brazil.  The 
uplands  are  not  wide-stretching,  nearly  level 
plateaus  like  those  of  Brazil  or  Africa. 
Instead,  they  are  cut  into  many  parts  by 
sharp  valleys.  You  might  have  to  spend  a 
half  day  crossing  a small  stream.  You  would 
be  scrambling  one  or  two  thousand  feet  down 
steep  cliffs,  chopping  your  way  through 
tangled  vines  and  thickets,  and  then  climbing 
and  chopping  your  way  up  the  other  side  to 
a small  tract  of  level,  grassy  upland  with  deep, 
jungle-filled  valleys  all  around  it.  There  are 
grass  and  gold  in  this  country,  but  men  have 
not  used  the  grass  or  dug  the  gold.  There 
has  been  some  gold  mining  on  the  edges  of 
the  region  for  a long  time,  but  these  grass- 
lands may  have  to  wait  a long  time  for 
transportation. 

The  low  grasslands  of  the  Orinoco,  like 
the  savannahs  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil,  are  also 
almost  unused.  They  might  support  millions 
of  cattle,  but  the  climate  is  hot,  and  the 
government  of  Venezuela  is  very  bad  indeed. 


GRASSLANDS  391 

No  one  knows  when  his  property  may  be 
seized  by  some  general  who  is  out  with  an 
army  to  live  on  the  country  until  he  can 
drive  out  the  other  generals  and  become 
president.  These  two  things,  the  bad  govern- 
ment and  the  hot  climate,  cause  this  region 
to  be  almost  unused.  There  is  so  little 
trade  that  only  one  or  two  small  steamers 
come  up  the  great  river  Orinoco  as  far  as 
Ciudad  Bolivar.  Since  the  World  War 
English  companies  have  begun  to  buy  up 
cattle  ranches  on  the  Venezuelan  llanos 
(plains). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  your  maps  (Figs.  540, 541)  tell  you  about 
the  rains  in  these  regions?  Does  such  rainfall  make 
dense  forests,  or  few  forests  and  much  grassland? 
2.  Would  you  prefer  to  live  in  the  plateau  grasslands 
or  in  the  lower  grasslands?  Why?  Would  you  prefer 
to  live  on  the  grasslands  north  of  the  equator  or  on 
those  south  of  it?  3.  These  regions  include  parts  of 
what  plateau  south  of  the  Amazon?  north  of  the 
Amazon?  What  river  valleys  south  of  the  Amazon? 
north  of  the  Amazon?  4.  Which  rivers  in  this  region 
are  navigable?  (Fig.  610.)  How  may  the  railway 
around  the  Falls  of  Madeira  cause  changes  in  the 
southern  grassland  region?  Would  you  expect  to 
find  falls  in  the  rivers  of  the  Brazilian  savannah? 
Why?  What  use  might  be  made  of  these  falls? 

5.  What  does  the  word  savannah  mean?  6.  Sup- 
pose the  Brazilian  Government  gave  you  100  square 
miles  of  land  at  latitude  15°  south,  and  longitude 
50°  west.  If  you  should  live  on  it,  what  would 
you  do?  7.  What  is  the  price  of  a pound  of  beefsteak 
where  you  buy  food?  How  much  must  you  pay  for  a 
pair  of  shoes?  Would  immense  herds  of  cattle  on  these 
grasslands  have  any  influence  on  the  prices  of  things 
that  you  use?  8,  Why  might  Paraguay  be  called  the 
Florida  of  South  America? 

9.  Brazil  plans  to  locate  a new  capital  just  east  of 
Goyaz.  Give  three  reasons  for  so  placing  the  capital 
city.  10.  Fill  out  the  following  chart: 

The  Grasslands  of  the  World 


Topic. 

United 

States. 

South 

America. 

Names 

Reason  for  dryness  . 

Rivers 

Inhabitants: 

Number 

Race 

Customs 

Homes 

Products 

Wild  animals 

Chief  products 

11.  If  mate  were  sold  as  widely  as  tea,  what  would  be 
the  effect  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  natives  of  Para- 
guay and  southern  Brazil? 


392 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


(Sec.  272.)  In  some  places 
the  land  is  quite  level ; else- 
where it  is  as  beautifully 
rolling  as  the  Piedmont  of 
Virginia.  (Sec.  259.) 

The  train  finally  brings 
us  to  Sao  Paulo,  a city 
larger  than  New  Orleans. 
In  the  United  States  no 
city  without  water  transpor- 
tation has  grown  so  large. 
Sao  Paulo  is  the  capital  of 
a rich  state,  and  the  trade 
center  of  a prosperous  dis- 
trict. Sao  Paulo  also  has 
many  people,  and  much  bus- 
iness that  would  naturally 
. Photo-  wm.  Thompson  be  in  the  port  of  Santos  if 

Fig.  584.  The  railroad  station  at  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil.  Have  you  ever  seen  one  nlimnfo  oo 

so  handsome?  What  product  has  enabled  the  railroad  to  build  such  a station?  note  were  as 

cool  as  that  of  New  York 

or  of  London.  Sao  Paulo  has  fine  streets, 
trolley  cars,  and  many  factories  making  boots 
and  shoes,  and  weaving  cloth  from  cotton, 
wool,  and  jute.  Nearly  all  of  the  coal  used 
in  Brazil  must  come  from  Europe  and  the 
United  States;  waterfalls  furnish  power  for 
the  machinery  in  many  Sao  Paulo  factories, 
for  trolley  cars,  and  for  lighting  the  streets. 
Sao  Paulo  is  sometimes  called  an  electric 
city.  White  people  wearing  clothes  like  our 
own  go  to  and  fro  as  in  any  American  city. 
We  might  think  we  were  in  the  United 
States  if  we  did  not  listen  to  the  people’s  talk. 
What  is  their  language?  (Sec.  790.) 

Find  the  place  near  the  coast  of  Brazil 
that  is  the  same  distance  from  the  equator 
as  the  tip  of  the  Florida  peninsula.  This 
Brazilian  region  is  cooler  than  Cuba  and 
south  Florida  because  it  is  a plateau  two  or 
three  thousand  feet  in  height.  The  summers 
are  rainy  and  warm  like  those  of  Florida, 
Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico;  but  the  winters  are 
cool,  with  little  rain,  and  frost  sometimes 
injures  the  crops,  as  it  does  in  parts  of  Florida. 

818.  Coffee. — You  recall  (Sec.  384)  thatfine 
coffee  grows  in  the  small  uplands  of  Porto 
Rico.  Here  in  Brazil  is  a large  upland  much 
like  that  of  Porto  Rico.  The  city  of  Santos 
is  the  coffee  capital  of  the  world.  Just  as 


THE  SUB-TROPIC  AGRICULTURAL 
REGION 

817.  A mountain  with  only  one  side. — 

In  southeastern  Brazil,  on  a corner  of  the  low 
plateau,  is  the  sub-tropic  region  which  has 
long  furnished  most  of  the  coffee  that  is 
used  throughout  the  world.  The  people  on 
the  deck  of  a coffee  ship  steaming  from  Rio 
de  Janeiro  to  Santos  can  often  see,  near  the 
shore,  a high  mountain  covered  with  dark 
green  forest.  In  a long  distance  this  unbroken 
mountainside  has  only  one  place  where  a 
railroad  climbs  it,  and  that  is  at  Santos, 
where  a double-track  railroad  connects  sea- 
shore with  interior.  As  we  go  up  this  railroad, 
we  are  surprised  to  find  that  it  is  almost  as 
steep  as  a flight  of  stairs.  The  cars  are 
pulled  up  by  cables,  which  are  run  by  gyeat 
stationary  engines.  The  cables  pull  the 
trains  from  power  house  to  power  house. 
As  the  car  is  pulled  up  and  up  the  mountain, 
to  a height  of  nearly  half  a mile  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  one  may  catch  wonderful 
glimpses  of  the  sea  through  the  forests 
that  overhang  the  track. 

On  reaching  the  top,  we  are  surprised  to 
find  that  we  have  climbed  a one-sided  moun- 
tain, for  the  other  side  does  not  decline,  but 
stretches  away  in  a plateau  to  the  westward. 


THE  SUB-TROPIC  AGRICULTURAL  REGION 


393 


© E.  M.  Newman,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  585.  Looking  down  from  Sugar  Loaf,  one  of  the  many  peaks  over- 
looking the  city  and  harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  justly  famed  as  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  city  locations. 


cotton  has  long  been  the  chief 
crop  of  many  parts  of  our  own 
south,  so  coffee  has  long  been 
the  chief  crop  of  the  region 
inland  from  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Santos.  Many  of  the 
plantations  are  on  hills,  so 
that  they  have  well-drained 
soil,  as  well  as  frost  drainage. 

(Sec.  184.) 

Most  of  the  coffee  crop 
goes  to  Sao  Paulo,  and  then 
down  the  mountain  by  the 
double-track  railroad  to  San- 
tos, which  has  better  port 
facilities  than  many  North 
American  ports.  How  far  is  it 
from  Santos  to  New  York? 
to  Lisbon? 

If  coffee  is  high  in  price,  the  people  of 
Santos  and  Sao  Paulo  are  prosperous,  and 
buy  many  things  from  Europe  and  America. 
If  the  price  of  coffee  is  low,  the  people  are 
poor,  and  therefore  buy  but  little. 

819.  Other  crops. — For  many  years  the 
coffee  region,  like  our  own  cotton  region, 
sold  one  product  and  bought  almost  every- 
thing else:  coal  from  England;  locomotives 
from  the  United  States  and  Belgium ; oil  and 
gasoline  from  the  United  States;  clothes  from 
Europe;  flour  and  meat  from  Argentina;  iron, 
automobiles,  and  sewing  machines  from  the 
United  States;  dried  codfish  from  Newfound- 
land and  Norway.  During  the  World  War, 
when  trading  ships  were  scarce,  the  people  of 
this  sub-tropic  region  began  to  grow  large 
quantities  of  crops  of  which  they  had  pre- 
viously grown  but  little.  In  a short  time  the 
cotton  output  of  the  Brazilian  state  of  Sao 
Paulo  had  increased  sixfold,  and  shiploads 
of  corn,  rice,  and  dried  beans  were  being 
exported.  Then,  also,  this  part  of  South 
America  began  to  send  canned  beef  to  France 
from  the  new  modern  packing  houses  built  in 
Sao  Paulo  and  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  men  from 
Chicago.  The  cattle  owners  are  improving 
their  stock  by  bringing  better  breeds  from 
Europe.  This  sub-tropic  plateau  has  many 
undeveloped  resources. 


820.  Iron  ore. — In  a short  time  this  region 
may  be  exporting  more  iron  ore  than  any 
country  in  the  world.  Special  ore  docks  have 
been  built  near  the  city  of  Victoria,  and  a 
railroad  four  hundred  miles  long  has  been 
built  westward  into  the  interior  of  the  Bra- 
zilian state  of  Minas  Geraes,  to  reach  moun- 
tains that  have  nearly  twice  as  much  iron  ore 
as  those  near  Lake  Superior.  (Sec.  334.) 
Some  of  this  iron  will  be  smelted  for  use  in 
Brazil,  but  it  is  expected  that  the  ore  will 
be  shipped  more  and  more  to  the  furnaces 
of  North  America  and  Europe,  because  it  is 
the  richest  iron  ore  so  far  discovered. 

821.  Lumber. — On  the  southern  part  of 
this  plateau  is  a large  pine  forest,  much  like 
the  pine  forests  of  Florida.  Trees  taller 
than  a three-story  house  cover  an  area  several 
times  as  large  as  Massachusetts,  and  because 
railroads  have  been  built  only  to  the  edge 
.of  this  forest,  most  of  it  is  yet  almost  un- 
touched. However,  the  export  of  lumber 
from  the  port  of  Curitiba  has  already  begun 
and  may  become  very  large. 

822.  A land  for  immigrants. — This  is  a 
region  of  great  promise  for  growth  in  trade 
and  industry.  Most  of  the  people  are  white. 
It  is  the  first  part  of  South  America  where 
large  numbers  of  immigrants  are  seeking 
homes.  Already  hundreds  of  thousands  of 


394 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  586.  Cattle  of  British  breed  feed  on  the  Argentine  Pampas.  Compare  these  cattle  with  those  in  Figs.  107 
and  629.  Each  year  there  is  a wonderful  show  of  pure-bred  cattle  in  Buenos  Aires,  as  there  is  at  Chicago. 


Italians  have  gone  there.  Immigrants  keep 
arriving  and  we  may  expect  this  region  to 
build  up  as  our  own  southern  states  are 
building  up.  This  is  by  far  the  most  pleasant 
and  wholesome  part  of  South  America  that 
we  have  yet  studied. 

The  corresponding  part  of  Africa,  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Drakensberg  Mountains,  is 
very  small.  (Sec.  769.) 

823.  Many  resources. — This  region  prom- 
ises to  have  a more  varied  industry  than 
any  other  part  of  South  America.  No  other 
part  has  so  many  different  natural  resources. 
It  can  have  within  its  own  bounds  coffee, 
cotton,  corn,  beans,  and  many  other  agri- 
cultural crops.  The  meat  industry  is  increas- 
ing. The  region  also  has  minerals,  lumber, 
and  water  power,  and  a plateau  high  enough 
to  be  as  healthful  in  climate  as  the  south- 
eastern part  of  our  own  United  States. 
Already  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Sao  Paulo  there 
are  many  factories  where  English  machines, 
driven  by  water  power, 
make  cloth  from  Brazil- 
ian cotton;  and  in  the 
near  future  great  smelt- 
ing plants  may  arise. 

Fig.  587.  Wheat  production 
(1919-20):  (bushels) 

A.  United  States,  860,690,000 

B.  Argentina  and 

Uruguay 203,940,000 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  your  grocer’s  coffee  probably  come 
from?  2.  Why  should  Brazil  wish  to  keep  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  United  States?  With  what  countries 
must  the  United  States  compete  for  trade  with  this 
region?  4.  What  training  should  our  salesmen  have 
to  be  successful?  5.  Locate  Sao  Paulo.  How  large  a 
city  is  it?  Why  do  its  people  have  so  many  con- 
veniences, while  the  Toba  Indians  live  so  poorly? 
(Fig.  591.)  6.  What  part  of  Africa  does  this  region 
resemble?  Why? 

7.  Should  Brazil  export  her  iron  ore  or  try  to  use 
it  at  home?  8.  What  should  happen  in  the  Brazilian 
highland  when  railroads  are  built  through  it?  9. 
Santos  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  are  the  gateways  to  this 
good  land.  How  are  they  connected  with  the  plateau? 
How  do  they  helpj  the  inhabitants  of  the  plateau? 
Trace  the  steamship  lines  leading  out  from  these  cities. 

10.  Why  do  great  numbers  of  Europeans  migrate 
into  this  region?  11.  Is  there  room  for  more  immi- 
grants? 12.  How  many  people  should  a country  have? 

EAST  TEMPERATE  AGRICULTURAL 
REGION 

824.  Another  southern  United  States. — 

Find  the  latitude  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and 
that  of  Buenos  Aires.  Each  city  is  on  the 
east  side  of  a continent.  Can  you  see  why 
they  should  have  similar  climates?  Do  the 

Fig.  588.  Wheat  export 
(bushels) : 

A.  United  States 

150,500,000 

B.  Argentina  and  Uru- 

guay . .110,098,000 
Why  does  the  River  Plata 
Region  export  a greater 
part  of  her  wheat  crop  than 
the  United  States  does? 


(See  Fig.  587.) 


THE  EAST  TEMPERATE  AGRICULTURAL  REGION 


395 


-j 


B 


□in 


Fig.  589.  Wool  export 
of  four  important  na- 
tions (1909-13average) 
Million 
pounds 

A.  Australia  ....  676 

B.  Argentina  . . .328 

C.  New  Zealand  194 

D.  Br.  So. Africa  164 


maps  also  tell  you  why  southern  Brazil  and 
Georgia  should  have  similar  climates? 

The  East  Temperate  Agricultural  Region 
of  South  America  (Fig.  566  D)  resembles  in 
climate  the  region  between  the  South  Atlan- 
tic Coast  of  the  United  States  and  the  Great 
Plains  in  Oklahoma.  The  South  American 
region  is  smaller,  but  it  has  the  same  lessen- 
ing of  rainfall  as  the  distance  from  the  ocean 
increases,  a climate  feature  which  makes 
similar  vegetation  belts  in  the  two  regions. 
First  comes  forest,  then  grassland  good  for 
corn,  then  grassland  good  for  wheat.  The 
South  American  forest  covers  most  of  the 
Brazilian  part  of  this  district  and  the  neigh- 
boring lands  in  northeastern  Argentina. 

West  of  the  lower  Parana  is  a splendid  plain 
called  the  pampas.  It  is  treeless,  rich,  nearly 
level  (Fig.  586),  and  good  for  corn  in  the  east, 
then,  farther  west,  good  for  wheat.  The 
western  boundary  of  the  grain  land  is  a climate 
line  like  that  at  the  western  end  of  our  own 
grainregion  (Sec.  57)  in  Kansasand  Oklahoma. 
The  plain,  now  too  dry  for  much  farming, 
stretches  on  to  the  Andes,  as  our  own  plain 
goes  on  to  the  Rockies. 

825.  The  early  days — 
ranching. — Let  us  see  why 
the  Spanish  settlers  on  the 
banks  of  the  Plata  found  it 
easier  to  make  a home 
there  than  the  English  did 
on  the  banks  of  the  James, 
or  along  the  shores  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. The  pampas  of 
eastern  Argentina  are  tree- 
less and  covered  with  rich 
grass.  These  plains,  spread- 
ing away  to  the  west  and 
northwest  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  are  one  of  the  greatest 
natural  pastures  in  the  world. 


The  settler  did  not  have  to  cut  down  trees, 
dig  up  stumps,  pry  out  stones,  or  fight  with 
bushes  and  briers.  The  winter  is  frosty,  but 
usually  mild.  There  is  no  snow  cover; 
animals  can  pasture  all  the  year.  The  early 
settlers  brought  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle 
from  Spain.  The  animals  ran  almost  wild 
on  the  grassy  plains,  and  increased  like  mice 
in  a pantry. 

In  those  days  American  meat  could  not 
be  sold  in  Europe,  so  for  two  hundred  years 
the  Spanish  ranch  owners  killed  their  cattle 
and  sheep,  and  sold  only  the  skins,  the  wool, 
and  the  tallow.  Horses  were  kept  because 
the  hair  from  their  tails  and  manes  was 
sold  to  make  haircloth.  In  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  an  Argentine  horse 
brought  a fixed  price,  just  as  a glass  of 
soda  water  does  with  us.  An  unbroken 
horse  was  worth  $2.50.  If  he  was  trained, 
ready  to  use,  he  was  worth  $5.00.  An  espe- 
cially good  riding  horse  was  worth  $10.00 
to  the  Argentine  gaucho,  or  cowboy,  a 
rough  fellow,  half  Indian,  half  Spaniard, 
who  spent  most  of  his  time  on  horseback. 

After  a time  the  people  began  to  make 
tasajo,  which  is  beef  so  salty  and  dry  that, 
like  dried  codfish,  it  will  keep  in  hot  climates. 
Tasajo  has  been  much  used  in  tropic 
America.  (Sec.  813.) 

826.  The  rise  of  agriculture. — During  all 
this  time  the  people  of  Buenos  Aires  imported 
flour,  just  as  the  people  of  Cuba  do  to-day. 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co.  of  America 

Fig.  590.  Hauling  wheat  to  an  Argentine  railway.  Can  the  wagons  you 
know  get  through  deep  mud  as  well  as  these  can?  There  are  hooks  on  the 
ends  of  the  axles  and  elsewhere,  so  that  the  cowboys  can  tie  their  lassos  to 
the  wagon,  and  help  pull  at  a pinch.  See  the  rope  from  the  hub. 


396 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Photo.  Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  591.  A family  of  Toba  Indians  and  their  home  in  the  scrubby  forest  of 
the  Gran  Chaco.  What  signs  of  trade  with  the  white  man  do  you  see? 


About  1870,  people  in  the  Argentine  found  that 
they  could  raise  wheat.  There  was  a market 
for  wheat  in  Europe,  so  Argentina  started 
on  an  agricultural  career,  just  as  did  regions 
in  the  central  part  of  North  America.  Rail- 
roads were  built  across  the  plain  from  Buenos 
Aires  and  Rosario,  just  as  they  were  from 
Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  Minneapolis.  Im- 
migrants from:  Spain  and  Italy  came  by  thou- 
sands to  cultivate  the  new  fields.  (Fig.  610.) 

The  land  in  Argentina  is  splendid  for 
farming;  it  is  rich,  level,  and  so  free  from 
stones  that  you  cannot  in  miles  find  one 
as  big  as  an  egg.  Plows,  reapers,  and 
threshers  were  sent  out  from  the  United 
States,  and  the  fields  of  wheat,  corn,  and 
flax  increased.  Sometimes  there  are  droughts, 
sometimes  too  much  rain.  Sometimes  the 
locusts  (grasshoppers)  fly  down  in  millions 
from  the  forests  to  the  northward  and  eat  up 
the  crops.  Nevertheless  this  has  become 
one  of  the  great  agricultural  regions  of  the 
world.  Argentina  grows  more  flax  for  seed 
than  any  other  country.  Fleets  of  steamers 
sail  from  Europe  to  the  river  Plata,  and  return 
laden  with  wheat,  corn,  meat,  and  flax  seed. 
Only  a fraction  of  the  Argentine  land  in  this 
region  is  now  under  cultivation.  The  re- 
mainder is  still  in  pasture,  just  as  a smaller 
part  of  our  own  Com  Belt  is  in  pasture. 

827.  The  gentleman  and  the  job. — 


What  is  it  that  makes  a 
man  a gentleman?  The 
Spanish  settlers  brought  a 
wrong  idea  about  that 
across  the  ocean  with  them, 
and  Argentina,  like  the  other 
countries  settled  by  the 
Spaniards,  suffers  because  of 
it.  In  the  United  States 
and  Canada  the  people 
themselves  built  the  rail- 
roads, managed  the  compa- 
nies, and  ran  the  industries. 
Because  the  Argentinians 
think  that  a gentleman 
ought  not  to  work,  the  rail- 
roads and  the  trolley  lines, 
the  gas  works  and  the  elec- 
tric light  plants,  and  the  biggest  business 
enterprises  are  owned  by  the  British,  French, 
German,  Dutch,  and  American  companies 
that  built  them.  Most  of  the  skilled  men, 
managers,  and  workmen,  are  northern  Euro- 
peans, or  Americans.  But  Argentina  is  be- 
ginning to  get  over  her  foolish  idea  about 
what  makes  a gentleman.  She  is  beginning 
to  be  proud  of  being  a modern  nation. 

828.  The  estate  and  the  family. — In  Kan- 
sas, Oklahoma,  and  other  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  also  in  Canada,  the  land  was 
given  away  to  the  early  settlers  in  farms  of 
160  acres  each,  which  the  government  wisely 
thought  was  enough  to  make  a good  home  for 
a family.  Our  government  wants  every  man 
to  own  the  farm  he  cultivates  and  the  house 
in  which  he  lives,  because  it  makes  him  a 
better  citizen. 

The  kings  of  Spain  liked  to  favor  their 
friends  by  giving  them  land  in  the  colonies. 
Sometimes  a friend  of  the  king  would  receive 
a grant  of  thousands  and  thousands  of 
acres,  as  much  as  a whole  county  in  the 
United  States.  The  Argentine  politicians 
have  also-  given  land  away  to  their  friends 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  kings  did.  The 
man  who  owns  one  of  these  huge  estates 
(estancias)  does  not  want  to  live  on  it  nor 
does  he  work  for  the  good  of  the  neighborhood. 
He  wants  to  live  in  some  big  city,  and  visit 


THE  EAST  TEMPERATE  AGRICULTURAL  REGION 


397 


Madrid  and  Paris.  In  every  Spanish- 
speaking country  there  are  big  estates  of  this 
kind.  Even  California,  New  Mexico,  and 
Texas  have  them.  Why?  In  the  splendid 
grain  and  grass  lands  of  Argentina  and  Uru- 
guay, many  of  these  vast  estates  are  owned 
by  people  who  live  in  Buenos  Aires  or  Monte- 
video, and  who  may  not  see  their  lands  from 
one  year’s  end  to  the  next.  Sometimes  it 
takes  the  agent  two  or  three  days  to  drive 
over  the  estate  and  visit  the  various  work- 
men's camps.  Some  of  the  agents  are  now 
planning  to  travel  about  over  their  ranches 
in  airplanes. 

In  the  grain  districts,  the  land  is  rented  to 
tenants,  most  of  whom  are  Italians,  who  live 
in  shacks,  and  who  rent  the  land  for  a year  or 
two  and  then  move  on  to  some  other  place. 
This  custom  is  very  bad  for  the  country, 
because  no  settler  stays  long  enough  to  help 
make  a good  neighborhood,  and  no  one  keeps 
up  the  schools  or  the  roads.  The  roads  are 
so  bad  that  wagons  often  have  wheels  ten  or 
twelve  feet  high  in  order  that  they  may 
not  stick  in  the  mud.  (Fig.  590.)  Fifteen 
or  twenty  horses  may  have  to  be  hitched 
to  one  wagon  to  haul  the 
grain  to  market. 

829.  The  meat  industry. 

— Since  meat  has  gone  up  in 
price,  the  people  of  the 
Argentine  no  longer  waste 
their  good  grass  in  raising 
bony  cattle,  from  which 
they  sell  only  hides  and 
tallow.  Instead,  they  raise 
fine  herds  of  the  best  Eng- 
lish breeds  of  big,  fat  sheep 
and  cattle.  (Figs.  594, 586.) 

Alfalfa,  the  best  of  all 
forage  plants,  grows  in  Ar- 
gentina as  well  as  it  does 
in  any  part  of  the  world; 
so  northeastern  Argentina 
and  Uruguay  have  now  be- 
come one  of  the  great  meat- 
producing  regions  of  the 
world.  Instead  of  being 
boiled  down  for  tallow,  the 


cattle  are  sent  to  modern  meat-packing 
houses  built  and  operated  by  men  from 
Chicago,  and  owned  by  European  and  North 
American  capitalists.  (Figs.  582,  583.) 

Most  of  the  meat  animals  go  to  the  pack- 
ing houses  and  freezing  plants  of  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario,  and  Santa  Fe,  Argentina; 
to  Paysandu,  Uruguay;  and  even  to  Pelotas 
and  other  places  in  southern  Brazil,  for  the 
meat  industry  has  recently  sprung  up  in  this 
part  of  the  temperate  agricultural  region 
also.  Argentine  meat  had  begun  to  come  to 
New  Y ork  before  the  World  War ; but  during 
the  war  all  of  the  meat  was  sent  to  Europe. 
Since  the  war  we  have  been  importing  mil- 
lions of  pounds  a year. 

A Spanish  company  recently  built  meat- 
freezing plants  in  Buenos  Aires  and  Santa 
Fe,  cold-storage  warehouses  in  Bilbao  and 
other  towns  in  Spain,  and  refrigerator  ships 
to  cany  frozen  meat  to  Europe.  There  are 
many  such  steamship  lines  from  Plata  ports 
to  the  ports  of  northwest  Europe. 

830.  Forests. — As  in  our  own  country  we 
have  a great  natural  forest  from  Oklahoma 
to  the  Atlantic,  except  where  man  has  cut  it 


© E.  M.  Newman,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  592.  A part  of  the  Plaza  or  public  square  of  Montevideo, 


398 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


down,  so  in  South 
America  a great 
forest  stretches 
from  the  coast  of 
southern  Brazil  to 
the  river  Parana, 
and  beyond.  Near 
the  Parana  River 
are  many  factories 
making  tanning  ex- 
tract from  the  hard 
wood  of  the  que- 
bracho tree.  Per- 
haps the  leather  of 
your  shoes  was  tan- 
ned with  this  ma- 
terial, which  is  used 
by  American  tan- 
ners. Most  of  this 
forest  region  is  still 
unsettled,  and  in 
southern  Brazil  are  many  thousand  square 
miles  of  splendid  pines,  much  like  those  of 
our  own  southern  states.  These  forests  are  a 
continuation  of  the  forest  mentioned  in 
Section  821,  and  are  the  only  important 
pine  forests  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 
Some  day,  when  railroads  and  sawmills 
have  been  built,  these  forests  will  give  rise 
to  a great  industry.  Lumber  export  to  other 
parts  of  South  America  has  already  begun. 

831.  The  Gran  Chaco. — A large  area  in 
northern  Argentina,  west  of  the  Parana,  is 
called  the  Gran  Chaco  (Great  Forest), 
although  most  of  the  high  forest  is  only  along 
the  streams.  There  is  so  much  good,  open 
grassland  farther  south,  in  a cooler  climate, 
that  this  section  has  been  little  used.  Parts 
of  it'  have  scarcely  been  explored.  In  1920 
an  American  party  went  through  some  of  it. 
They  said  it  was  like  trying  to  go  through  a 
hedge  endwise.  The  land  was  covered  with  a 
dense  mass  of  thorny  bushes  about  six  feet 
high.  You  could  only  pass  here  and  there  by 
following  paths  made  by  deer  and  other 
animals.  This  land  might  be  made  to  raise 
animals  for  meat,  and  to  grow  many  of  the 
crops  of  our  southern  states,  such  as  corn, 
beans,  peanuts,  and  cotton. 


832.  The  cities  of  the  coast. — Why  might 
we  say  that  Buenos  Aires  is  both  the  Chicago 
and  the  New  York  of  Argentina?  (Secs. 
321,  340.)  Buenos  Aires  is  still  growing 
rapidly  and  is  already  a great  city,  almost 
as  large  as  Philadelphia.  It  has  splendid 
streets,  beautiful  houses,  and  great  news- 
papers. The  styles  of  Paris  are  copied  by  its 
people  more  quickly  than  they  are  copied  in 
New  York.  Buenos  Aires  has  many  places 
of  amusement,  and  is  one  of  the  gayest  cities 
in  the  world. 

In  its  harbor,  Buenos  Aires  has  better 
machinery  for  handling  freight  than  has 
New  York.  Across  the  wide  river  is  Monte- 
video, the  capital  of  Uruguay,  a finely-built 
city  with  three-fourths  as  many  people  as 
Washington,  D.  C.  Southward  from  Buenos 
Aires  is  Bahia  Blanca,  a grain  exporting  port, 
the  Galveston  of  the  Argentine.  Rosario, 
two  hundred  miles  up  the  river  Parana  from 
Buenos  Aires,  is  visited  by  ocean  steamers, 
and  has  a population  larger  than  Omaha. 
This  city  is  much  like  Omaha  in  its  business, 
except  that  ocean  steamers  can  reach  it. 

833.  A place  for  the  immigrant. — The  un- 
used, or  little  used,  lands  of  southern  Brazil, 
Uruguay,  and  eastern  Argentina  comprise 
one  of  the  four  good,  large  regions  waiting 
for  the  immigrant  who  wants  to  farm  in  the 
land  of  frost.  Where  are  the  other  three? 
(Secs.  92,  630,  686.) 

In  the  Argentine  part  of  this  great  region 
is  much  land  that  is  not  yet  cultivated,  and 
some  day  the  big  estates  will  have  to  be 
turned  into  one-family  farms.  Farming  has 
scarcely  begun  in  Uruguay,  a country  that 
is  still  a great  sheep  pasture  of  rolling  grass- 
land. Most  of  southern  Brazil  and  northern 
Argentina  is  still  a great  forest  waiting  to  be 
cleared  and  put  to  work  producing  corn, 
legumes,  meat,  and  cotton. 

But  settlers  are  now  going  to  these  empty 
lands.  In  this  part  of  Brazil  several  colonies 
of  German  farmers  settled  years  ago.  The 
climate  is  so  mild  that  the  farmer  does  not 
need  an  expensive  house  or  barn.  He  can 
live  in  a tent  for  months,  and  in  five  or  six 
weeks  after  he  reaches  his  land  he  can  be 


Finch  & Baker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Fig.  593.  Grape  acreage  in 
southern  South  America. 
Why  are  they  not  grown 
more  largely  near  the  markets 
along  the  River  Plata? 


THE  EAST  TEMPERATE 

eating  beans  and  other  vegetables  from  his 
new  garden.  The  Brazilian  government 
wants  immigrants,  and  will  pay  the  carfare 
from  the  Brazilian  port  to  a farm  colony  for 
any  immigrant  with  a family.  The  govern- 
ment will  also  sell  him  sixty-two  acres  of 
land,  and  seeds  and  tools,  and  will  give  him 
eight  years  in  which  to  pay  for  all  this. 

As  many  as  ten  thousand  immigrants  a 
week  landed  at  Buenos  Aires  during  a part 
of  1920.  Already  many  hundred  thousands 
of  Italians  and  Spaniards  have  moved  to 
Argentina,  and  more  are  going  there.  Of  late 
the  East  Temperate  Agricultural  Region 
has  been  second  only  to  the  United  States  as 
a place  to  attract  home-seekers.  We  may 
therefore  expect  this  region  to  have  more 
and  more  wheat,  corn,  and  meat  for  the 
markets  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  what  country  might  the  vessel  in  the  har- 
bor at  Rosario  (Fig.  609)  come?  With  what  is  it  being 
loaded?  For  what  port  will  it  probably  sail?  What 
products  may  it  bring  on  the  return  voyage?  2.  Why 
are  Uruguay  and  Argentina  great  sheep-raising  coun- 
tries? 3.  Why  are  the  boys  pushing  the  sheeps’  heads 
under  the  liquid?  (Fig.  594)  4.  How  far  might  you 
see  across  the  pampas?  (Fig.  586.)  Why  is  it  a good 
cattle  country?  5.  What  industry  is  taking  the  place 


Fig.  594.  Sheep-dipping  on  an  Argentine  ranch.  This 
and  to  us.  (Sec.  44.)  Explain  how  the  dipping  of  sheep 


AGRICULTURAL  REGION  399 

of  cattle-raising?  Why?  6.  Make  the  following  com- 
parison of  regions: 


Topic. 

Mississippi 

Valley. 

Plata 

Valley. 

New  England 
Coast. 

Location . 

Surface 

Soil 

Climate 

Navigable  Rivers 

Crops  

Ease  of  Colonizing 

7.  Where  do  you  find  the  most  railroad  lines  in 
South  America?  (Fig.  610.)  Why?  8.  For  what  port 
may  the  steamship  shown  in  Fig.  582  be  bound?  W7hat 
products  does  she  carry?  How  are  these  products  pre- 
pared so  as  to  keep  through  the  hot  voyage?  Where  is 
the  main  office  of  this  company?  Why  are  not  the  cattle 
taken  to  America  or  Europe  to  be  killed  and  prepared? 
9.  Would  you  like  to  live  in  Montevideo?  (Fig.  592.) 
Why?  10.  Can  you  give  two  reasons  which  have 
helped  the  growth  of  this  city  and  Buenos  Aires? 

11.  Compare  a farm  in  this  region  with  one  in  the 
Northern  Piedmont  Region.  (Fig.  228.)  12.  Show 
by  use  of  following  chart  how  this  region  is  a good 


land  for  farms: 

Natural  Factors. 

How  They  Affect  the  Farmer. 

Soil 

Surface 

Rainfall 

Temperature 

Pests 

Navigable  rivers. . 

Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

is  very  unpleasant,  but  tell  how  it  is  helpful  to  the  sheep 
is  like  the  spraying  of  trees,  or  the  fumigating  of  a room. 


400 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


THE  ARGENTINE  SEMI-ARID  REGION 

834.  A South  American  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona. — You  remember  (Sec.  102)  that  in 
the  United  States,  to  the  west  of  the  land  of 
cotton,  coni,  and  wheat,  are  the  Great 
Plains,  a land  of  little  rain,  few  people,  and 
large  sheep  and  cattle  ranches.  South 
America  also  has  such  a region  in  Argentina, 
between  the  farming  lands  and  the  western 
mountains  (the  Andes),  which  wall  it  off 
from  the  Pacific.  Much  of  this  country  is 
so  much  like  our  own  western  lands,  shut  off 
from  the  Pacific  by  the  Rockies,  that  if  a 
man  from  Arizona  or  New  Mexico  were 
dropped  from  a balloon,  he  might  easily  say 
he  was  at  home;  for  he  would  see  exactly  the 
same  varieties  of  cactus,  the  same  bunch 
grass,  the  same  wide-stretching,  treeless 
plains,  the  same  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of 
cattle,  the  same  simple  house  of  the  ranch- 
man. The  ranchman,  however,  would  speak 
Spanish,  and  most  of  his  workers  would 
be  Indians  or  half-breeds  called  gauchos,  the 
Argentine  word  for  cowboys. 

835.  Fruit-growing  oases. — Near  the  foot 
of  the  Andes,  snow-fed  streams  are  used  to 
irrigate  large  orchards  in  which  peaches, 


pears,  plums,  grapes,  and  other  fruits  are 
grown  and  shipped  from  Mendoza  and  San 
Juan  to  eastern  markets.  (Fig.  598.)  Tell 
of  something  like  this  in  Arizona. 

836.  Railroads. — Two  or  three  railroads 
cross  this  plain  to  cany  cattle,  sheep,  wool, 
and  fruits  to  the  markets  of  Buenos  Aires 
and  other  eastern  cities.  (Fig.  610.)  One 
railroad  connects  Buenos  Aires  with  San- 
tiago, the  capital  of  Chile,  and  Valparaiso, 
its  chief  port.  It  was  very  difficult  and 
expensive  work  to  build  this  road,  with 
its  many  tunnels,  across  the  high  Andes. 

837.  A South  American  Alberta. — The 
southern  part  of  this  semi-arid  region  is  called 
Patagonia.  Name  a place  in  North  Amer- 
ica, the  same  distance  from  the  equator  and 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
(Fig.  94.)  Only  recently  have  white  men  had 
ranches  in  Patagonia.  Many  of  the  settlers  in 
this  new  district  are  Englishmen  and  Scotch- 
men, who  came  over  from  the  Falkland 
Islands  to  the  east  of  Patagonia.  Find  places 
on  the  coast  of  Britain  and  of  western 
North  America  that  are  the  same  distance  as 
the  Falkland  Islands  from  the  equator.  Falk- 
land, a British  colony,  has  plenty  of  rain, 

and,  like  the  highlands  of 
Scotland  and  Wales,  is  cov- 
ered with  grass.  The  one 
great  business  is  sheep  and 
wool,  so  that  the  young  men 
of  the  Falkland  Islands 
know  the  sheep  business 
well,  before  they  go  over  to 
settle  the  new  ranch  coun- 
try at  the  foot  of  the  Andes. 
The  best  known  trade  cen- 
ter for  this  district  is  Punta 
Arenas.  Can  you  find 
another  city  as  far  south? 

838.  Future.  — American 
oil  searchers  have  found 
some  oil  fields  in  Patagonia. 
If  the  deposits  are  rich,  tell 
what  may  happen.  Will 
the  future  of  this  semi-arid 
region  be  like  that  of  our  own 
Great  Plains?  (Sec.  113.) 


v3 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  595.  Caracas.  Why  do  you  think  it  is  called  “Pearl  of  the  Andes”? 


THE  ANDEAN  REGIONS 


401 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  strong  gales  in  the  Falkland  Islands 
common?  2.  How  would  you  like  to  have  a job  with 
an  oil  company  digging  wells  in  latitude  50°  S.  and 
longitude  70°  W.?  3.  How  far  is  the  region  from  New 
York?  from  Liverpool?  4.  Why  is  it  so  sparsely 
settled?  5.  Suppose  you  were  to  go  by  balloon  into 
this  region.  What  would  you  see?  What  things  would 
you  take  with  you?  What  would  you  do? 

6.  Compare  the  following  transcontinental  railway 
lines: 


Topic. 

Trans- 

Andean. 

Canadian 

Pacific. 

Trans- 

SlBERIAN. 

Products  carried: 
T<]astward 

Westward 

TiPingth 

7.  Compare  a part  of  Alberta  and  Montana  with 
the  Argentine  Semi-arid  Region. 


Region. 

Location. 

Rainfall. 

Surface. 

Products. 

Alberta 

Argentine  Semi- 
arid  Region . . . 

THE  ANDEAN  REGIONS 

839.  A mountain  world  in  three  parts. — 

The  extreme  northern  end  of  South  America 
is  farther  from  the  extreme  southern  end 
than  Panama  is  from  Greenland.  At  the 
southern  tip  is  a high  rocky  cape;  at  the 
northern  tip  the  mountains  reach  the  sea; 
and  between  them  is  the  great  Andean 
mountain  system  which  is  a world  by  itself. 
This  mountain  world  is  high  and  cool, 
even  where  the  hot  tropic  lowlands  lie  at 
its  feet.  Some  of  the  world’s  highest  vol- 
canoes are  Andean  peaks,  the  smoking  tops 
of  which  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
Dust  blown  out  from  these  volcanoes  has 
made  much  rich  valley  land  between  the 
ranges.  In  1921  volcanic  dust  fell  so  thickly 
that  it  buried  a sawmill  near  Valdivia,  Chile. 

To  understand  the  Andes  at  all,  we  must 
think  of  our  own  Rocky  Mountains  as 
having  been  raised  to  almost  double  their 
height,  and  as  being  without  passes.  From 
central  Colombia  to  a point  south  of  San- 
tiago in  Chile,  not  a single  pass  is  less  than 
10,000  feet  in  height;  that  is  nearly  twice 


© Publishers'  Photo  Service.  N.  Y. 


Fig.  596.  La  Guaira,  Venezuela,  as  the  incoming 
traveler  sees  it.  How  wide  is  the  coastal  plain  here? 

the  height  of  any  mountain  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  Between  latitudes  5°  and  30° 
south,  no  pass  is  less  than  15,000  feet  in 
height.  This  means  that  for  a distance 
greater  than  the  extent  north  and  south  of 
the  United  States,  there  is  a continuous 
mountain  wall,  higher  than  any  peak  in  the 
Rockies. 

This  mountain  world  of  South  America  has 
three  different  parts,  each  unlike  the  others. 
From  Cape  Horn  to  30°  south  it  is  composed 
of  mountain  ranges,  high  and  sharp  like 
our  own  Rocky  Mountains,  but  more  lofty. 
Then  comes  the  highest  part  of  all,  the  wide, 
cold  Andean  plateau  with  snowpeaks  above 
it.  This  division  reaches  from  30°  south  to 
a place  a short  distance  north  of  Cuzco  in 
Peru.  Next  to  the  cold  Andean  plateau  come 
the  mountains  and  plateaus  of  the  northern 
Andes.  These  are  not  so  high,  so  wide,  or 
so  cold  as  those  of  the  central  Andes. 

Part  I. — The  Northern  Andes 

840.  Caracas — Pearl  of  the  Andes. — The 
traveler  going  from  New  York  to  La  Guaira 
sees  the  green  forest-covered  northern  edge 
of  the  Andes  towering  in  the  air,  long  before 
he  can  make  out  the  palm  trees  along  the 
shore,  or  see  the  white  houses  of  the  little 
port  that  lies  snuggled  at  the  foot  of  the  steep 
highland.  The  railroad  from  La  Guaira,  or 


402 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


© Underwood  & Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  597.  A steamer  from  the  United  States  unloading 
goods  from  America  on  the  quay  at  La  Guaira. 

from  Puerto  Cabello  to  Caracas,  must  wind 
around  many  more  miles  than  do  the  wagon 
roads  that  go  up  to  the  plateau.  (Fig.  572.) 

Caracas  was  the  capital  of  a Spanish  prov- 
ince and  the  trade  center  for  a wide  region, 
long  before  it  was  the  capital  of  Venezuela. 
When  the  traveler  reaches  Caracas  and  feels 
the  refreshing  coolness  of  the  evening,  he 
understands  why  the  Span- 
iardsclimbed  the  high  moun- 
tains and  made  their  capital 
on  this  lofty  plateau  rather 
than  on  the  hot  coast  plain. 

From  a neighboring  moun- 
tain, one  can  look  down  on 
the  white  walls,  red  roofs, 
and  church  steeples  of  the 
beautiful  city  that  is  spread 
out  on  a plateau.  On  all 
sides  picturesque  mountains 
surround  it,  and  one  under- 
stands why  the  Spanish 
called  their  capital  the 
“Pearl  of  the  Andes”. 

The  Spanish-speaking 
people  are  well-dressed  and 
polite,  although  many  of 


them  show  that  they  are  part  Indian.  Only 
a few  of  them  can  read. 

On  market  days  the  streets  and  the  squares 
are  filled  with  barefooted  Indians  wearing 
cheap  cotton  store  clothes  from  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  wide  straw  hats 
which  they  have  plaited  by  hand.  Hundreds 
of  pack  mules  come  over  the  trails  from  the 
little  farms  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  moun- 
tains, bringing  produce  to  city  markets  to  be 
exchanged  for  store  goods.  These  Indians 
and  half-breeds  cultivate  patches  of  com, 
beans,  cassava,  coffee,  fruits,  and  vegetables. 

841.  Home  industries  in  the  Andes. — The 
daily  life  and  the  food  of  the  dwellers  of  the 
northern  Andes  are  much  like  th  se  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  plateau  of  Mexico  and  the  Central 
American  Uplands  (Secs.  147, 369),  and  even 
the  people  themselves  are  quite  similar. 

Mexico  sells  minerals  from  her  mountain 
rocks,  coffee  from  her  mountainside  farms, 
and  the  hides  of  cattle  and  goatskins.  The 
people  of  the  northern  Andes  have  similar 
things  to  sell.  Since  it  is  hard  to  reach,  the 
region  can  have  but  little  trade.  Only  such 
valuable  things  as  hides,  wool,  coffee,  and 
precious  metals  can  be  carried  on  muleback 
down  the  long  mountain  trails.  As  in  other 
regions  where  machines  are  very  few,  most 
of  the  needful  things  must  be  made  at  home. 


© E.  M.  Newman,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  598.  Market  day  at  a town  near  La  Paz,  Bolivia.  The  poncho,  a blanket 
with  a hole  for  the  head,  is  an  almost  universal  Andean  garment,  serving  for 
coat,  overcoat,  raincoat,  shirt,  bedclothes,  and  other  uses. 


THE  ANDEAN  REGIONS 


403 


From  the  wool  of  their  own  sheep,  many 
of  the  natives  spin  and  weave  the  blankets 
that  serve  as  coats  by  day  and  as  bedding  by 
night.  The  houses,  which  are  built  of  stones 
and  mud,  have  grass  roofs  and  earthen  floors. 
Often  there  is  not  a single  nail  used  in  mak- 
ing the  house.  The  people  produce  their 
food,  which  is  chiefly  corn,  beans,  vegetables, 
and  meat.  Their  plow  is  still  a crude  wooden 
pole,  drawn  by  oxen  to  whose  horns  the 
pole  is  tied  with  rawhide  thongs. 

The  mountains  make  this  region  so  hard  to 
reach  that  in  all  its  great  length  there  are 
but  few  routes  to  the  outside  world. 

842.  Venezuelan  routes  to  the  plateau. — 
The  Venezuelan  part  of  the  plateau,  which 
was  described  in  the  last  section,  has  the 
best  chance  for  trade  because  the  plateau 
is  lowest  there,  and  because  this  section 
reaches  the  coast. 

The  produce  of  western  Venezuela  in  the 
region  of  Merida  goes  down  by  mule  and  rail 
to  the  shore  of  Lake  Maracaibo.  The  lake  is 
really  an  arm  of  the  sea,  whence  coasting 
steamers  take  freight  around  to  La  Guaira, 
and  to  Curasao,  a little  island  owned  by  the 
Dutch  and  visited  by  many  steamers. 

843.  Colombian  routes  into  the  northern 
Andes. — As  in  Venezuela,  most  of  the  people 
in  Colombia  live  on  the  highlands.  It  is 


© E.  M.  Newman  N.  Y. 


Fig.  599.  This  copper  smelter  at  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
Peru,  shows  what  great  works  it  takes  to  get  the  metal 
from  the  rock.  How  does  one  reach  Cerro  de  Pasco? 
What  people  own  this  smelter?  (Sec.  846.) 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  600.  An  Ecuadorian  half-breed  weaving  a ham- 
mock in  front  of  his  hut.  The  boy  is  making  a rope. 

Make  a list  of  the  things  you  can  see  in  this  picture. 

much  harder  to  reach  these  highlands  than 
those  of  Venezuela.  If  a traveler  wants  to 
go  to  Bogota,  the  capital  of  Colombia,  he 
must  go  by  steamer  to  Cartagena  or  Puerto 
Colombia;  then  go  by  railroad  across  to  the 
Magdalena  River;  then  by  river  steamer  to 
La  Dorada,  bl7  miles  from  Puerto  Colombia; 
then  seventy-two  miles  by  railroad  around  a 
series  of  rapids;  then  fifty-eight  miles  more 
by  another  steamboat  to  Girardot.  The 
journey  thus  far  takes  about  a week.  From 
Girardot  a railroad,  with  rails  only  three  feet 
apart,  climbs  up  to  Factativa,  which  is  on 
the  edge  of  the  plateau,  9990  feet  in  altitude. 
It  takes  eight  hours  to  travel  over  the 
twenty-five  miles  between  these  cities.  At 
Factativa  one  must  change  to  another  rail- 
road whose  rails  are  only  thirty-nine  inches 
apart.  Soon  the  train  reaches  Bogota,  8600 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  with  snow  peaks  in 
sight.  After  traveling  for  days  in  the  wilder- 
ness, a fine  city  like  Bogota  surprises  one 
greatly.  It  is  as  large  as  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
with  a cool,  bracing  climate.  It  has  Paris 
styles,  electric  lights,  trolleys,  and  beautiful 
parks,  and  claims  to  be  the  literary  center  of 
South  America.  The  national  library  here 
has  over  one  hundred  thousand  volumes. 


404 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Photo.  Win.  Thompson 


Fig.  601.  Indians  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  standing 
before  their  home  with  its  sun-dried-brick  wall,  grass 
roof  and  dirt  floor.  Where  do  you  think  the  striped 
blanket  shawl  was  made? 

On  the  plateau  west  of  the  Magdalena 
valley  is  Medellin.  This  old  city  is  nearly 
a mile  above  the  sea,  but  for  three  hundred 
years  people  and  freight  have  taken  a two 
days’  trip  by  mule  up  and  down  the  moun- 
tains to  the  boat  landings  on  the  Magdalena. 

844.  Freight  and  gold. — How  costly  it  is  to 
send  freight  by  such  routes!  Clearly  the 
things  sent  out  must  be  of  great  value.  Gold, 
in  which  the  Medellin  district  is  rich,  is  its 
chief  export.  The  thousands  of  gold  diggers 
can  get  no  machinery  except  that  which  they 
themselves  make,  or  bring  in  in  pieces  on 
the  backs  of  mules. 

845.  Up  to  Quito. — Quito  used  to  be  as 
hard  to  reach  as  Bogota,  but  the  trip  by  the 
new  railroad  from  Guayaquil  now  takes 
only  two  days. 

Quito  boasts  a climate  of  eternal  spring. 
The  city  is  only  fourteen  miles  from  the 
equator;  but  as  it  is  nearly  ten  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  the  thermometer  goes  down 
to  50°  every  night.  By  day  the  sun  shines 
bright  and  warm.  One  month  is  no  warmer 
or  cooler  than  another;  so  the  farmer  plants 
his  crop  whenever  he  wishes. 

846.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco  route. — The 
fourth  important  railroad  into  the  northern 
Andes  starts  from  Callao  and  goes  through 
Lima,  the  capital  of  Pern,  a city  perched 
upon  the  dry  foothills.  Up,  up,  up,  higher 
than  the  top  of  any  mountain  in  the  United 
States,  goes  the  railroad.  It  then  goes  along 


the  plateau  to  the  famous  mining  town  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  14,280  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  was  at  this  place  that,  in  1630,  an  Indian 
shepherd  happened  to  spy  a lump  of  silver 
in  the  ashes  of  his  campfire.  He  began  to 
dig  the  precious  metal.  Other  Indians  came 
and  a city  grew.  Engineers  now  know  that 
there  are  two  thousand  veins  of  ore  contain- 
ing copper,  gold,  and  silver.  Men  have  dug 
here  for  nearly  three  centuries,  but  there 
is  still  an  immense  amount  of  ore  in  the 
ground.  An  American  company  has  great 
smelters  and  employs  thousands  of  Indian 
workmen.  (Fig.  599.)  ' The  best  machinery 
is  used,  because  the  railroad  can  bring  it  in. 

847.  The  Indian’s  pack  train. — In  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  as  at  Quito,  Bogota,  Caracas,  and 
many  smaller  places,  one  sees  the  plateau 
Indian  with  his  llamas  or  his  pack  mules. 
The  animals  are  burdened  with  wool,  sheep- 
skins, cowhides,  valuable  ores,  and  even  with 
rubber,  secured  in  trade  from  some  lowland 
tribe  to  the  eastward.  This  Indian  may  have 
come  two  hundred  miles,  sleeping  at  night 
by  the  campfire.  The  Indians  hobble  their 
beasts,  by  tying  their  feet  with  a soft  rope 
of  llama  wool  so  they  can  only  walk  a little. 
The  animals  then  pick  their  living  by  brows- 
ing wayside  herbage.  After  an  absence  of 
weeks  or  even  of  months,  the  Indian  gets 
back  to  his  distant  village  with  a year’s 
supply  of  white  men’s  factory-made  goods. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . In  what  countries  is  theN orthern  Andean  Region? 
If  we  could  place  the  southern  end  of  this  section  at 
southern  Florida,  where  would  the  northern  end  be? 
2.  How  would  you  travel  from  your  home  to  Caracas? 
Bogota?  Quito?  Cerro  de  Pasco?  3.  Why  are  these 
cities  of  the  northern  Andean  countries  located  in 
the  mountains?  4.  Name  the  products  of  this  moun- 
tain area.  Name  the  chief  exports.  5.  Name  two 
ports  of  each  country  in  this  region.  6.  What  is 
the  population  of  each  country?  7.  Why  is  there 
more  difference  in  temperature  at  Quito  between 
noon  and  midnight  than  between  January  and  July? 
8.  What  determines  the  temperature  of  a city  like 
Quito? 

9.  Colombia  has  some  coal.  It  has  oil,  and  Ven- 
ezuela has  iron.  Does  the  presence  of  these  two  re- 
sources mean  that  these  countries  will  have  more 
population  than  Argentina,  which  is  without  coal 
or  iron?  10.  Which  of  these  three  countries  is  best 
fitted  by  nature  to  become  a leader? 


THE  ANDEAN  REGIONS 


405 


Part  II. — The  Plateau  of  the 
Central  Andes 

848.  A land  of  ancient  empire. — When 
the  conquering  Spaniards  climbed  the  Andes, 
they  found  the  city  of  Cuzco,  the  ancient 
capital  of  a populous  Indian  empire  that 
had  long  been  ruled  by  the  Inca  kings.  In 
the  Inca  empire  there  were  splendid  roads, 
running  for  hundreds  of  miles  across  the 
plateaus  and  along  the  sides  of  the  mountains. 
The  industrious  people  had  built  large  build- 
ings with  stone  walls  of  astonishing  workman- 
ship. (Fig.  602.)  As  there  were  many  people 
to  feed,  terraced  and  irrigated  farms  stretched 
one  above  the  other  to  dizzy  heights  on  moun- 
tainsides, and  every  possible  patch  of  land  was 
cultivated.  The  empire  reached  down  to  the 
seashore,  and  the  laws  protected  the  guano- 
producing  waterfowl  that  had  their  colonies 
on  the  desert  islands  near  the  Pacific  coast. 
(Fig.  560.)  The  laws  of  the  Incas,  if  gathered 
together,  would  fill  many  books,  for  the 
ruling  race  was  a highly  civilized  people. 

The  Spaniards  conquered  the  Incas  and 
robbed  them  of  their  wealth.  The  conquerors 
carried  off  bars  of  gold  and  silver  that  were 
worth  seventeen  millions  of  dollars.  That 
was  the  largest  amount  of 
money  ever  seen  in  the 
world  up  to  that  time. 

More  adventurers  came 
from  Spain,  enslaved  the 
plateau  peoples,  and  made 
them  dig  the  gold  and  silver 
out  of  their  own  mines.  It 
was  the  cruel  treatment  of 
the  Spanish  taskmaster  that 
so  reduced  the  people  that 
there  were  but  five  millions 
in  1920,  where  there  had 
been  fifteen  millions  in  1530. 

849.  A wide  plateau  and 
four-step  farms. — Flow  wide 
is  the  plateau  between  the 
high  ranges  of  the  eastern 
and  western  Andes  in  Peru? 

On  the  edges  of  this  plateau 
the  rivers  have  cut  deep 
valleys,  some  of  which  have 


wide,  flat  bottoms  with  alluvial  fans  (Fig. 
183)  reaching  out  into  them.  Some  farmers 
have  developed  three-step,  or  even  four-step 
farms  in  this  land  of  plateau,  high  mountain, 
and  deep  valley.  “ On  an  alluvial  fan  in  the 
main  valley  they  raise  sugar  cane  and  tropi- 
cal and  sub-tropical  fruits;  on  the  flat  upper 
slopes  they  produce  corn;  in  the  moister 
soil  near  the  edge  of  the  woodland  are  fields 
of  mountain  potatoes;  and  the  upper  plateau 
pastures  maintain  flocks  of  sheep.  In  one 
district  this  change  takes  place  in  a distance 
that  may  be  covered  in  five  hours.  Gener- 
ally it  is  at  least  a full  and  hard  day’s 
journey  from  one  end  of  the  series  to  the 
other.”* 

850.  High  plateau  climate  and  life  on  the 
high  plateau. — This  plateau  is  not  a pleasant 
place  in  which  to  live,  because  it  has  such 
a very  high  elevation.  La  Paz  is  12,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  Potosi  is  13,000  feet. 
There  is  less  air  on  this  plateau  than  in  our 
country,  for  one-third  of  the  earth’s  air  lies 
below  10,000  feet,  and  the  air  above  that 
level  is  so  thin  that  it  is  hard  to  breathe  it. 

The  traveler  from  Europe  or  America,  who 


I,  Bowman  in  J.  Brunhes’  Human  Geography. 


© E.  M.  Newman,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  602.  Some  of  the  remarkable  masonry  built  by  the  Incas  in  the  Peruvian 
Andes  before  the  coming  of  Columbus. 


II-21 


406 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


goes  to  these  mountain  places,  nearly  always 
has  soroche,  or  mountain  sickness.  His  head 
thumps,  he  becomes  dizzy,  and  he  suffers 
in  many  ways.  Potosi  is  so  high  that  two- 
thirds  of  all  the  white  children  born  there  die 
within  a few  hours. 

The  plateau  is  very  dry,  because  so  little 
rain  falls  inside  the  high  walls  of  the  Andes. 
The  air  cools  off  very  quickly,  because  it  is 
dry  as  well  as  thin.  As  on  the  tops  of  high 
mountains,  the  sun  on  this  plateau  burns  you 
by  day  like  tropic  heat;  by  night  the  high, 
thin  air  cools  off  so  quickly  that  you  think 
you  are  in  the  Arctic. 

851.  The  plateau  farmers  and  shepherds. 
— Most  of  the  plateau  is  so  dry  that  it  pro- 
duces little  but  scanty  pasture;  it  is  so  cold 
that  the  wind  bites  you  almost  to  the  bone. 
It  is  scantily  peopled  by  shepherds,  except 
near  mines  and  irrigated  spots.  The  Indian 
shepherd  lets  no  grass  escape  him.  An 
American  geographer,  Dr.  Bowman,  says: 
“ It  is  a constant  marvel  to  one  in  the  moun- 
tains to  see  to  what  altitudes  the  shepherd 
climbs  and  what  out-of-the-way  places  he 
reaches.  He  is  the  characteristic  element  in 
the  Andean  scene — bleak  slopes  in  some  high 
valley,  a widely  scattered  flock  of  llamas,  a 
solitary  shepherd  whistling  and  clucking  to 
his  vagrant  flock,  turning  them  to  right  or 
left  by  throwing  stones,  and  industriously 
spinning  the  llama  wool  into  yarn  as  he  trots 
along,  often  without  food  save  the  leaves  of 
the  coca,  and  without  water  for  a day  or 
more  at  a time,  far  from  any  shelter,  alone. 
He  is  an  excellent  guide,  fearless  and  confi- 
dent, with  knowledge  of  every  spring  and 
trail  and  no  special  concern  for  ordinary  alti- 
tudes below  the  snow  line.” 

852.  Crop  zones  on  mountain  slopes. — The 
central  Andes  show  us  how  elevation  decides 
the  use  that  man  can  make  of  land.  Most 
of  the  area  is  so  dry  that  crops  can  be 
grown  only  where  some  stream,  flowing 
down  from  a snowfield,  supplies  water  for 
irrigation.  In  most  places  water  is  to  be  had 
only  on  alluvial  fans.  Below  6000  feet 
elevation,  cassava  is  the  chief  crop.  From 
6000  to  10,000  feet  is  the  zone  of  corn. 


Wheat  is  grown  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet. 
The  potato  begins  at  11,000  feet  in  the 
moister  spots,  and  barley  begins  at  the  same 
elevation  in  the  drier  spots.  Beyond  these 
come  the  sheep  and  llama  pastures,  which 
extend  right  up  to  the  snow  line.  Near 
Antabamba,  Peru,  at  the  elevation  of  17,100 
feet,  higher  than  any  summit  in  the  Rockies, 
is  a stone  hut  with  a grass  roof,  the  highest 
known  human  habitation  in  the  new  world. 

Wherever  in  the  plateau  there  is  a warm 
valley,  there  the  people  have  their  villages. 
On  the  bleak  plateau  itself  there  is  not  a 
house  for  miles  and  miles  around.  In  the 
villages  the  rich  people  live  in  the  lower  and 
warmer  parts  of  the  valley.  The  houses  of 
the  poorer  people  are  higher  up  in  the 
greater  cold. 

853.  The  railroads  and  the  mines. — The 
western  front  of  the  Central  Andes  does  not 
seem  like  a mountain.  Steep,  treeless,  and 
bare,  it  seems  more  like  a great  wall  of  ma- 
sonry than  like  a mountain.  (Fig.  599.)  But 
the  white  man,  to  get  the  precious  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  and  tin,  has  built  three  railroads 
up  this  wall  to  the  mines  on  the  high  pla- 
teau. From  what  ports  do  the  railroads  go? 
On  top  of  this  plateau,  at  an  elevation  higher 
than  that  of  any  town  of  the  United  States, 
is  Lake  Titicaca,  on  which  are  steamboats 
that  were  brought  there  in  pieces  and  put 
together  at  the  little  town  of  Puno  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  lake. 

854.  Precious  metals  have  been  the  chief 
export  of  this  region  for  the  last  four  hundred 
years.  The  great  mountain  of  Potosi  alone 
has  produced,  in  that  time,  $1,500,000,000 
worth  of  silver.  In  the  mine  there  are  five 
thousand  tunnels.  Since  railroads  have 
been  built  to  the  plateau,  European  and 
American  companies  are  working  the  old 
mines  with  modem  machinery. 

Tin  from  near  Lake  Titicaca  is  the  chief 
export  of  Bolivia.  At  present,  Europeans 
and  Americans  plan  and  manage  the  mines, 
but  most  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  natives. 

La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  is  a mining 
center  in  a place  where  food  is  scarce.  Every 
day  hundreds  of  mule  trains  toil  over  the 


THE  PACIFIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


407 


bare  plateau,  bringing  potatoes  and  bar- 
ley. Other  pack  trains  bring  bananas  and 
fresh  vegetables  up  the  long  stony  trails, 
from  the  warmer  valleys  and  from  the  edge 
of  the  grasslands  to  the  eastward.  (Sec. 
811.)  All  of  this  transport  by  mule  train 
is  necessary,  because  a hundred  thousand 
people  live  in  La  Paz,  and  it  is  a very 
long  way  to  any  good  food  supply  by  way 
of  the  railroads  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 
(Sec.  846.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  countries  are  within  the  region?  2.  The 
plateau  of  Bolivia  best  illustrates  this  region.  Bolivia 
is  the  most  backward  country  in  South  America.  Let 
us  see  why:  (a)  What  is  the  elevation  of  the  plateau? 
( b ) What  kind  of  weather  will  you  find  at  such  alti- 
tudes? Wliy?  (c)  How  much  rainfall  is  there? 
What  crops  are  raised?  (d)  Trace  the  railroad  from 
the  coast  to  La  Paz.  Would  freight  rates  on  such  a 
road  be  very  high?  What  kind  of  products  only 
could  be  carried?  What  other  method  is  there  of 
reaching  the  coast  from  La  Paz?  Does  the  region 
mine  coal?  Why  is  mining  difficult  in  Bolivia? 

3.  What  interesting  facts  can  you  tell  about  Lake 
Titicaca?  4.  Why  is  Bolivia’s  tin  important?  What 
other  countries  that  you  have  studied  export  it? 
What  countries  do  not  use  it?  5.  Do  the  natives  in 
Figs.  598  and  601  look  prosperous?  Why  were  the 
Indians  so  prosperous  five  hundred  years  ago,  but 
so  miserable  to-day?  The  Incas  were  not  prepared 
for  warfare  when  the  Spanish  conquerors  came.  Why? 

6.  Give  several  reasons  why  you  would  like  to  visit 
La  Paz.  7.  Under  the  following  heads  compare  life 
here  with  life  in  the  Alps:  Elevation;  Occupations  of 
people;  Travel  facilities. 


more  machinery,  and  more  American  mining 
engineers  to  help  the  Indians  and  Spaniards 
dig  the  valuable  minerals  out  of  the  moun- 
tains. Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  is  the 
poor  government,  which  results  from  attempts 
to  have  a republic  in  a land  where  most  of 
the  people  are  illiterate  Indians. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  countries  are  partly  included  in  this 
region?  2.  What  do  you  think  of  the  possibility  of 
developing  power  by  the  use  of  windmills  in  this  area? 
For  what  could  the  power  be  used? 

THE  PACIFIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 

857.  A place  of  sharp  contrasts. — South 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  the  long  strip 
of  land  between  the  Pacific  and  the  Andes 
has  three  very  different  climates.  One 
might  almost  say  it  is  composed  of  three 
different  little  worlds.  Down  to  about  30° 
south,  the  southeast  trade  wind  blows  from 
the  coast,  when  it  blows  at  all.  The  high 
Andes  keep  the  trade-wind  moisture  on  their 
eastern  slopes.  The  Pacific  shore  is  there- 
fore a trade-wind  desert  two  thousand  miles 
long.  South  of  latitude  30°,  the  wind  blows 
from  the  west,  and  the  rainfall  increases  as 
one  goes  southward,  entering  first  a sub- 
tropic region,  like  California  and  Spain,  and 
then  a cool,  temperate  region,  like  Washing- 
ton, British  Columbia,  and  England. 


Part  III. — The  Southern  Andes 

855.  A very  long,  narrow  region. — Look  at 
your  map  of  North  America  and  locate  a 
western  coast  lying  between  30°  and  55°  from 
the  equator.  In  the  corresponding  part  of 
South  America  the  Andes  (Fig.  566,  F 3)  are 
steep,  high  mountains  with  no  plateaus,  and 
the  few  valleys  are  only  narrow  canyons. 
What  is  the  highest  peak?  Only  in  the  south, 
beyond  latitude  40°,  do  we  find  valleys  wide 
enough  to  hold  forests,  or  a region  that  can 
be  of  any  important  use  to  man,  save  as  a 
source  of  snow  water.  This  section  has 
almost  no  people,  as  we  have  seen  (Sec.  837). 

856.  Future  of  Andean  regions;  — Some 
day  there  should  be  more  railroads  to  the 
Andean  plateaus  and  mountains.  There  may 
then  be  better  animals  eating  the  grass,  and 


Part  I.— Pacific  Coast  Desert 
858.  A bare  brown  iand  with  irrigated 
oases. — In  the  Peruvian  part  of  the  coast 
desert  the  Andes  have  more  snow  than 
farther  south.  In  summer  the  snow  melts 
and  makes  the  short  rivers  rush  in  roaring 
torrents  down  to  the  Pacific.  Therefore  there 
are  oases  in  this  coast  desert.  Lima,  the 
capital  of  Peru,  with  almost  no  rain  at  all, 


Fig.  603.  Five  leading  im- 
porters of  nitrate  of  soda 
(1913) : Thousand 

tons 


A.  Germany 680 

B.  United  States 589 

C.  Belgium. 130 

B.  France . 125 

E.  Holland 105 

Why  is  the  United  Kingdom 
not  in  this?  (Secs.  418,  425, 
439.) 


408 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


has  a fine  supply  of  snow  water,  and  also  a 
good  food  supply.  The  food  comes  up  from 
farms  that  are  irrigated  by  the  little  snow-fed 
river  that  rushes  through  the  city. 

The  traveler  going  along  a thousand  miles 
of  this  coast  sees  the  bare,  brown  desert, 
then  green  fields  along  some  stream,  then 
more  desert,  and  then  more  green  fields. 
The  irrigated  oases  support  one-third  of  the 
native  people  of  Peru  and  nearly  all  of  the 
white  inhabitants.  The  farms  grow  bananas, 
vegetables,  com,  and  alfalfa  for  home  use. 
They  export  cane  sugar  and  Peruvian  cotton, 
a kind  having  a long,  brown  fiber,  which  is 
excellent  for  mixing  with  wool. 

859.  The  richest  of  deserts. — Back  of  the 
Chilean  desert,  the  Andean  wall  is  less  broken 
than  elsewhere,  and  the  plateau  is  wider. 
There  is  so  little  snow  upon  the  high  moun- 
tains that  the  streams  coming  down  the 
west  side  are  too  small  to  reach  the  ocean 
between  Arica  and  Caldera.  How  far  is  it? 
At  best  they  can  only  feed  little  oases  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain  wall,  fifty  or  a 
hundred  miles  from  the  dry,  desolate  coast. 


In  this  desert,  years  sometimes  pass  with- 
out the  appearance  of  a cloud  in  the  sky. 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  604.  A fruit  vendor  in  a nitrate  town.  Why  is 
there  no  grass  in  the  square?  Where  did  the  fruit  grow? 
(Sec.  859.)  In  what  month  was  the  picture  taken? 
(Sec.  863.) 


Some  of  the  people  who  live  there  have  never 
seen  rain.  Yet  these  deserts,  that  lie  from 
three  thousand  to  five  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea,  give  Chile  a rich,  foreign  trade, 
because  a long  sheet  of  salt  and  nitrate  of 
soda  several  inches  thick  covers  the  ground. 
There  fifty  thousand  men,  living  in  shacks  of 
corrugated  metal,  dig  up  nitrate  and  work  in 
the  refineries.  Almost  every  fertilizer  fac- 
tory, every  powder  factory,  and  most  of  the 
chemical  plants  of  Europe  and  America  use 
this  nitrate  of  soda.  Hundreds  of  ships  go 
for  nitrate  to  Iquique,  to  Antofagasta,  and 
to  the  smaller  ports.  These  desolate,  tree- 
less cities  on  the  desert  obtain  water  by  pipe 
lines  from  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  Every  bite 
of  food  the  people  and  their  animals  eat 
comes  from  the  farms  in  the  rainy  lands  to  the 
southward,  and  is  carried  to  them  in  ships. 
Nitrate,  like  salt,  would  dissolve  in  rain. 

Near  the  nitrate  works  are  many  copper 
mines  and  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore.  One  of 
the  iron  mines  belongs  to  an  American  com- 
pany, which  has  built  a railroad,  a dock,  and 
a steamship  line  to  carry  ore  to  Baltimore 
and  Philadelphia.  Some  of  the  iron  mines 
are  owned  by  Japanese  business  men. 

The  copper,  the  iron,  and  the  nitrate  of 
the  desert  comprise  nearly  all  of  the  Chilean 
exports  (Fig.  603),  and  pay  most  of  the  taxes 
as  well,  for  everybody  who  buys  nitrate 
must  pay  an  export  tax  to  the  Chilean  gov- 
ernment. 

Part  II.— The  Californian-Mediter- 
ranean Region  of  Chile 

860.  A good  rich  land.— This  region  lies 
between  30°  and  42°  south.  Where,  on  the 
coast  of  North  America,  would  be  a region 
equally  far  from  the  equator?  Like  California 
(Sec.  182),  this  part  of  Chile  has  winter 
rain  and  summer  drought.  So  have  Spain 
and  Italy.  All  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
products  that  grow  in  Spain  and  California 
can  also  be  grown  in  this  South  American 
California.  Also,  Chile  is  like  California  in 
having  a great  interior  valley  that  lies  be- 
tween low  coast  ranges  and  a higher  inland 
mountain  mass.  Most  of  the  people  of  Chile 


THE  PACIFIC  COAST  DISTRICTS 


409 


live  there,  because  the  climate  is  delightful 
and  the  people  can  raise  many  good  food 
crops.  A railroad  extends  the  entire  length 
of  this  valley.  It  has  several  branches  to 
the  small  ports,  and  from  these  places  ships 
carry  food  to  the  desert  ports  on  the  nitrate 
coast. 

This  part  of  Chile  has  about  as  many 
people  as  California.  As  in  California,  you 
can  look  out  across  the  fertile  valley  and  see 
to  the  eastward  the  snowcapped  mountains, 
from  which  comes  water  for  irrigation  and 
for  water  power.  Now  that  coal  is  so  high 
in  price,  the  Chileans  are  doing  as  the  people 
of  California  have  done — they  are  using 
mountain  waterfalls  to  produce  electricity 
with  which  to  run  their  factories,  street  cars, 
and  electric  lights. 

In  Chile,  as  in  California,  the  climate  is 
healthful.  The  people  are  energetic.  They, 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  605.  Wharves  are  scarce  on  the  almost  harbor- 
less  west  coast  of  South  America.  Can  freight  be 

unloaded  when  the  water  is  rough  and  the  boat  rocking? 


Fig.  606.  Map  showing  where  Chile  would  be  if  each 
part  of  it  had  the  same  latitude  in  North  America  that 
it  has  in  South  America.  Can  you  point  out  the  part  of 
Chile  having  most  of  the  fanning? 

and  the  Argentinians,  are  the  most  progres- 
sive people  of  South  America.  The  Chileans 
have  one  of  the  best  governments  on  that  con- 
tinent. They  call  themselves  the  “Yankees 
of  South  America,”  and  pride  themselves 
on  having  good  schools.  The  chief  center 
of  population  is  near  Santiago,  the  capital, 
and  Valparaiso,  the  chief  port.  Farther 
south,  near  Valdivia,  there  are  large  settle- 
ments of  Germans,  and  many  Indians  of  a 
strong,  proud  race,  who  are  called  Arauca- 
nians. 

Part  III.— British  Columbia-Norway 
Section  of  Chile 

861.  A windy  coast  with  much  rain.— 
South  of  42°,  the  Chilean  coast  is  steep 
like  the  coasts  of  British  Columbia,  Alaska, 
and  Norway.  It  is  in  the  part  of  the  south- 
ern world  where  the  wind  blows  almost 
always  from  the  west.  For  a long  time  the 
area  in  the  southern  seas  where  the  prevailing 
west  winds  blow  has  been  called  the  “ roaring 
forties”.  Because  the  wind  blows  so  hard, 
trees  cannot  grow  on  the  Falkland  Islands 
(Sec.  837).  The  experience  of  a sailing  vessel 
in  the  year  1919  shows  the  great  force  and 
regularity  of  these  winds.  The  boat  was 
bound  from  Melbourne,  Australia,  to  Bun- 
bury,  West  Australia,  but  the  westerly  wind 
blew  so  strongly  that  to  save  time  the  captain 
turned  his  ship  eastward  and  went  almost 
around  the  world  (14,500  miles  in  this  lati- 
tude) in  seventy-six  days,  averaging  292 


410 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


miles  a day,  when  really  he  wanted  to  go 
only  about  1000  miles  to  the  westward  from 
the  starting  point. 

On  this  southern  coast  of  Chile  we  have 
the  record  of  a 'terrible  rain,  lasting  for  131 
days,  while  the  wet  west  wind  blew  out  of 
the  Pacific  against  the  steep  shores  without 
ceasing.  It  is  not  surprising  that  few  people 
live  in  such  a place,  where  the  land  is  covered 
with  dripping  evergreen  forests.  Within  the 
mountains  are  drier  valleys,  but  thus  far 
this  Chilean  region  has  been  but  little  used. 

To  see  how  completely  climates  can  differ 
m places  a short  distance  apart,  look  at  the 
two  ends  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The 
west  end  is  gloomy  with  fog  and  cloud, 
rain,  snow  squalls,  and  a wet  forest.  The 
east  end  is  a flat,  sunny,  grass-covered  plain. 
Why  the  difference?  (Fig.  157.) 

862.  Future  of  the  three  Pacific  Coast 
Districts. — If  reservoirs  are  built  in  the 
mountains,  as  we  have  built  them  in  our  own 
Southwest,  the  coast  section  of  Peru  may 
have  a little  more  of  its  land  irrigated.  Aside 
from  the  possibility  of  sun  power  (Sec.  142), 
the  Chilean  part  of  the  desert  has  no  future 
except  to  work  out  the  mines,  after  which 
the  people  will  move  away. 

The  forests  in  the  south  may  some  day 
furnish  a lumber  industry,  but  at  the  present 
time  the  people  of  all  this  Pacific  coast  are 


irrigated  sections  of  Peru. 


Fig.  608.  Five  leading  Cocoa 

producing  nations.  (1917) 

Pounds 

A.  British  colonies 

320,020,000 

B.  Brazil 121,253,000 

C.  Ecuador 88,184,000 

D.  St.  Thomas  . . 67,999,000 

E.  San  Domingo  54,674,000 
A short  time  ago  Ecuador  led  in 
cocoa.  Why  has  the  Gold  Coast 

yield  increased?  (Sec.  737.) 

bringing  much  of  their  lumber  from  the 
mountains  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington. 

863.  A spring  fruit  supply  for  us. — It  is 

the  Californian-Mediterranean  part  of  this 
coast  region  that  has  the  enduring  future, 
because  it  has  resources  similar  to  those  of 
California.  Much  of  the  land  is  still  uncul- 
tivated, and  when  it  is  all  in  use  it  may 
support  several  times  as  many  people  as  it 
now  does.  This  region  has  the  chance  to 
build  up  a great  trade  by  sending  us  fresh 
fruits  in  the  springtime.  (Sec.  768.)  How 
far  is  it  by  boat  to  New  York  from  Valparaiso? 
from  Los  Angeles?  In  late  April,  1921,  the 
Chilean  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  came 
to  New  York  with  the  first  trial  shipment. 
His  peaches,  melons,  apples,  and  grapes  were 
of  excellent  quality  and  in  good  condition. 
The  freight  was  less  than  railroad  freight 
from  California,  and  the  Commissioner  says 
the  fruit  can  be  grown  more  cheaply  in  Chile 
than  in  California. 

864.  A manufacturing  region  may  arise 
here,  because  the  climate  is  good  for  men, and 
the  waterfalls  of  the  Andes  can  be  made  to 
furnish  power.  Foreign  capitalists  have  al- 
ready built  large  factories  near  Santiago. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Locate  Lima.  What  is  its  population?  How  much 
rain  has  it?  2.  How  does  such  a barren  coast  raise 
food  for  so  large  a city?  (Fig.  607.)  3.  If  the  north 
Chilean  coast  became  rainy  would  you  find  nitrate 
deposits?  Explain.  4.  The  Californian-Mediter- 
ranean Region  of  South  America  is  one  of  the  world’s 
rich  spots.  Let  us  see  why:  (a)  What  have  you 

learned  about  its  climate?  (6)  Is  the  soil  rich?  Why? 

(c)  Is  the  surface  of  the  valley  portion  good  for  farms? 

(d)  Where  do  you  find  forests?  (e)  How  might  the 
people  develop  water  power  to  run  their  factories?  (/) 
What  energetic  people  have  migrated  into  this 
country?  5.  An  island  near  the  west  end  of  the 


THE  TRADE  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


411 


Straits  of  Magellan  is  called  Desolation  Island.  Why 
might  this  be  a very  appropriate  name? 

6.  Why  is  part  of  this  coast  a desert?  7.  In  damp 
sand,  model  central  Chile.  Show  the  Andes,  the 
Great  Central  Valley,  and  the  Coast  Range.  In  some 
suggestive  way  indicate  the  products,  important  cities 
and  railroads.  8.  Compare  southern  Chile  with 
British  Columbia: 


Region. 

Loca- 

tion. 

Wind 

Direc- 

tion. 

Rain- 

fall. 

Temp. 

Prod- 

ucts. 

Cities. 

Southern  Chile 
British  Columbia 

9.  How  would  you  infer  from  Figs.  605  and  612 
that  Chile  had  poor  harbors?  10.  Write  a brief  com- 
parison between  Chile  and  the  Pacific  Coast  Districts 
of  the  United  States.  Use  Fig.  606  for  a guide.  11. 
Complete  the  following  chart.  Call  it  “How  I Remem- 
ber the  Pacific  Coast  Districts  of  South  America.” 


Name. 

Extent: 
From  To 

Climate. 

Prod- 

ucts. 

Chief 

Cities. 

Where  I 
Would 
Rather 
Live. 

12.  Name  products  each  of  the  Pacific  Coast  districts 
must  import.  What  things  do  they  have  to  sell 
to  you  and  to  me? 


THE  TRADE  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


865.  Trade  in  spots. — The  railroad  map 
of  South  America  (Fig.  610)  shows  that  only 
a small  part  of  South  America  can  have 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y 

Fig.  609.  Sacks  of  wheat  sliding  down  a board  from 
a warehouse  to  a ship  at  Rosario, 


South  America  has  trade  in  spots? 

much  foreign  trade.  Argentina,  with  its  flat 
pampas,  is  able  to  build  railroads  cheaply, 
and  a net  of  steel  tracks  spreads  out  from 
Buenos  Aires.  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos 
are  the  points  of  departure  for  another  web 
of  railways,  but  elsewhere  railroads  are  few. 
This  map  shows  us  tbat  this  continent,  with 
its  land  little  used,  waits  for  settlement. 
Indeed  it  might  still  be  called  the  continent 
of  the  pack  mule,  because  so  little  of  the 
surface  is  reached  by  any  other  means  of 
transportation.  The  old  city  of  Cartagena, 
Colombia,  a great  fortress  before  Virginia 
and  Massachusetts  were  settled,  has  to  this 
day  but  one  automobile  road  to  the  interior, 
and  that  is  only  sixteen  miles  long. 

Nearly  all  the  South  American  countries 
border  upon  the  sea,  and  many  of  the  im- 
portant cities  of  the  continent  are  seaports. 
These  ports  are  gateways  through  which  the 
traveler  can  start  for  the  vast  interior,  and 
through  which  the  products  of  interior  re- 
gions are  sent  to  the  outer  world. 


412 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  611.  Boats  and  stern-wheel  steamer  on  the  lower  Magdalena  River 


866.  Four  sets  of  steamer  routes. — The 
ocean  is  the  great  South  American  highway, 
both  for  the  foreign  trade  and  for  the  trade 
of  the  South  American  countries  with  one 
another.  Four  different  sets  of  steamers,  sail- 
ing over  four  different  sets  of  routes,  carry 
the  trade  of  South  America.  To  the  north 
coast,  one  set  of  steamers  goes  from  Eng- 
land, France,  Holland,  and  the  United  States. 
From  New  York  to  Colombia  and  Venezuela 
is  only  a week’s  sail. 

A second  set  of  routes  leads  from  New  York 
and  Liverpool  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
from  which  point  steamers  ascend  to  Manaos, 
a thousand  miles  upstream,  and  some  even 
to  Iquitos  near  the  foot  of  the  Andes. 

The  third  set  of  steamer  routes  from 
America  and  Europe  goes  to  the  east  coast, 
calling  at  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
and  Santos,  and  at  Buenos  Aires,  the  greatest 
port  of  them  all.  At  these  great  ports  the 
ocean  steamers  take  on  the  produce  which 
small  coasting  steamers  have  brought  from 
many  little  ports.  The  heaviest  freight  to 
these  coast  ports  is  coal,  of  which  these 
countries,  unfortunately,  have  almost  none. 

The  fourth  set  of  routes  leads  from  the 
North  Atlantic  to  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  The  steamers  on  these  routes 
formerly  had  to  thread  their  way  for  300 
miles  through  the  crooked,  rocky,  foggy, 
snowy  Straits  of  Magellan.  It  was  a terrible 
journey  to  go  through  these  straits,  which 
are  called  “The  Ships’  Graveyard”.  It  has 


been  estimated  that  one  vessel  out  of  every 
ten  which  regularly  pass  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  becomes  lost  or  disabled.  The 
opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  in  1914  was  a 
wonderful  help  to  trade.  By  this  route 
New  York  and  Valparaiso,  Chile,  are  only 
4625  miles  apart.  By  way  of  the  straits, 
they  were  8380  miles  apart. 

The  west  coast  is  for  the  most  part  high 
and  rocky,  with  few  harbors.  Even  at 
Mollendo  and  at  Valparaiso,  passengers  are 
let  over  the  sides  of  ships  in  baskets,  and 
like  the  freight  are  lowered  into  small  boats. 
If  a stiff  wind  blows,  the  vessels  cannot 
unload.  This  use  of  small  boats,  or  of  barges 
called  lighters,  is  a very  poor  and  vexatious 
manner  of  handling  passengers  and  goods. 
Few  of  the  ports  of  South  America  have 
really  good  harbors.  Many  ports  have  only 
a “roadstead,”  that  is,  a shallow  open  bay 
where  ships  may  anchor,  sometimes  a mile 
from  shore.  Goods  must  be  packed  very 
securely  to  endure  the  battering  which  they 
receive. 

867.  Development  of  resources  by  foreign 
capital. — The  next  industries  to  grow  in  this 
almost  empty  continent  of  South  America 
will  be  more  farms,  more  plantations,  and 
more  mines.  Many  of  these  things  will  be 
owned  by  people  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe,  as  many  of  the  Argentine  railroads 
are  now  owned  by  English  people,  and  as 
some  of  the  Chilean  iron  mines  and  nitrate 
works  are  owned  by  Americans.  When 


THE  TRADE  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


413 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  612.  Bales  of  wool  going  out  to  the  steamer  at  Arica.  (Sec.  866.) 
Where  did  that  wool  grow?  Does  the  picture  tell  anything  of  the  climate? 


English  people  own  rail- 
roads or  ranches  and  Amer- 
icans own  mines  or  other 
property  in  South  America, 
the  profits  of  the  enterprise 
go  to  the  owners  in  England 
or  America.  That  is  one 
of  the  reasons  why  old 
England  and  New  England 
can  support  so  many  people. 

Americans  are  helping  to 
develop  South  America  by 
engineering.  Our  civil  en- 
gineers have  constructed 
many  docks,  warehouses, 
and  railroads  for  the  conti- 
nent. The  most  wonderful 
mountain  railroads  in  South  America  were 
built  by  Americans. 

One  of  these  roads,  from  Lima,  crosses 
the  Andes  at  15,665  ft.,  a greater  elevation 
than  the  top  of  any  mountain  in  the  Alps  or 
in  the  United  States.  The  road  climbs  to 
the  top  of  cliffs  by  corkscrew  tunnels  which 
wind  around  and  around  in  the  mountains. 

Scores  of  Americans  are  hunting  for  oil 
every  day  in  many  parts  of  South  America. 
If  they  find  it,  wells  will  be  sunk  and  the  oil 
will  be  shipped  by  companies  formed  with 
English  and  American  capital.  Some  people 
think  that  the  plains  at  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Andes,  almost  anywhere  between  Colom- 
bia and  Patagonia,  may  some  day  prove  to  be 
great  oil  fields. 

868.  A continent  with  raw  materials. — 
While  there  is  some  manufacturing  of  cloth, 
clothes,  and  many  simple  products  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Buenos  Aires,  and  other 
cities,  South  America  manufactures  but  few 
of  the  things  she  uses.  The  South  Ameri- 
can stores  sell  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
manufactured  things  that  are  not  made  in 
that  continent.  The  people  of  South  Amer- 
ica would  suffer  greatly  if  they  had  no  trade 
with  any  other  continent,  and  the  United 
States  and  Europe  would  also  suffer  if  trade 
with  South  America  were  cut  off.  In  the 
latter  case,  if  South  American  trade  with 
other  continents  should  be  cut  off,  the  differ- 


ent countries  of  South  America  could  not 
help  one  another  much,  because  no  one  of 
them  has  much  to  sell  except  raw  materials. 
The  most  important  trade  between  the 
countries  of  South  America  is  that  of  the 
wheat  and  flour  that  are  shipped  from  the 
cool  countries  to  the  tropical  countries  which 
do  not  grow  wheat. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  all  the  countries  of  both  Americas.  2. 
Name  the  six  Pacific  ports  from  which  railroads  go 
up  the  Andes.  3.  Show  the  value  of  the  Panama 
Canal  to  western  South  America,  by  tracing  the  old 
and  new  routes  between  the  places  in  the  chart. 


TO 

TO 

TO 

Port. 

New  York 

New  Orleans 

Liverpool 

VIA 

VIA 

via 

Guayaquil.  . 
Iquique .... 

4.  You  are  an  automobile  salesman  from  Detroit. 
To  what  parts  of  South  America  would  you  go  to  sell 
cars?  Why?  5.  Tell  all  the  different  ways  in  which 
people  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  might  suffer 
if  South  American  trade  were  suddenly  stopped. 
What  must  happen  in  South  America  before  she  can 
buy  large  quantities  of  goods  from  the  United  States? 
Can  she  buy  without  selling?  6.  Model  in  damp 
sand  the  continent  of  South  America.  Think 
of  ingenious  ways  to  show  the  important  features. 

7.  Fill  out  the  following  chart  for  South  America: 


Regions. 

Chief 
Port  City. 

Exports. 

Destina- 

tion. 

Imports. 

Source. 

8.  Arrange  a tableau  with  characters  to  represent 
some  of  the  regions  of  South  America. 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


INTRODUCTION 


869.  The  water  hemisphere  and  the  land 
hemisphere. — Imagine  that  man  could  dig 
a tunnel  straight  through  the  earth,  and  that 
he  started  digging  at  London.  Find  on  the 
world  map  the  place  where  the  other  end  of 
the  tunnel  would  be.  It  is  at  180°  east 
longitude  and  51|°  south  latitude  (Fig.  10). 
Find  the  place  that  is  on  the  other  side  of 
the  earth  from  Pittsburgh  (longitude 
100°  east  and  latitude  41°  south);  the 
place  that  is  opposite  Cape  Town  (34°  north 
and  162°  west).  Notice  that  these  three 
places  are  in  the  sea  where  the  ocean  is  very 
wide  and  where  there  is  but  little  land. 
Look  at  the  map  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  (Fig. 
10)  and  see  how  many  Australias  you 
think  it  would  hold.  If  you  will  remember 
that  Australia  is  about  the  size  of  the 
LTnited  States,  you  will  then  begin  to  see  that 
the  Pacific  is  indeed  a very  large  ocean — 
almost  a world  of  waters. 

If  you  should  go  as  far  south  of  the  equator 
as  Paris  is  north  of  the  equator,  you  would 
be  at  a point  from  which  a ship  could  sail 


east  or  west  in  a straight  line  entirely  around 
the  world  except  for  one  bit  of  land.  What 
land  is  it?  In  degrees  of  longitude?  What 
part  of  the  distance  around  the  world  is 
this?  If  the  ship  should  go  as  far  south  of 
the  equator  as  northern  Scotland  (Fig. 
323)  is  north  of  the  equator,  what  land 
would  it  touch  in  sailing  around  the  world? 
Compare  the  amount  of  land  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  with  that  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. New  Zealand  is  an  island  not  unlike 
Great  Britain.  Compare  the  chances  of  the 
two  islands  for  becoming  great  trade  centers. 

870.  Scattered  isles  and  a lonely  conti- 
nent.— The  great  Pacific  makes  up  the  larger 
part  of  the  water  hemisphere.  Its  surface  is 
greater  than  that  of  all  the  land  in  the  world. 
In  all  this  wide  sea  there  are  only  a few 
thousand  square  miles  of  land,  made  up  of 
many  small  scattered  islands.  We  shall  study 
these  islands,  beginning  with  Sec.  902. 

871.  Australia. — Between  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  oceans  is  Australia,  an  island  so  large 
that  it  is  often  called  a continent.  Australia, 


INTRODUCTION 


415 


New  Zealand,  and  the  islands  near  them  are 
often  called  Australasia. 

Australia  was  once  connected  with  Asia, 
but  the  sea  separated  her  from  other  lands 
so  long  ago,  and  she  was  so  far  away  from 
them  that  her  animals  and  plants  differ 
greatly  from  those  of  other  continents.  The 
large  animals  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
had  no  chance  to  reach  her  shores.  Thus  the 
wild  animals  of  Australia  are  most  of 
them  curious  creatures  of  types  not  found 
in  other  lands.  The  commonest  large  animal 
is  the  kangaroo,  whose  babies  are  so  small 
and  helpless  when  born  that  the  mother  has 
a pouch  in  which  she  carries  them.  Perhaps 
the  queerest  animal  of  all  in  this  region  is  one 
called  the  platypus,  or  duckbill.  This  strange 
creature  is  about  the  size  of  a large  cat.  It  is 
covered  with  fur;  yet  it  has  a duck’s  bill  and 
webbed  feet.  It  burrows  in  the  ground,  lays 
eggs,  and  hatches  them  as  the  hen  does. 

Many  Australian  plants  are  of  varieties 
not  found  in  other  places. 

Even  man,  the  greatest  of  travelers,  seems 
almost  to  have  missed  Australia.  When  the 
white  man  went  there  a few  generations  ago 
he  found  a scanty,  scattered  population  of 
chocolate  brown,  almost  black,  people,  whose 
hair  was  wavy.  Separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  race  by  thousands  of  miles  of  space,  they 
are  often  spoken  of  as  a living  fragment  of  the 
childhood  of  the  human  race.  They  are  the 


Photo.  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y . 

Fig.  615.  Solomon  Islanders  (black  men)  in  their 
outrigger  canoe,  a boat  that  does  not  upset,  and  which  is 
much  used  in  Polynesia.  Perhaps  you  can  make  a 
model  of  an  outrigger  canoe. 

most  ignorant,  least  civilized  people  anywhere 
on  the  globe.  Many  of  them  cannot  be  taught 
to  count  beyond  eight.  When  discovered 
by  the  white  man  they  had  no  roads,  no 
farms,  no  good  houses.  They  moved  about 
from  place  to  place,  eating  wild  fruits, 
catching  wild  animals,  and  digging  for  grubs. 
Strange  to  say,  the  people  did  not  live,  as 
most  primitive  people  do,  in  tribes,  but  each 
family  lived  by  itself  most  of  the  time.  When 
the  children  and  grandchildren  became  too 
numerous  for  the  food  supply,  the  family 
would  split  up  into  smaller  groups. 

872.  Australia,  a new  Britain. — To  the 
European  peoples  Australia  is  the  newest  of 
continents.  Long  after  North  America  was 
settled,  an  English  sailor,  Captain  Cook,  took 
possession  of  Australia,  and  in  1788,  about 
the  time  George  Washington  became  our 
president,  the  English  made  a settlement 
near  Sydney.  It  was  called  Botany  Bay,  and 
was  a settlement  composed  of  convicts.  This 
place  was  picked  out  because  it  was  thought 
to  be  almost  like  burying  a man  to  take  him 
there.  To  this  day  it  is  not  polite  in  Australia 
to  ask  a person  anything  about  his  ancestors, 
because  perhaps  they  may  have  been  settlers 
at  Botany  Bay. 

When  free  settlers  began  going  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  nearly  all  of  them  were 
English,  Scotch,  and  Irish.  These  English- 


Photo  Brown  Bros.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  614.  The  family  of  a Samoan  chief  (brown  people), 
their  grass  house  and  native  costume. 


416 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Photo.  Wm.  Thompson 

Fig.  616.  A native  Maori  with  a robe  of  grass-cloth, 
sitting  in  a doorway  carved  by  a native.  (Sec.  896.) 

speaking  people  have  mingled  there  into  one 
race  which  is  neither  English,  Scotch,  nor 
Irish,  but  boasts  that  it  is  more  British  than 
any  other  people  in  the  world.  The  Austra- 
lians and  New  Zealanders  are  proud  to  call 
the  United  Kingdom  their  mother  country, 
and  most  of  their  trade  is  with  her.  The 
armies  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  went  to 
France  during  the  World  War, and,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  numbers,  they  bore  almost  as  much 
of  the  burden  as  the  British  armies  bore. 

In  Australia  the  white  man  pushed  the 
ignorant  black  man  back  to  the  interior,  just 
as  the  Indians  were  pushed  back  in  America. 
The  Australians  never  brought  slaves  to  their 
continent,  as  white  men  did  in  the  United 
States  and  in  South  America.  They  are 
very  anxious  to  keep  their  land  a British 
land;  so  they  allow  none  but  white  immi- 
grants to  come. 


Before  1901,  the  government  at  London 
sent  governors  to  New  Zealand,  Tasmania, 
and  each  of  the  five  Australian  colonies,  as 
the  governors  were  sent  to  our  own  thirteen 
colonies  before  the  Revolutionary  War. 

In  1901  Tasmania  and  the  Australian 
colonies  united  to  form  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia.  They  now  have  a national 
parliament  and  a British  governor-general 
at  Melbourne,  the  temporary  capital.  At 
Canberra,  in  the  highland  of  New  South 
Wales,  the  people  have  set  apart  a district 
like  our  District  of  Columbia,  to  which  the 
capital  will  sometime  be  moved.  But  time 
is  required  in  which  to  build  a city,  and 
Canberra  is  now  little  more  than  a camp. 

873.  Australia,  a partly  settled  continent. 
— Look  at  the  population  map,  Fig.  624,  and 
you  will  see  that  most  of  Australia  is  almost 
unsettled.  Why  have  the  energetic  white  men 
done  so  little  in  Australia?  In  North  America 
they  have  settled  the  entire  central  part  of  the 
continent  since  1788.  Look  at  the  rainfall 
map,  Fig.  626,  and  you  will  find  the  answer  to 
this  question.  Much  of  Australia  is  empty 
desert,  and  much  of  that  part  where  men  do 
live  has  terrible  droughts,  when  crops  fail  and 
animals  die  of  thirst.  This  is  one  of  the 
reasons,  perhaps  the  greatest  reason,  why  the 
continent  of  Australia  has  no  more  people  than 
Illinois — 5,300,000  people  in  2,974,000  square 
miles.  Australia  is  as  large  as  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  so  dry  that  it  never  can  be  made 
to  produce  more  than  a fraction  of  the  amount 
of  food  that  the  United  States  can  produce. 

In  what  continents  would  you  expect  to 
find  climates  and,  therefore,  regions  like  those 
of  Australia?  (Figs.  10,  328,  329.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  On  the  Australian  coat  of  arms  are  emblazoned 
a kangaroo  and  an  emu.  Why?  Could  you  suggest 
an  emblem  more  typical  of  the  continent?  2.  Fill  in 

the  blanks:  Australia  is the  size  of  France; 

Australia  is the  size  of  Argentina;  Australia  is 

the  size  of  the  continent  of  North  America;  Aus- 
tralia is the  size  of  my  own  state.  3.  How  far 

is  Australia  from  Hongkong?  from  San  Francisco? 
from  New  York?  from  London?  Antipodes  means 
the  other  side  of  the  world.  Why  do  you  think  islands 
near  New  Zealand  got  that  name?  4.  If  you  have  a 
globe  or  a good  picture  of  one,  draw  a 4000-mile  circle 
around  northern  New  Zealand,  and  tell  what  proper- 


Fig.  617. 


418 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


tion  of  the  area  is  land.  5.  Fill  in  the  following  blanks: 

Australia’s  surface  for  the  most  part  is  

Temperature  for  the  most  part  is Rain- 
fall for  the  most  part  is Coast  line  for 


the  most  part  is  Rivers  for  the  most 

part  are  Mountains  for  the  most  part 

are  Frost  over  most  of  the  area  is 


6.  Why  was  Australia  the  last  important 

land  mass  to  be  discovered? 

7.  Make  the  following  chart  for  Australia:  (Fig.  620.) 


Regions. 

States. 

Cities. 

8.  What  modern  inventions  can  you  name  that  have 
made  possible  the  great  British  Empire?  How  do 
those  inventions  help  Australia?  help  you? 

9.  What  river  might  be  called  the  Mississippi- 
Missouri  of  Australia?  Why?  10.  A patriotic 
Australian  once  said  that  his  country  could  support 
two  hundred  million  people.  Keep  that  statement 
in  mind  as  you  study  the  continent  of  Australia 
and  see  what  you  think  of  it.  11.  What  can  you 
find  of  interest  about  the  kangaroo,  the  Tasmanian 
devil,  the  laughing  jackass,  the  lyre  bird,  the  bower 
bird? 

THE  CALIFORNIAN-MEDITERRANEAN 
REGION 

874.  The  fifth  California. — We  have  already 
studied  four  regions  that  have  the  climate  of 
southern  and  central  California,  which  we 
have  called  Californian -Mediterranean  cli- 
mate. Where  are  they?  (Secs.  193,  547,  768, 
860.)  Such  a region  is  always  to  be  found 


on  the  west 
coast  of  a 
continent, 
and  all  are 
about  the 
same  dis- 
tance from 
the  equator. 

A ncfrn  1 i n Flg'  619'  The  grape  aCreaSe  of  Aus' 
Au&iicuid  tralia.  Compare  this  with  the  grape 

| has  two  COr-  map  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  30)  and 
i • see  what  similarity  you  notice. 

ners  having  J 

this  Californian  climate;  one  on  the  south- 
western part  of  West  Australia,  and  the  other 
where  South  Australia  projects  southward. 
There  the  west  winds  blow  the  winter  rains 
upon  her  shores.  (Fig.  626.) 

875.  Industries  like  those  of  California. — 
We  have  seen  (Sec.  196)  that  the  United  States 
for  a long  time  imported  Mediterranean 
crops  from  the  countries  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Then,  after  the  railroads  were  built 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  we  began  to  bring  the 
Mediterranean  crops  from  that  part  of  our 
own  country  which  had  the  Mediterranean 
climate. 

Australia  has  done  the  same  things  for  the 
very  same  reason.  In  South  Australia  and 
in  West  Australia,  as  in  California,  the  few 
white  settlers  at  first  followed  their  flocks  of 
sheep  over  the  wide  pas- 
tures. By  this  means  one 
family  could  use  a great  deal 
of  land.  Then,  as  more  men 
came,  wheat  was  grown. 
(Sec.  195.)  Wheat  is  now 
the  great  export  of  Adelaide, 
the  metropolis  of  this  region, 
a thoroughly  modern  city 
about  half  as  large  as  San 
Francisco.  The  map  (Fig. 
88)  shows  that  wheat  is 
grown  on  those  coasts  of 
South  Australia  and  Vic- 
toria that  face  the  west 
wind.  Also  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Flinders  Mountains, 
near  Spencer  Gulf,  where 
the  higher  elevation  makes 
more  rain,  a great  deal  of 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  618.  The  pipe  line  (immediately  in  front)  and  pumping  station  for  irri- 
gating South  Australian  orange  orchards.  Where  else  are  oranges  irrigated? 


N 


CO 


419 


a 


CL 


o 


z 


£ 


Fig.  620. 


420 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  621.  One  of  the  fine  wide  streets  of  Adelaide.  The  Australian  cities 
are  well-planned.  Why  are  the  largest  of  them  near  the  ocean?  How  many 
Australian  capitals  are  in  the  northern  half  of  the  continent? 


wheat  is  planted.  For  the  same  reason 
wheat  is  grown  on  the  highlands  in  the 
coolest  corner  of  West  Australia. 

876.  Fruit  industry  and  irrigation. — The 
third  industry  to  grow  up  in  this  region,  as 
in  California,  was  the  fruit  industry.  This 
requires  little  land,  but  much  labor.  As  there 
is  so  little  rain  here,  most  fruits  need  irriga- 
tion. What  have  the  mountains  to  do  with 
California  irrigation?  (Sec.  158.)  (Fig.  157.) 
The  Australian  mountains  are  not  high 
enough  for  summer  snowfields,  and  Australia 
has  a very  poor  water  supply  for  irrigation. 
The  best  water  supply  is  that  from  the 
Murray  River  and  its  branches.  (Fig.  620.) 
The  largest  fruit  industry  in  Australia  is  in 
the  lower  part  of  this  valley.  This  district 
sends  to  the  other  states  and  even  to  New 
Zealand  oranges,  pears,  cherries,  dried  peaches, 
dried  apricots,  dried  prunes,  raisins,  almonds, 
olives,  and  wine.  So  much  wine  is  produced 
that  much  of  it  is  exported  to  England  and 
to  British  colonies.  Preserved  and  canned 
fruit  are  also  important  exports. 

The  fruit  industry  is  growing,  and  the 
necessary  water  is  being  stored,  as  in  our 
own  country.  In  order  to  irrigate  orchards 

of  oranges  and  other  fruits,  the  Australians, 
a 


in  1920,  began  building  on 
the  Murray  River  a dam 
which  would  make  a lake 
having  a surface  of  about 
fifty  square  miles. 

877.  Bigtreesandlumber. 
- — This  Australian  climate, 
with  its  mild  temperature 
and  gentle  winds,  seems  to 
be  one  that  suits  big  trees 
where  enough  rain  falls.  A 
similar  climate,  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
California,  has  given  us  the 
sequoia,  the  tree  having  the 
largest  trunk  found  in  the 
world.  (Sec.  160.)  In  Aus- 
tralia are  forests  of  giant 
eucalyptus,  the  tallest  tree 
in  the  world. 

The  eucalyptus  is  a very 
valuable  tree  indeed,  because  it  yields  a 
useful  oil  and  grows  faster  than  any  other 
tree  suited  to  the  Californian-Mediterranean 
climate.  In  West  Australia  there  are  large 
forests  of  certain  kinds  of  eucalyptus 
which  make  very  tough  and  durable  timber. 
Many  streets  in  London  are  paved  with 
these  woods,  called  jarrah  and  karri. 

878.  Future. — This  region,  like  . all  the 
other  Californian-Mediterranean  regions, 
could  profitably  produce  several  times  as 
much  fruit  as  it  now  produces,  if  a market 
for  it  could  be  found. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Divide  the  products  of  this  region  into  groups 
according  to  ease  of  exportation.  2.  For  what  use 
is  the  eucalyptus  especially  suited?  Why? 
3.  Where  are  the  most  grapes  grown  in  Australia? 
(Fig.  619.)  Why?  When  do  Australian  fruits  get 
ripe?  4.  Can  you  tell  why  the  fruits  from  Australia 
bring  a good  price  in  the  London  markets? 

5 Name  everything  which  you  see  in  the  picture 
(Fig.  621)  that  you  might  also  see  in  the  town  which 
you  know  best.  6.  What  city  might  be  called  the 
“Odessa  of  Australia”?  From  which  of  those  two 
cities  could  flour  sell  at  the  lower  price  in  London? 
Why?  Take  the  journey,  on  the  map,  from  each 
city  to  London. 

7.  Compare  this  region  with  all  the  other  Califor- 
nian-Mediterranean regions  you  have  studied,  as  to 
size,  products,  importance,  and  prospects. 


THE  EAST  TEMPERATE  AGRICULTURAL  REGION 


421 


THE  EAST  TEMPERATE  AGRICUL- 
TURAL REGION 

879.  A small  southeastern  United  States 
with  cyclonic  storm  weather. — You  will  re- 
member that  the  eastern  sides  of  continents 
in  the  latitude  of  Australia  have  a region  of 
moist  summers  that  are  good  for  com.  Such 
regions  are  found  in  southeastern  United 
States,  in  southern  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  in 
Natal,  and  in  China.  (Sec.  769.)  Australia 
also  has  one  of  those  eastern  temperate 
agricultural  districts. 

To  understand  this  Australian  region,  we 
should  think  of  it  as  we  did  of  the  East 
Temperate  Agricultural  Region  of  South 
America — as  another  region  much  like  that 
part  of  the  United  States  between  the  South 
Atlantic  Coast  and  the  Great  Plains  of  Okla- 
homa and  Kansas.  Find  the  parts  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  that  are 
the  same  distance  from  the  equator  as  is  the 
southeast  coast  of  Australia  from  Bass  Strait 
to  Brisbane.  What  Australian  states  are 
between  these  places? 

Cyclonic  storms  travel  from  west  to  east 
across  Australia  and  the  seas  to  the  east  of 
Australia,  very  much  as  they  do  across  the 
United  States  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  (Secs. 
61  to  66.)  This  means,  of  course,  that  dur- 
ing the  passing  of  one  of  these  storms,  the 
wind  at  a given  place  blows  from  more  than 
one  direction.  Notice  that  on  our  southern 
Atlantic  coast  the  cold  wind  comes  over  the 
land.  (Fig.  64.)  What  about  the  cold  wind 
for  the  southern  Australian  coast?  Which 
of  these  coasts  do  you  think  has  the  warmer 
winter?  Why?  (Sec.  409.)  (Figs.  328,  329). 

Having  rain  all  the  year,  this  East  Tem- 
perate Agricultural  Region  is  a land  for 
forests,  pastures,  dairy  farms,  cattle,  and 
corn.  Great  quantities  of  butter  and  meat 
go  from  this  region  to  England  in  refrigerator 
ships.  The  Australian  east  coast  plain  is 
narrower  than  our  own,  because  the  Aus- 
tralian mountains  are  closer  to  the  sea  than 
the  Appalachians  are.  Like  our  own  coast 
plain,  it  is  by  no  means  all  used;  much  of  it 
is  still  in  forests,  and  the  farms  of  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria  together  do  not  grow  as 


much  corn  as  do  the  farms  of  New  Jersey, 
a state  not  important  as  a corn  producer. 

880.  Another  central  Kansas. — After  cross- 
ing the  southeastern  mountains  of  Australia, 
which  are  much  like  our  own  Appalachians, 
but  not  so  wide,  we  soon  come  into  land  like 
central  Kansas,  or  central  Argentina.  The 
rainfall  is  scanty.  The  plains  are  treeless. 
No  longer  are  we  in  the  land  of  corn.  Much 
winter  wheat  is  grown,  as  in  central  Kansas 
west  of  the  Corn  Belt,  and  in  Argentina  west 
of  its  corn  belt.  The  wheat  map  (Fig.  88) 
shows  a long  belt  of  wheat  just  inside  the 
southeastern  Australian  mountains.  This 
belt  is  not  very  wide;  so  that  in  all  her  three 
wheat  regions  (Sec.  875,  Fig.  88)  Australia 
grows  only  about  as  much  wheat  as  our  own 
state  of  Kansas.  The  amount,  however,  is 
irregular  because  of  droughts. 

Bushels  of  Wheat 

Year.  Harvested  in  Australia. 

1915- 16 179,000,000 

1916- 17 157,000,000 

1917- 18 121,000,000 

1918- 19 81,000,000 

1919- 20 45,000,000 

Australian  wheat  is  grown  very  much  as 

the  Kansas  wheat  is  grown.  Many  of  the 
reapers  and  plows  are  made  in  the  United 
States,  and  some  of  the  wheat,  like  that 
from  Kansas  and  Manitoba,  is  eaten  in 
England,  almost  at  the  other  side  of  the 
world  from  the  place  where  it  is  grown.  In 
this  section,  west  of  the  mountains,  that  part 
of  the  land  not  in  wheat  is  used  for  great 
sheep  farms  (Fig.  630). 

881.  Cities. — The  southeastern  farming 

region  is  the  most  populous  part  of  Australia, 
and  has  the  two  greatest  cities:  Sydney, 

about  the  size  of  St.  Louis;  and  Melbourne, 
as  large  as  Baltimore.  The  Australians  are 
proud  of  their  cities,  which  are  as  modern, 
well-built,  and  up-to-date  as  j j 

any  cities  in  the  world. 

Sydney  and  Melbourne  are 

Fig.  622.  Bushels  of  grain  per  person 
(1911-13): 

A.  Australia 43.0 

B.  United  Kingdom 6.7 

What  facts  does  this  explain? 


422 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


capitals  of  states  as  well  as  great  centers  of 
foreign  trade.  Each  has  a university.  Nearly 
all  the  manufacturers  who  are  in  this  part  of 
Australia,  as  well  as  most  of  the  traders,  do 
business  in  these  cities. 

Sydney  has  grown  larger  than  Melbourne, 
partly  because  of  a coal  field,  which  gives  her 
not  only  power  to  run  her  factories,  but  also 
supplies  an  export  cargo  for  ships  to  carry 
across  the  Pacific  to  New  Zealand  and  to 
the  nitrate  ports  on  the  coast  of  Chile. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Fill  out  the  following  chart  with  brief  answers: 


What  It  Tells  Me  About  the  East  Temperate 
Agricultural  Region. 


Fig.  620 
Fig.  624 
Fig.  625 
Fig.  626 
Fig.  634 
Fig.  88. 


2.  What  important  products  does  this  region  produce? 

3.  Name  two  cities  in  the  southern  hemisphere  larger 
than  Sydney.  Where  are  these  cities?  Why  are 
they  larger? 

4.  What  is  the  largest  city  of  Australia?  Ships 
from  all  nations  can  anchor  in  its  excellent  harbor. 
What  imports  do  they  bring?  Take  a journey  out  to 
San  Francisco;  to  Liverpool;  to  New  York.  What 
exports  are  sent  on  each  journey?  5.  Is  the  wheat 


Fig.  624.  The  density  of  population  in  Australia.  How 
much  of  Australia  is  rather  well-inhabited? 


grown  in  Australia  winter  or  spring  wheat?  (Secs.  875 
and  880.) 

6.  What  effect  would  an  increase  of  the  wheat  crop 
in  Australia  have  upon  the  price  of  wheat  in  the 
United  States?  in  Central  Persia?  in  Switzerland? 
in  Hwang  Valley?  7.  What  effect  would  a very 
poor  wheat  crop  in  Australia  have  on  our  exports  of 
manufactures  to  Australia? 

THE  TROPIC  AND  SUB-TROPIC  AGRI- 
CULTURAL REGION 
882.  What  is  the  region  like? — Suppose 
the  coast  of  Florida  (Fig.  10)  extended  as 
far  toward  the  equator  as  the  coast  of 
Queensland  does.  Where  would  Florida  end? 
Point  out  the  place  on  the  east  coast  of 


Fig.  623,  Looking  across  a sugar  cane  field  near  the  Queensland  coast. 


Where  is  the  market  for  the  sugar? 


THE  TROPIC  AND  SUB-TROPIC  AGRICULTURAL  REGION 


423 


South  America  which  has  the  same  latitude 
as  Queensland.  Now  you  should  be  able  to 
tell  why  the  climate  of  the  coast  of  Queens- 
land is  like  the  climate  of  the  West  Indies 
and  also  of  east  Brazil.  What  winds  blow 
there  and  what  do  the  coasts  look  like  to  the 
man  who  sails  along  them?  (Secs.  364,  803.) 
You  doubtless  can  tell  the  kinds  of  products 
that  grow  there,  and  the  kinds  of  people  who 
can  most  easily  live  there. 

883.  The  white  Australia  question. — The 
white  men  who  settled  along  this  coast  had 
the  same  trouble  that  white  settlers  had  in 
the  West  Indies  and  Brazil ; the  climate  was 
too  hot  to  permit  them  to  work  in  the  fields. 
However,  as  they  wanted  to  run  plantations, 
they  had  to  import  men  who  were  used  to 
that  kind  of  climate,  and  who  would  work 
for  them.  For  a time  the  white  men  brought 
in  shiploads  of  people  from  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  from  India,  and  from  China.  These 
men  labored  in  the  fields  of  sugar,  bananas, 
pineapples,  coffee,  and  cotton. 

The  presence  of  so  many  dark-skinned 
people  alarmed  the  people  of  the  other  states 
of  Australia.  They  feared  that  this  warm 
part  of  Australia  might  cease  to  be  a white 
man’s  land  and  would  become  a land  of 
brown,  yellow,  and  black  men.  So  the 
Commonwealth  government  passed  laws 
making  it  very  difficult  for  men  of  any  but 
the  white  race  to  come  to  Australia.  There- 
fore in  jnost  of  the  Tropic  Agricultural 

Region 
you  may 
travel  for 
miles  with- 
out meet- 
ing any- 
one at  all. 

884.Trop- 
i c agri- 
culture.  — 
Only  in 
some  lo- 

Fig.  625.  Cattle  in  Australia  and  Tas-  c a 1 i t i e S 

mania.  Compare  with  the  sheep  map  and 

the  regional  map,  and  see  if  it  shows  how  along  the 

hot  moist  climate  separates  these  two  coast  are 

kinds  of  animals.  What  does  the  rain- 

fall  map  (Fig.  626)  tell  you  about  this?  there 


Fig.  626.  Compare  this  map  of  Australia  with  the 
population  map.  What  does  the  comparison  tell  you? 


many  plantations.  There  nearly  enough  sugar 
cane  is  grown  to  supply  all  Australia,  which 
uses  about  as  much  as  is  grown  in  Louisiana. 

Other  plantations  on  the  Queensland 
coast  grow  bananas,  pineapples,  and  early 
vegetables  for  the  cities  in  the  cooler  land 
to  the  southward.  Queensland’s  crops  are 
sometimes  injured  by  drought.  The  rainfall 
is  light  except  along  the  coast  and  there 
nearly  all  the  rain  falls  in  summer,  leaving 
the  other  seasons  with  little  rainfall. 

Australia,  like  the  United  States,  has 
three  orange  districts,  two  in  her  Mediter- 
ranean sections  (one  in  West  Australia,  and 
one  near  Adelaide),  and  one,  like  our  Florida 
orange  district,  on  the  sub-tropic  east  coast. 
It  is  near  the  boundary  between  New  South 
Wales  and  Queensland. 

885.  Coast  towns. — The  small  cities  along 
the  Queensland  coast  have  stores,  meat-pack- 
ing plants,  and  wool  warehouses,  because 
railroads  connect  them  with  the  cattle  and 
sheep  ranches  of  the  interior  (Sec.  888). 

886.  Future. — This  region,  like  much  other 
undeveloped  land  in  the  hot  regions,  might 
produce  great  quantities  of  agricultural  crops 
if  it  could  have  settlers. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  how  the  presence  of  people  in  cool  Australia 
has  helped  the  industries  in  warm  Australia.  Also 
tell  how  cool  Australia  has  kept  back  the  industries 
of  warm  Australia. 


424 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


2.  How  I distinguish  between  the — 


Region. 

Loca- 

tion. 

Cli- 

mate. 

Produc- 

tions. 

Popula- 

tion. 

Cities. 

East  Temperate 
Agricultural  . 
Tropic 

Agricultural  . 

3.  Do  you  think  it  wise  for  Australia  to  exclude  all 
immigrants  but  white  men?  How  might  the  black 
man,  the  yellow  man,  and  the  brown  man  help  the 
Australian  white  man  to  make  his  country  richer? 

AUSTRALIA’S  DESERT  AND  PASTORAL 
REGIONS 

887.  The  dry  heart  of  Australia. — What 
do  you  notice  about  central  and  western 
Australia  as  you  examine  the  maps  of  sheep 
(Fig.  630),  cattle  (Fig.  625),  and  wheat  (Fig. 
88)?  Look  at  a place  where  the  tropic  of 
Cancer  or  of  Capricorn  touches  the  western 
edge  of  some  continent.  It  is  a place  where 
the  trade  winds  blow  away  from  the  land. 
What  kind  of  place  is  it  in  South  Africa?  in 
North  Africa?  in  South  America?  in  North 
America?  If  you  have  forgotten  what  kind 
of  a place  it  is,  the  rainfall  maps  (Figs.  144, 
540,  541)  will  give  you  the  answer,  which  is 
the  same  for  all  the  continents — a dry 
country,  a very  dry  country.  How  much  of 
it  has  inland  drainage?  (Fig.  620.) 

The  center  of  Australia  is  a desert.  The 
eastern  mountains  shut  off  from  the  interior 
most  of  the  moisture  that  southeast  trade 
winds  from  the  Pacific  might  bring  to  Australia. 


Fig.  628.  Sheep  of  five  nations: 

Million 

A.  Australia  (1920) 78 

B.  Russia  and  Ukraine  (1921).  47 

C.  Argentina  (1919) 46 

D.  United  States  (1923) 37 

E.  Union  of  South  Africa 

(1921) 32 

In  no  other  continent 
does  the  desert  possess  such 
a large  share  of  the  land. 

South  Australia  is  so  dry 
that  one-half  of  it  is  almost  without  inhab- 
itants. For  the  same  reason  West  Australia 
has  fewer  people  than  the  state  of  Arizona, 
and  most  of  its  area  cannot  be  used  even  for 
ranches.  (Figs.  625,  630.)  Drought  makes 
the  pasture  so  poor  in  the  interior  of  Queens- 
land that  the  government  will  let  one  man 
have  ninety-nine  square  miles  for  a farm. 
The  drought  also  helps  to  prevent  the  North- 
ern Territory,  which  is  ten  times  as  large  as 
New  York  State,  from  having  more  people 
than  may  sometimes  be  found  in  a single 
building  in  New  York  City. 

For  a long  time  a ship  was  the  only  means 
by  which  people  could  travel  from  West 
Australia  to  the  eastern  states,  but  in  1917 
the  Commonwealth  government  completed 
a transcontinental  railroad  from  Port  Augusta 
to  the  desert  gold-mining  town  of  Kalgoorlie. 
For  several  hundred  miles  this  road  crosses 
neither  stream  nor  hill  and  runs  without  a 
curve  across  a bare  gravel  plain  so  smooth 
that  automobiles  were  used  to  carry  materials 
when  the  railroad  was  built. 

Notwithstanding  the  help 
of  camels  brought  from 
Africa,  many  daring  men 
have  died  of  thirst  while  try- 
ing to  explore  Australia’s 
deserts.  Even  yet  there  are 
places  as  large  as  some 
American  states  which  no 
white  man  has  ever  seen. 
As  in  the  Sahara  and  in 
Arabia,  the  mountains  in 
the  desert  have  enough  rain 
Photo.  Doubieday,  Page  & Co.,  n.  y.  to  provide  springs,  and  areas 
Fig.  627.  Prize-winning  merino  rams.  It  has  been  a triumph  of  breeding  to  wi+u  pnmio-b  fn 

get  these  fellows  wrinkly  so  that  a little  sheep  in  a dry  land  would  have  as  ® " 

much  wool  as  a smooth  sheep  twice  his  weight.  port  some  animals. 


AUSTRALIA’S  DESERT  AND  PASTORAL  REGIONS 


425 


Photo.  Keystone  View  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  629.  Cattle  in  the  interior  of  Queensland  drinking  at  an  artificial  lake.  Why  must  an  artificial  lake  be  made? 


888.  The  eastern  grasslands. — To  the 
west  of  the  eastern  mountains  is  a wide 
stretch  of  level  or  gently  rolling  interior 
plain,  drained  by  the  Murray  River  system. 
The  rainfall  gradually  grows  less  and  less, 
as  one  goes  from  the  forested  mountains  of 
the  east  toward  the  sandy  or  gravelly  deserts 
that  begin  near  latitude  140°  east  (Fig.  620, 
D2),  and  stretch  away  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
1500  miles  to  the  westward. 

Most  of  this  grassland  is  too  dry  for 
wheat,  but  it  is  much  like  the  grasslands  that 
lie  west  of  the  wheat  lands  of  Argentina  or 
central  Kansas.  It  is  one  of  the  great  sheep- 
raising regions  of  the  world.  Here  the  herder 
with  his  collie  dogs  drives  his  flock  of  two  or 
three  thousand  sheep  backward  and  forward 
over  most  of  the  territory.  Even  in  the 
wheat  sections  at  the  eastern  edge,  the  grain 
fields  cover  but  a small  part  of  the  land. 

Long  railroads  reach  across  this  plain  as 
they  do  across  the  plains  of  Argentina  and 
central  North  America.  They  carry  the  wool 
and  sheep  to  market  and  bring  supplies  to 
the  few  farmers  who  live  on  ranches  so  large 
that  each  covers  as  much  ground  as  a big 
city,  a township,  or  even  as  much  as  a county 
in  the  United  States.  The  family  of  the 
sheep  rancher  has  a very  lonely  life  so  far 
from  neighbors. 

889.  The  tropic  grasslands. — The  northern 
part  of  Australia  has  a belt  of  tropic  grass- 
land, with  a rainy  season  in  the  summertime. 
Its  rain  is  like  that  of  India,  though  not 
so  heavy.  (Sec.  688.)  The  air  over  the 


north  central  deserts  is  heated  and  rises; 
then  the  air  from  the  sea  pushes  in  to  take 
its  place.  The  sea  wind,  or  monsoon,  blows 
from  the  north  for  a few  months,  and  brings 
heavy  rains  to  a belt  across  the  northern 
part  of  Australia  that  has  been  parched 
for  more  than  half  the  year.  (Fig.  626.) 

During  this  season  of  sultry,  rainy  weather, 
the  land  changes  from  brown  to  green,  as  it 
does  in  other  tropic  grasslands  (Secs.  748, 
808).  The  grass  fairly  shoots  up;  sometimes 
it  grows  ten  feet  high.  This  country  is  very 
much  like  the  tropic  grasslands  of  the  Sudan 
(Sec.  743),  but  most  of  it  is  still  unused,  and 
except  for  a very  few  scattered  natives  en- 
tirely unsettled.  White  people  are  not  at- 
tracted by  the  climate. 

To  make  it  worse,  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  and  other  parts  of  northern 
Australia  are  swampy  and  very  unhealthful. 
Years  ago  some  people  brought  over  some 
water  buffaloes  from  India,  and  they  are  now 
running  wild  by  thousands  in  the  unused 
woods  and  grasslands.  On  the  average,  the 
territory  of  North  Australia  has  one  person 
to  each  hundred  square  miles.  One  short 
railroad  runs  inland  from  Port  Darwin, 
where  there  is  a meat-freezing  plant. 

890.  The  western  grasslands. — Like  Lower 
California,  the  western  edge  of  the  desert 
occasionally  receives  a little  rain  from 
the  cyclones  that  cross  central  Australia. 
The  sheep  and  cattle  maps  show  a few 
animals  near  the  sea. 

891.  Uncertain  rainfall. — The  people  of 


426 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Fig.  630.  Map  showing  where  sheep  are  grown  in 
Australia.  Each  dot  stands  for  10,000  sheep.  Why 
is  it  that  no  sheep  are  grown  in  the  central  part  of 
Australia?  (Fig.  626.) 

Australia  can  never  tell  what  their  weather 
will  be.  Their  rainfall  at  the  best  is  un- 
certain. Deluges  of  rain  sometimes  drown 
people  in  the  desert,  and  in  other  places  the 
crops  wither  under  months  of  pitiless  sun- 
shine. Drought  is  the  greatest  enemy  that 
men  have  had  in  making  their  homes  in  Aus- 
tralia. At  times  river  freight  boats  on  the 
Darling  River  have  steamed  twenty-five  miles 
across  flooded  country  to  deliver  freight.  At 
other  times  at  the  very  same  place  the  river 
itself  is  dry.  In  1920  an  Englishman  writing 
from  Sydney  said : “ For  20  months  not  a 
single  drop  of  rain  has  fallen  in  vast  areas — 
areas  within  which  the  whole  of  the  United 
Kingdom  could  be  put  and  there  would  still  be 
tens  of  thousands  of  square  miles  to  spare. 

The  drought  has  been  strengthening 

its  hold  on  practically  the  whole  interior  of 
Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  central  Aus- 
tralia, and  South  and  West  Australia.  The 
aborigines  (natives)  call  it  the  ‘old  man 
drought,’  which  Signifies  that  in  their  opinion 
it  is  the  most  terrible  visitation  they  can 
recollect.  Meantime  the  dry  season  has 
played  havoc  with  the  wheat  crops.” 

What  can  the  poor  sheep  do  when  it  does 
not  rain  for  a year?  Often  they  perish  from 
hunger  and  thirst.  In  some  localities  the 
drought  of  1920  killed  four-fifths  of  the 


sheep.  Sometimes  they  die  by  millions. 
Conditions  would  be  even  worse  if  it  were 
not  for  the  artesian  wells.  In  many  of  the 
drier  parts  of  the  eastern  grassland  districts 
there  are  no  running  steams,  but  rain  that 
falls  on  the  eastern  mountains  sinks  deep 
down  into  the  earth  and  rocks,  where  it 
travels  slowly  through  the  layers  of  porous 
stone.  (Fig.  114.)  The  Australian  govern- 
ment has  dug  hundreds  of  artesian  wells  into 
these  layers  of  rock.  Thus,  in  times  of 
drought,  water  may  be  had  for  the  sheep,  if 
it  so  happens  that  farmers  can  find  enough 
food  to  keep  them  alive. 

In  some  places  the  sheep  and  cattle  for 
market  must  be  driven  for  many  days  to 
reach  a railroad  station.  The  government 
carefully  reserves  wide  strips  of  grassland 
along  these  trails,  so  that  the  animals  can 
eat  as  they  go.  Much  work  is  done  to  build 
tanks,  cisterns,  and  dams  along  the  way,  to 
store  water  for  the  moving  animals.  Never- 
theless whole  herds  sometimes  die  of  thirst, 
as  their  owners,  fleeing  from  drought,  try 
to  get  their  animals  to  market.  At  other 
times  Australia  has  years  of  heavier  rainfall, 
with  plenty  of  grass  and  water.  Then  the 
flocks  increase,  and  trade  is  good  because 
the  people  have  something  to  sell  and  can 
therefore  buy. 

892.  The  fight  with  the  rabbits. — The 
rabbit  is  another  of  the  troubles  of  the 
Australian  sheep  farmer.  There  is  almost  no 
winter  in  Australia;  so  rabbits  can  breed 
and  feed  all  the  year.  Pet  rabbits  that  were 
brought  out  from  England  soon  ran  wild, 
and  increased  to  such  numbers  that  in  many 
places  they  ate  up  the  grass,  leaving  none 
for  the  sheep.  Men  have  spent  millions  of 
dollars  building  tight  wire  fences  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  to  keep  the  rabbits  away  from 
the  pasture.  Where  one  of  these  fences 
crosses  a road,  the  traveler  must  open  a gate. 
If  he  should  neglect  to  close  it,  he  must  pay 
a heavy  fine.  The  farmer  is  compelled  by 
law  to  kill  the  rabbits  on  his  own  land,  but 
still  they  run  by  millions  and  millions.  Some- 
times fences  have  been  built  around  water 
holes  and  the  rabbits,  dying  of  thirst,  piled 


TASMANIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 


427 


up  several  feet  deep  outside  the  fences. 
During  the  World  War,  rabbit  skins  for  hat- 
making became  so  high  in  price  that  men  in 
the  Australian  sheep  country  could  make 
sometimes  as  much  as  ninety  dollars  a week 
catching  rabbits.  Your  father’s  felt  hat  may 
be  made  of  Australian  rabbit  fur.  Rabbit 
meat  has  also  been  frozen  and  canned. 

893.  Minerals. — Australia  has  rich  mines. 
It  was  the  gold  mines  of  Victoria,  now  a mile 
deep,  that  brought  thousands  of  settlers  to 
Australia  about  1851,  and  now  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  tin,  and  coal  are  important 
exports  of  Australia.  Each  day  the  provi- 
sion trains  from  Adelaide  go  three  hundred 
miles  to  a place  called  Broken  Hill,  in  the  dry 
country  of  western  New  South  Wales,  where 
forty  thousand  people  are  busy  digging  silver 
and  lead  from  one  of  the  world’s  richest  mines. 

It  is  an  astonishing  fact  that  minerals  can 
cause  a city  to  exist  for  a time  in  the  wildest 
solitude.  Railroads  make  the  miracle  possi- 
ble. Read  what  a Frenchman  says  of  a 
gold-mining  city  of  West  Australia.  “ . . . 
Take  Kalgoorlie  for  example.  On  the  bare 
moor  rise  mills  arranged  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheater  ....  Trains  wind  about, 
emptying  entire  forests  into  the  furnaces. 
Everywhere  the  subsoil  has  been  burrowed, 
and  there  are  sometimes  as  many  as  twenty 
stories  of  underground  galleries. 

'‘Thousands  of  workmen  labor  in  these 
hills  under  the  burning  sun,  blinded  and 
sometimes  almost  asphyxiated  by  the  smoke, 
the  pulverized  refuse  of  the  ores,  and  the 

yellow  sand  of  the  desert It  is  a 

vast  camp,  a temporary  refuge  for  a popula- 
tion which  will  scatter  when  the  last  veins  are 
exhausted.” 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Fill  out  the  following  chart.  It  will  help  you 
understand  this  region. 

Figuee  What  It  Tells  Me  About  the  Australian 

Desert  and  Pastoral  Regions. 


Fig.  620. 
Fig.  624 . 
Fig.  625. 
Fig.  626. 
Fig.  630. 
Fig.  634 . 


2.  Why  are  rabbits  called  vermin  in  Australia? 

3.  If  wild  rabbits  double  their  number  every  three 
months,  how  many  offspring  would  one  pair  of  rabbits 
have  in  five  years?  What  enemies  have  these  rab- 
bits? 6.  How  might  it  be  said  that  Molly  Cottontail 
now  pays  her  board? 

7.  Compare  the  proportion  of  desert  area  in 
Australia  with  the  proportion  of  desert  in  Africa; 
in  South  America;  in  Europe.  What  effect  have 
deserts  on  the  wealth  of  continents?  8.  How  have  the 
railroads  across  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales 
aided  British  factories  at  Leeds  and  Bradford? 

9.  What  is  the  elevation  of  Lake  Eyre?  Would 
you  want  to  drink  its  water?  (Sec.  137.)  10.  Would  a 
rainfall  of  40  inches  a year  make  any  difference  in  its 
size?  See  Secs.  137  and  891.  11.  On  an  airplane  trip 
from  Port  Darwin  to  Sydney  or  to  Adelaide,  what 
kind  of  country  and  what  industries  would  you  see? 

TASMANIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND- 
OTHER  OREGONS 

894.  Good  rain  and  fine  forests. — In  Chile 
and  in  California,  we  found,  you  remember, 
that  a short  journey  toward  the  pole  from 
the  land  of  oranges  brought  us  to  a land 
where  the  west  winds  made  heavy  rains,  at 
about  latitude  40°  south  in  Chile,  and  40° 
north  in  California.  In  Australasia  the  same 
thing  holds  true.  Tasmania,  across  Bass 
Strait,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  from  the 
island  of  Australia,  and  the  New  Zealand 
islands,  twelve  hundred  miles  to  the  south- 
east, are  lands  of  good  rain  and  fine  forests. 
These  cooler  islands  miss  the  droughts  of 
Australia,  and  have  the  climate  and  the  crops 
of  Oregon,  of  England,  and  of  western 
France. 

895.  Tasmania. — Much  of  Tasmania  is 
mountainous  and  covered  with  fine  forests. 
The  area  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  West 
Virginia,  and  only  a small  part  of  it  has  been 
turned  into  farms.  The  climate  is  excellent 
for  fruit,  and  the  factories  of  Hobart,  the 
capital,  make  jams,  jellies,  and  canned  fruit 
in  great  quantities  for  shipment  to  Australia 
and  even  to  England. 

Tasmania  also  has  very  rich  tin  mines. 

896.  New  Zealand. — New  Zealand  was 
settled  about  six  hundred  years  ago,  by  big 
brown  men  who  came  in  boats  from  the 
islands  to  the  northward.  These  people, 
called  Maoris,  were  very  different  indeed 
from  the  black  natives  of  Australia  and 


428 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  631.  Pear  orchards  blooming  on  the  slope  of  a beautiful  valley  in  well- 
watered  Tasmania.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  could  we  find  such  a 
scene  in  a similar  climate?  Find  places  on  the  west  shores  of  three  continents 
having  the  same  distance  from  the  equator  that  the  ends  of  Tasmania  have. 


Tasmania.  Being  very  intelligent,  they  were 
expert  weavers,  dyers,  wood  carvers  (Fig. 
616),  and  builders  when  the  British  settled 
New  Zealand,  which  was  after  Australia  was 
settled.  (Sec.  872.)  In  1871  the  Maoris 
stopped  fighting  the  white  men  and  were 
allowed  to  send  some  of  their  number  to 
the  New  Zealand  parliament.  They  quickly 
learned  the  white  man’s  way  of  doing  things. 
Most  of  them  now  live  as  white  people  do. 
They  make  up  about  one-twentieth  of  the 
population  of  the  islands  and  are  increasing. 

New  Zealand  is  about  two-thirds  as  large 
as  Oregon  and  Washington.  It  has  about 
half  as  many  people  as  those  states.  When 
the  Australian  colonies  formed  the  Australian 
Commonwealth  (Sec.  872),  New  Zealand 
remained  a separate  colony,  just  as  New- 
foundland did  when  the  Canadian  provinces 
formed  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  gov- 
ernment of  New  Zealand  is  very  democratic. 
Many  public  utilities,  such  as  railroads,  tele- 
graphs, and  telephones,  are  managed  by  the 
government,  which  thus  helps  the  people  to 
do  for  themselves  things  which  in  other 
countries  are  done  by  private  enterprise  and 
capital.  The  state  even  gives  pensions  to 
old  people  who  are  poor. 

Not  only  is  New  Zealand  like  England  in 
population,  but  the  South  Island  also  resem- 
bles England  in  climate,  and  in  some  of  its 


natural  features.  It  has  a 
mountain  system  to  the 
west,  called  the  New  Zea- 
land Alps,  where  the  rainfall 
is  very  heavy  indeed,  as  it 
is  upon  the  mountains  of 
Wales  and  of  Scotland. 
Like  the  eastern  part  of 
England,  the  eastern  part 
of  New  Zealand  is  a plain 
with  moderate  rain.  Here 
the  farmers  grow  much 
wheat  and  other  cool  land 
crops.  Other  parts  of 
South  Island  have  the  cool, 
damp  climate  suited  to 
potatoes;  but  there  is  no 
market  except  the  home 
market  and  that  of  Australia,  because 
potatoes  are  too  cheap  and  perishable  to 
ship  to  Europe.  One  of  the  ways  by  which 
the  New  Zealand  farmer  feeds  many  sheep 
with  little  labor  is  to  raise  a field  of  turnips, 
and  let  the  sheep  go  in  and  eat  them  up. 

The  North  Island  has  such  a mild  winter 
that  cattle  can  pasture  in  the  fields  all  the 
year,  and  here  many  of  the  farmers  keep 
cows,  and  make  a great  deal  of  butter,  cheese, 
and  dried  milk.  These  products  are  shipped 
to  England  because  they  are  so  valuable  that 
they  can  stand  the  costly  freight,  as  can  the 
other  valuable  New  Zealand  products — wool 
and  frozen  meat. 

There  are  meat-freezing  plants  in  each 
of  the  seven  chief  ports  of  New  Zealand. 
Every  day  ships  loaded  with  frozen  New 
Zealand  meat  are  steaming  across  the  seas, 
en  route  to  London  and  other  European 
cities,  and  sometimes  to  New  York  as  well. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  the  mines  of  Tasmania  helpful  to  her 
fruit  industry?  Where  does  she  get  sugar?  2.  What 
do  the  colonists  from  the  United  Kingdom  find  in 
New  Zealand  to  remind  them  of  their  motherland? 
3.  What  products  do  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania 
produce  which  the  British  need?  the  motherland 
which  the  colonies  need?  4.  What  do  they  produce 
that  we  need?  5.  Show  some  points  of  similarity  and 
difference  between  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the 
Willamette-Puget  Sound  Region. 

6.  Complete  the  following  chart: 


THE  TRADE  AND  FUTURE  OF  AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND  429 


How  I Distinguish  Between  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmania 


Topic. 

New  Zealand. 

Tasmania. 

Location 

Distance  from  Australia 
Size 

Climate 

Chief  productions 

Important  cities 

The  natives 

7.  How  do  you  account  for  there  being  so  much  more 
industry  in  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  size,  than  in  Australia,  so  much  larger 
and  so  near  by?  Give  all  the  reasons.  8.  Why  would 
you  say  that  the  governments  of  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  are  progressive? 

THE  TRADE  AND  FUTURE  OF  AUS- 
TRALIA AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

897.  A raw  material  region. — People  of 
Australia  have  a very  great  trade  in  pro- 
portion to  their  numbers,  because  they  are  a 
rich  people  living  in  a region  rich  in  raw 
materials.  They  export  raw  materials  and 
import  a great  variety  of  manufactures. 
Why?  People  with  so  much  land  find  they 
can  make  more  money  by  producing  raw 
materials  than  by  working  in  factories.  So 
we  find  in  each  part  of  the  continent,  that 
any  given  locality  exports  the  things  which 
the  conditions  of  that  locality  makes  it  eas- 
iest for  men  with  much  land  to  produce. 

898.  The  region  and  the 
product. — In  South  Aus- 
tralia, with  the  California 
climate,  we  found  the  Cal- 
ifornia products  of  fruit, 
wool,  and  wheat.  In  the 
dry  pastoral  regions  of  Aus- 
tralia, there  are  flocks  of 
wool-producing  sheep  (Fig. 

627).  In  the  eastern  dis- 
tricts of  New  South  Wales 
and  Victoria  more  rain  falls, 
and  consequently  better  and 
richer  grass  grows.  There 
the  farmers  have  cows,  and 
big,  fat  sheep  which  do  not 
bear  so  much  wool  as  the 
merinos,  but  which  make 
much  more  mutton.  At 
the  ports  the  sheep  are 


frozen,  and  then  sent  in  refrigerator  ships 
to  Europe  and  America. 

Chief  of  all  the  exports  of  this  far  continent 
is  wool.  Each  year  about  one  hundred 
pounds  is  exported  for  each  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  British  Australia.  Much  of  the 
best  woolen  cloth  used  in  the  United  States 
is  made  of  wool  from  Australia. 

The  hot  grasslands  of  Queensland  and  the 
moist  grasslands  of  New  Zealand  produce  beef 
cattle.  Some  of  the  meat  is  canned,  and 
some  of  it  is  frozen  at  the  packing  houses 
in  the  coast  towns. 

The  great  shipments  of  dairy  products 
come  from  the  moist  lands  of  Victoria  and 
New  Zealand. 

899.  The  imports. — Some  of  the  wool, 
along  with  much  American  cotton,  comes 
back  from  England  after  it  has  been  made 
into  cloth.  The  people  of  Australia  import 
vast  quantities  of  clothing,  machinery,  metal 
goods,  petroleum,  dishes,  glass,  and  all  kinds 
of  things  which  one  finds  in  a store.  There 
are  many  factories  in  Australian  cities  but 
they  do  not  make  half  of  the  thousands  of 
kinds  of  articles  that  are  sold  in  Australian 
stores.  Most  of  the  imported  supplies  come 
from  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United 
States. 


Photo.  Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  632.  Lake  Makatipu  in  the  beautiful  New  Zealand  mountains.  On 
some  of  these  mountains  are  large  glaciers. 


430 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Courtesy  R.  G.  Dun  & Co.,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  633.  Stacks  of  unthreshed  wheat.  Wagonloads  of  the  grain  going 
to  a South  Australian  railway.  How  will  the  English  school  children  who  eat 
this  wheat  pay  the  Australian  farmer  who  grows  it?  This  is  winter  wheat. 
In  what  months  is  it  sown  in  Australia  ? When  harvested? 


900.  The  future  trade. — The  people  of 
Australia  have  so  much  unused  land  that 
it  will  pay  them  to  keep  on  producing 
raw  materials.  All  of  the  cultivated  land 
in  Australia  is  less  than  one-hundredth  of 
the  total  area  of  the  continent.  Several 
times  as  much  could  be  cultivated  if  the 
world  market  needed  the  produce.  The  Aus- 
tralians need  to  use  more  of  their  land  be- 
fore they  build  many  factories.  That  is  the 
reason  why  Australia,  with  all  her  forests,  has 
not  a single  mill  manufacturing  paper  from 
wood  pulp.  This  trade  of  raw  materials  in 
exchange  for  manufactures  will  probably 
continue  a great  many  years. 

901.  The  future  industry. — If  rain  fell  in 
Australia  as  it  does  in  Europe,  there  would 
be  room  for  three  hundred  million  people. 
Even  with  her  deserts  and  droughts  she  could 
feed  several  times  as  many  people  as  she  does. 

As  for  New  Zealand,  it  is  about  six- 
sevenths  the  size  of  Great  Britain,  is  almost 
as  good  for  farming,  and  is  cultivating 
only  one  acre  in  forty.  In  Belgium  two 
acres  out  of  three  are  cultivated  each 
year.  Plainly,  rich  New  Zealand  with 


its  good  climate  might  easily 
feed  many  times  as  many 
people  as  are  now  living 
in  it.  We  are  safe  in  saying 
that  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  can  produce  for 
export,  if  the  world  needs 
them,  great  quantities  of 
fruit,  dried  milk,  butter, 
cheese,  meat,  wool,  and 
other  agricultural  products. 
It  is  true,  however,  that 
few  immigrants  are  settling 
there  now,  and  that  the  pop- 
ulation is  increasing  very 
slowly. 

We  should  remember  that 
New  Zealand  and  the  south- 
ern half  of  Australia  are 
cool  lands  where  white  men 
can  be  healthy  and  feel  ener- 
getic, and  that  they  are  now 
settled  by  well-educated 
white  people  having  a high  civilization  and 
a good  government. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  one  find  the  center  of  population  and 
all  the  important  Australian  cities  near  the  south- 
east coast?  Compare  the  location  of  these  cities 
with  South  America’s  centers  of  population.  2 What 
changes  have  been  wrought  in  Australia  since  the 
coming  of  the  English?  3.  The  Australians  and  New 
Zealanders  are  proud  to  be  members  of  the  British 
Empire.  Tell  how  the  trade  between  the  two  colonies 
and  the  mother  country  strengthens  this  bond. 

THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

902.  The  scattered  lands  of  the  brown 
men. — In  the  great  stretches  of  the  mid- 
Pacific  there  are  many  small  islands;  how 
many  no  one  knows. 

Their  original  settlers  are  supposed  to  have 
come  from  Asia,  in  canoes,  and  they  spread 
over  all  the  Pacific  from  Hawaii  to  New 
Zealand,  and  from  Tahiti  to  Samoa.  Many 
of  the  islands  are  not  inhabited;  indeed 
most  of  them  are  only  little  low  reefs  of  coral 
rock  covered  with  sand  and  shaded  by 
groves  of  coconut  trees. 

903.  Native  characteristics. — The  Polyne- 
sians are  brown  people,  friendly  and  polite. 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 


431 


© Publishers’  Photo  Service,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  635.  Ships,  freight  sheds,  and  grain  warehouses  at  Melbourne.  What 
do  you  think  is  the  use  of  the  large  inclined  pipes  at  the  left  of  the  picture? 


They  welcome  the  stranger 
and  treat  him  kindly.  They 
love  music,  dancing,  and 
sports.  Often  they  deco- 
rate their  bodies  with  gar- 
lands of  flowers  and  won- 
derful designs  in  tattoo. 

Among  the  Polynesians, 
men  are  often  honored  for 
their  artistry,  a high  place 
being  given  to  tattooers, 
carvers,  and  builders  of 
canoes.  The  men  are  expert 
boatmen,  and  everybody 
swims  a great  deal  in  the 
warm  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

In  1921  Pau  Kealoha,  the 
Hawaiian  champion,  broke 
the  world’s  swimming  record 
at  Adelaide,  Australia,  by 
making  100  yards  in  521- 
seconds. 

904.  A bounteous  land. — This  ocean  world 
is  a land  of  delight  for  the  brown  man.  The 
tropic  heat  and  moisture,  which  are  so  trying 
for  people  of  the  white  race,  seem  to  interfere 
but  little  with  his  welfare.  Living  is  easy, 
because  nature  has  covered  these  islands  with 
crops.  An  American,  traveling  in  the 
Marquesas  Islands,  says:  “In  a couple  of 
miles  from  the  water’s  edge  to  the  jungle 


tangle  of  the  high  hills  were  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  coconut  palms,  breadfruit, 
mango,  banana,  and  lime  trees. 

“There  is  scarcely  a need  of  the  islander 
not  supplied  by  the  coconut  trees.  Their 
wood  makes  the  best  spars,  and  furnishes 
rafters  and  pillars  for  native  houses,  the  knee 
and  headrests  of  their  beds,  rollers  for  the 
big  canoes  or  whaleboats,  fences  against 
the  wild  pig,  and  fuel.  The  leaves  make 
baskets  and  covering,  screens  and  roofs  of 
dwellings.  ...  On  the  stiff  stalks  of  the 
leaves,  oily  candlenuts  are  strung  to  give 

light  for  feasts The  network  that 

holds  the  leaves  of  the  young  tree  . . . has 
every  appearance  of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and 
is  used  to  wrap  food,  or  is  made  into  bags, 
and  even  rough  garments,  for  fishermen 
especially.” 

The  nuts  are  a nutritious  food,  used  in 
many  forms. 

905.  The  breadfruit. — The  coconut  is  only 
one  of  many  food  trees  of  this  bounteous 
region.  Before  white  men  began  to  trade 
with  these  people,  the  main  food  of  the  native 
was  breadfruit.  Breadfruit  grows  on  a tree, 
,and  looks  like  an  enormous  rough-skinned 


432 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


Fig.  636.  A section  of  ocean  cable  one-half  size.  The 
small  wires  in  the  center  do  the  work.  The  rest  is 
protection.  First,  gutta-percha  insulation;  second, 
tough  waterproof  fabric;  third,  strong  wire,  called 
armor;  fourth,  waterproof  fabric. 

orange.  Not  only  do  the  Polynesians  eat 
this  fruit  daily,  but  they  make  of  it  a starchy 
food  called  popoi,  which  they  store  in  pits 
dug  in  the  earth,  and  thus  keep  it  for  many 
months  to  guard  against  famine. 

“As  bread  is  to  us,  so  was  popoi  to  my 
tawny  friends.  They  ate  it  every  day,  some- 
times three  or  four  times  a day.  As  the 
peasant  of  certain  districts  of  Europe  depends 
on  black  bread  and  cheese,  the  poor  Irish 
on  potatoes,  ....  the  Scotch  on  oatmeal, 
so  the  Marquesan  (and  other  Polynesians) 
satisfies  himself  with  popoi,  and  likes  it 
really  better  than  anything  else.” 

909.  The  coming  of  the  white  man. — 
The  white  man’s  trading  ships  have  changed 
the  life  of  the  people  on  the  larger  islands. 
Small  trading  vessels,  which  are  really  float- 
ing stores,  sail  around  Polynesia.  The  trad- 
ing room  of  such  a vessel  is  packed  from  floor 
to  ceiling  with  a great  variety  of  goods,  such 
as  pins  and  anchors,  harpoons  and  pens, 
crackers  and  jewelry,  cloth,  shoes,  medicines, 
tobacco,  soap,  socles,  and  writing  paper. 
These  goods  are  traded  for  copra,  the  dried 
meat  of  the  coconuts.  Thus  the  coconut  be- 
comes the  great  basis  of  trade  with  the  white 
man.  The  copra  is  carried  to  Sydney,  Aus- 
tralia; to  Wellington  and  Auckland,  New  Zea- 
land; and  to  Samoa,  and  Honolulu.  At  these 
ports  it  is  crushed  for  oil  or  shipped  on 
steamers  to  Europe  and  America.  We  use 
copra  for  shredded  coconut;  also  the  oil  from 
it  for  cooking  fat,  or  for  soap  fat.  We  can  get 
enormous  quantities  of  copra  if  we  should 
need  it,  for  the  coconut  tree  grows  on  nearly 
all  shores  between  Cancer  and  Capricorn- 


It  is  a sad  fact  that  white  man’s  rum  and 
white  man’s  diseases  have  killed  many  of  the 
Polynesians.  Even  the  measles  sometimes 
killed  half  the  people  on  an  island ; and  some 
islands,  populous  when  the  white  men  came 
have  again  become  jungle. 

907.  Hawaii. — The  Hawaiian  Islands,  the 
largest  group  of  the  brown  men’s  tropic 
isles,  are  as  large,  all  together,  as  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut.  Like  Tahiti 
and  Marquesas,  this  group  was  built  up 
from  the  bottom  of  the  deep  sea,  by  the  out- 
pourings of  lava  from  several  volcanoes  which 
have  finally  raised  their  heads  far  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  decayed  lava 
makes  very  rich  soil  and  the  trade  wind 
brings  much  rain  (Fig.  641);  so  the  islands 
are  a splendid  place  for  tropical  farming. 

A hundred  years  ago,  American  mission- 
aries went  to  Hawaii  to  teach  the  natives 
our  way  of  living.  Finally  the  people  asked 
their  queen  to  resign  and  voted  that  the 
island  should  be  joined  with  the  United 
States.  It  is  now  an  American  territory, 
with  a government  much  like  that  of  our 
own  state  governments.  Hawaii  sends  a 
representative  to  our  Congress  at  Washington. 

Many  Hawaiian  sugar  plantations  are 
owned  by  American  capitalists.  Many  of 
the  native  Hawaiians  have  died,  and  immi- 
grants have  come  to  work  in  the  canefields 
which  stretch  like  a sea  of  green  across 
the  rich  slopes.  The  white  man  does  not 
like  to  work  under  the  tropic  sun  much 


Fig.  637.  Ocean  cables.  Who  owns  Midway,  Guam0 
Yap,  Cocos,  Mauritius,  Fiji?  (Fig.  10.) 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 


433 


Fig.  638.  Pineapples  on  the  Hawaiian  lava  slopes,  ripening  for  the  canning 
factory.  See  where  the  pineapples  in  your  grocery  were  canned. 

more  than  do  the  Polynesians;  so  high 
wages  have  been  paid  to  other  workers  who 
have  been  brought  to  these  shores. 


Population  of  Hawaii  in  1920 

Hawaiians 38,000 

Americans 31,000 

Chinese 23,000 

Japanese 110,000 

Portuguese  . . 25,000 
Filipinos  ....  22,000 
Porto  Ricans.  5,000 
The  sugar  plantations 
are  among  the  finest  in  the 
world.  They  are  managed 
by  the  Americans  and 
worked  by  the  various  im- 
migrants. There  are  1500 
miles  of  irrigation  canals, 
and  70  miles  of  tunnels,  to 
carry  water  from  the  rainy 
to  the  drier  side  of  the 
islands.  (Fig.  641.)  In 
many  plantations  the  water 
is  pumped  up  several  hun- 
dred feet  to  the  canefields. 

Scores  of  shiploads  of  sugar 
are  sent  to  the  United 
States  each  year.  Fig.  639.  Expert  South  Sea  Island  pearl  divers. 


The  export  next  in  im- 
portance is  pineapples. 
The  fruit  is  canned  in 
great  quantities,  for  it  is 
used  in  the  American 
navy  and  in  many  Ameri- 
can homes.  Bananas  are 
also  sent  to  our  Pacific 
coast  ports.  Many  kinds 
ofcropsare  grown  for  home 
use.  Among  these  is  rice, 
which  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  immigrants  grow 
as  it  is  grown  in  China. 

908.  Trade.  — Look  at 
the  map  (Fig.  9)  and  see 
if  you  can  tell  why  Hono- 
lulu, the  beautiful  capital 
of  Hawaii,  is  called  the 
crossroads  of  the  Pacific. 
It  is  a modern  city  with  steamships,  trolleys, 
schools,  telephones,  and  most  things  that 
one  finds  in  the  United  States.  Hawaiian 
trade  has  increased  greatly  since  Hawaii 
became  part  of  the  United  States;  most  of 
her  trade  is  with  us.  We  take  nearly  all  of 
the  Hawaiian  sugar,  pineapples,  and  bana- 
nas. Ships  going  to  Hawaii  carry  the  manu- 
factures that  are  wanted  in  Honolulu  and 


Courtesy  R.  G.  Dun  & Co.,  N.  Y. 

Note  the  diving  goggles. 


434 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLES 


in  other  Hawaiian  places. 

909.  Samoa. — A part  of 
the  Samoan  Islands  be- 
longs to  the  United  States, 
and  a part  belongs  to 
Great  Britain.  If  the 
Samoans  want  a little  extra 
money  they  can  go  out, 
pick  up  some  coconuts, 
cut  them  open,  dry  the 
meats,  and  have  copra  to 
sell.  Copra  is  the  chief 
export.  The  people  even 
pay  taxes  in  copra.  The 
trees  grow  so  well  on  these 
islands  that  the  Samoans 
have  more  coconuts  than 

Fig.  640.  Rainfall  of  are  needed  to  meet  their 

Hilo,  Hawaii  (143.4  • , , mi 

inches),  located  on  a own  simPle  wants*  They 
northeast  shore  in  do  not  want  many  things, 
the  trade  winds,  at  mr.  r • i 

the  base  of  a high  They  llve  in  grass  houses 
mountain.  Trade  and  use  a piece  of  cotton 

STgrassiandPor  for-  cloth  called  a lava  lava, 
est  land?  forty-four  by  seventy-two 
inches  in  size,  to  wrap  about  themselves 
for  clothing. 

910.  Fiji,  another  group  of  islands,  six 
hundred  miles  to  the  southwestward  from 
Samoa,  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  The  native 
Polynesians  do  not  want  to  work  on  the  Eng- 
lishman’s plantations,  so  many  thousands  of 
people  have  been  brought  from  India  to 
work  in  the  canefields.  Sugar  is  the  chief 
export  of  this  group  of  islands. 

911.  The  islands  of  the  black  men. — 
Between  Fiji  and  New  Guinea  are  the  New 
Hebrides,  the  Solomons,  and  the  Bismarck 
Islands.  Here  the  native  people  seem  to  be 
much  like  the  natives  of  Australia.  They  are 
not  nearly  so  pleasant  to  meet  as  the  Poly- 
nesians, for  it  has  long  been  their  habit  to 
eat  people.  But  now,  since  the  Europeans 
and  Australians  govern  these  islands,  the 
natives  usually  sell  coconuts  instead  of  eat- 
ing their  neighbors.  Missionaries  have  been 
surprised  to  find  how  quickly  cannibals 
change  their  habits  when  they  are  taught 
by  good  people. 

The  French  island  of  New  Caledonia  has 


one  of  the  world’s  richest  deposits  of  nickel, 
and  many  shiploads  of  this  ore  are  sent  each 
year  to  Europe  and  America  for  smelting. 

912.  Future. — The  area  of  the  Pacific 
Islands  is  not  great,  but  if  fully  used  they 
could  produce  large  quantities  of  sugar,  as 
well  as  coconut  and  other  tree  crops.  Ha- 
waii has  a suggestive  new  tree  crop  industry 
in  the  mesquite  tree.  (Sec.  151.)  Its  nutri- 
tious beans  are  picked  up  off  the  rough 
ground  on  which  the  tree  grows,  and  sold 
for  as  much  as  com.  They  are  made  into 
meal  and  used  as  stock  food. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Locate  the  islands  mentioned  in  the  text  and  the 
Cook  Islands;  the  Society  Islands;  Tahiti;  Yap. 
Tell  the  importance  of  the  coconut  to  the  people  of 
these  islands  before  and  after  the  white  man  came. 
2.  What  do  the  Samoan  chief  and  his  little  boy  have 
which  came  from  far-off  lands?  (Fig.  614.)  How  do 
you  think  the  chief  made  the  money  with  which  he 
paid  for  these  articles?  3.  At  which  of  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  would  you  be  most  likely  to  stop  on 
your  way  to  Japan?  to  Australia? 

4.  Why  are  Guam  and  Yap  important?  Who  own 
them?  5.  What  kind  of  sports  do  the  Hawaiians  enjoy? 
Why?  6.  Islands  of  the  South  Seas: 


Name. 

Belongs  to 

Produces 
to  Sell. 

Buys  From 
Other  Lands. 

the  larger  mountain  has  over  150  inches.  What  is  the 
highest  rainfall  on  the  island?  the  lowest?  What 
parts  of  the  United  States  have  rainfall  like  the  two 
sides  of  this  island?  (Fig.  158.)  What  differences 
would  you  see  in  looking  at  the  northeast  and  south- 
west sides  of  the  island  as  you  sailed  around  it? 


S-SUN  I- MERCURY  n- VENUS  m- EARTH  Iff- MARS  ff-JUPITER  ff3- SATURN  MI-URANUS  HU- NEPTUNE 


v in  J 


T65DAYS 

""-—6«?mys 

~(L8<SYf)$ 

~-A®  JfflS; 




YRS. 


Fig.  A.  The  sun,  the  eight  large  planets  of  the  solar  system,  and  their  satellites. 

APPENDIX,  PART  I 

MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


THE  EARTH  AS  A PLANET. 


1.  A huge  body  moving  through  space. — 

We  have  studied  about  the  various  parts  of 
the  earth’s  surface  as  the  homes  of  men,  but 
we  have  not  yet  studied  about  this  earth  as 
a whole.  There  are  many  interesting  things 
about  the  earth  as  one  of  the  many  huge 
bodies  of  matter  moving  around  through 
space.  The  earth  is  one  of  several  planets 
revolving  around  the  sun. 

2.  Revolving  around  the  sun.— The  planets 
revolve  around  the  sun  very  much  as  a 
weight  on  a string  revolves  around  your  hand 
when  you  hold  the  string  and  swing  the 
weight  around  and  around.  The  time  re- 
quired for  a complete  revolution  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun  we  call  a year,  365  days,  5 
hours,  48  minutes  and  46  seconds.  But  be- 
cause of  the  part  of  a day  over  365  days, 
every  fourth  year  is  leap  year.  But  having 
leap  year  every  four  years  is  a little  too  often 
(can  you  tell  why?),  so  leap  year  skips  once 
every  400  years. 

How  long  does  it  take  the  planet  Neptune 
to  revolve  around  the  sun?  It  is  nearly 
thirty  times  as  far  from  the  sun  as  the  earth 
is.  What  is  the  average  distance  of  the  earth 
from  the  sun? 

The  path,  or  orbit,  of  the  earth  around  the 


sun  is  not  exactly  a circle.  It  is  an  ellipse, 
or  a circle  that  is  flattened  a little. 


SOME  SOLAR  SYSTEM  FACTS 


Mean 
Distance 
from  Sun, 
Millions 
of  Miles 

Mean 

Diameter, 

Miles 

Number 

of 

Satellites 

Sun 

864,400 

Mercury 

36.0 

3,000 

0 

Venus 

67.2 

7,700 

0 

Earth 

92.9 

7,918 

1 

Mars 

141.5 

4,340 

2 

Jupiter 

483.3 

88,400 

9 

Saturn 

886.0 

74,200 

9 

Uranus 

1781.9 

30,200 

4 

Neptune 

2791.6 

34,800 

1 

3.  Satellites  or  moons. — Some  of  the  plan- 
ets have  smaller  bodies,  called  satellites,  that 
revolve  around  them  very  much  as  the  plan- 
ets themselves  revolve  around  the  sun. 

The  earth  has  one  satellite,  the  moon, 
which  has  about  one-fourth  (0.27)  as  great  a 
diameter  as  the  earth,  and  is  about  240,000 
miles  from  the  earth. 

Astronomers,  who  have  a very  interesting 
time  finding  out  things  about  the  earth  and 
the  heavenly  bodies,  tell  us  that  the  moon 
has  no  air,  and  for  that  reason  is  as  cold  as 
Greenland’s  ice  cap. 

(l) 


2 


APPENDIX 


Fig.  B.  Position  of  the  moon,  earth,  and  sun  when  we 
have  eclipses. 


4.  The  moon’s  phases — new  moon  and  full 
moon. — The  part  of  the  moon  that  is  turned 
toward  the  sun  shines  with  sunlight  which  is 
reflected  to  us  as  is  the  light  from  any  distant 
hill.  That  is  the  reason  we  see  the  moon. 
The  part  that  is  turned  away  from  the  sun 
is  in  the  dark,  as  the  dark  side  of  the  earth 
is  at  night.  (Fig.  B.)  Look  carefully  at  the 
new  moon  some  time;  then  tell  yourself  where 
the  sun  is  at  that  moment,  and  you  can  see 
how  it  is  shining  on  one  side  of  the  moon  and 
not  on  the  other.  Fig.  B shows  all  this  very 
well  indeed.  You  can  see  that  a person  on 
the  dark  side  of  the  earth  (where  it  is  night) 
would  see  more  of  the  light  side  of  the  moon 
when  it  is  at  D than  when  it  is  at  B.  Where 
should  the  moon  be  to  show  still  more  light? 

The  moon  revolves  around  the  earth  every 
29  \ days.  That  is  why  we  never  see  it  in  the 
same  place  two  nights  in  succession. 

5.  Eclipses. — Fig.  B also  shows  how  we 
have  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  The  very 
black  parts  in  the  picture  are  the  shadows  of 
the  earth  and  the  moon  as  the  sun  shines  upon 


them.  Sometimes,  as  the  moon  goes  ’round 
and  ’round  the  earth,  it  gets  in  between  us  and 
the  sun,  as  at  A on  the  figure,  and  hides  the 
sun  completely  from  a small  part  of  the  earth’s 
surface — that  part  under  the  shadow  marked 
“Total.”  We  then  have  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun.  Now  look  at  the  figure,  and  explain  for 
yourself  what  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  is. 

6.  The  moons,  or  satellites,  of  other  planets. 
— The  table  of  solar  system  facts  shows  that 
satellites  are  quite  the  style  in  the  solar  sys- 
tem, and  that  the  earth  is  one  of  the  poor 
brothers.  Think  what  our  night  would  be 
if  we  had  as  many  reflectors  as  Jupiter! 

7.  Gravitation  and  tides. — The  heavenly 
bodies  are  pulling  each  other  all  the  time. 
We  call  this  pull  gravitation.  It  is  the  grav- 
itation of  the  earth  for  the  stone  that  gives 
the  stone  weight.  The  earth  and  the  moon 
pull  each  other  all  the  time,  and  the  sun  and 
the  earth  pull  each  other  all  the  time.  Now 
one  of  the  laws  of  gravitation  is  that  its  pull 
is  harder  on  things  that  are  near  to  each  other 
than  on  things  that  are  far  apart.  When  it 
pulls  the  solid  earth  the  earth  moves  as  one 
piece,  so  the  center  of  pull  is  at  the  center  of 
the  earth’s  weight,  or  center  of  gravity  as  it 
is  called.  That  is  somewhere  near  the  center 
of  the  earth,  about  4000  miles  farther  from 
the  moon  than  the  surface  of  the  earth  is., 
Because  of  this  difference  in  distance,  the 
moon  pulls  the  sea  water  on  the  side  of  the 
earth  nearest  the  moon  farther  than  it  pulls 
the  earth.  This  makes  the  sea  rise  on  the 
side  toward  the  moon,  and  we  call  it  high 
tide.  But  the  water  on  the  other  side  of  the 
earth  is  4000  miles  farther  away  than  the 
earth’s  center  of  gravity,  so  it  is  not  pulled 
as  much  as  the  earth.  That  makes  high  tide 
on  the  other  side  of  the  world,  too.  Thus 
there  are  two  high  tides  each  day  on  our 
spinning  world.  One  is  on  the  part  of  the 
earth  that  is  toward  the  moon,  and  one  is  on 
the  part  that  is  turned  away  from  it. 

8.  Spring  tides  and  neap  tides. — The  pull 
of  the  sun  also  makes  tides,  and  when  the  sun 
and  moon  pull  together  (position  A in  Fig. 
B),  tides  are  higher  than  common  and  are 
called  spring  tides.  When  they  pull  against 


APPENDIX 


3 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 

Map  showing  Long  Island  and  vicinity  with  co-tidal  lines,  or  lines 
connecting  points  having  high  tide  at  the  same  time. 


each  other  (position  B in 
Fig.  B)  the  tides  are  lower 
than  common  and  are 
called  neap  tides. 

9.  Cotidal  lines. — In  the 
open  sea  the  high-tide  wave 
runs  around  the  world 
following  the  moon.  When 
it  strikes  the  shores  its 
direction  and  speed  are 
often  changed  by  the  shape 
of  the  land.  The  twelve 
o’clock  line  (XII  noon)  is 
close  to  the  entrance  of  New 
York  Bay  and  of  Long 
Island  Sound.  (Fig.  C.)  See 
how  islands  check  its  speed  Fie-  c- 
between  one  o’clock  and 
four,  especially  in  the  bay  at  the  eastern  end 
of  Long  Island. 

Notice  that  the  East  River,  between  Man- 
hattan Island  (compare  Fig.  278)  and  Long 
Island,  has  tides  running  in  from  both  the 
north  and  the  south,  and  that  the  Sound 
tide  (IV),  gets  there  about  two  hours  after 
the  New  York  Bay  tide  (II  P.  M.). 

10.  Height  of  tides. — The  height  of  the 
tide  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  bay. 
Bays  with  narrow  mouths  have  low  tides  and 
bays  with  wide  mouths  have  higher  tides. 
The  Arabic  figures  (Fig.  C)  show  the  1 o’clock 
tide  at  the  end  of  Long  Island  Sound  to  be 


Fig.  D.  Map  showing  latitude,  longitude,  day  and 
night,  the  sunrise  line  and  the  zones. 


only  1.9  feet.  How  high  is  it  near  the  west 
end  of  the  sound?  Low  tide  is  called  ebb  tide. 

In  East  River,  the  tide  from  Long  Island 
Sound  is  so  much  higher  than  the  tide  from 
New  York  Bay,  that  water  rushes  through 
into  New  York  Bay  with  a swift  current 
(tidal  race),  so  dangerous  to  ships  that  the 
early  sailors  called  it  Hell  Gate. 

We  measure  elevations  on  land  from  sea 
level, — which  is  half  way  between  high  and 
low  tide. 

11.  Latitude  and  longitude. — Suppose  you 
had  a nice  new  baseball  and  knew  that  there 
was  a nugget  of  gold  hidden  just  beneath 
the  cover  in  such  a way  that  it  could  not 
be  felt  or  seen.  How  would  you  tell  any 
one  just  where  it  was? 

Now  suppose  you  took  a spot  on  the  ball 
and  called  it  north  pole,  and  another  exactly 
on  the  other  side  and  called  it  south  pole. 
Then  suppose  you  drew  a line  from  pole  to 
pole  and  called  it  the  first  or  prime  meridian, 
and  then  drew  another  line  clear  around  the 
world  half  way  between  the  poles,  and  called  it 
equator.  Now  you  could  locate  your  nugget 
by  saying  that  it  was  a certain  distance  on 
the  north  pole  (north)  side  of  the  equator  and 
a certain  distance  on  the  left  (west)  or  right 
(east)  side  of  the  prime  meridian.  (Fig.  D.) 

That  is  the  way  geographers  locate  places 
on  the  earth’s  surface.  Instead  of  saying  a 


4 


APPENDIX 


Fig.  E.  Map  of  the  United  States  showing  belts  of  Standard  Time. 


place  is  so  many  miles  north  or  south  of  the 
equator,  or  east  or  west  of  the  prime  merid- 
ian, they  use  a fraction  of  the  distance 
around  the  earth.  For  a long  time  mathe- 
maticians have  divided  circles  into  360  equal 
parts  called  degrees.  Thus  a quarter  of  a 
pie  is  90  degrees  along  the  edge  of  the 
crust,  and  a quarter  of  the  way  around 
the  world  is  90  degrees. 

The  geographer  locates  Cairo,  Egypt,  by 
saying  it  is  on  a meridian  31  degrees  east  of 
the  prime  meridian,  and  30  degrees  north  of 
the  equator,  on  a line  parallel  to  the  equator 
called  a parallel  of  latitude.  Find  Cairo,  in 
Figs.  10  and  D.  Geographers  use  the  meridian 
that  passes  through  the  observatory  at  Green- 
wich (a  part  of  London)  as  the  prime  meridian, 
and  measure  distance  east  and  west  of  that  in 
degrees  of  longitude,  and  distances  north  and 


LENGTHS  OF  DEGREES  OF  LONGITUDE  AND 
OF  THE  DAY  ON  CERTAIN  PARALLELS  \ 


At  Latitude 
(degrees) 

Number  of  hours  or  days 
of  sunshine — Longest  day 

Statute  Miles 

0 

12h 

08m 

69.172 

10 

12h 

43m 

68.129 

20 

13h 

21m 

65.026 

30 

14h 

05m 

59.956 

40 

15h 

01m 

53.063 

50 

16h 

23m 

44.552 

60 

18h 

53  m 

34.674 

70 

73  days 

23.729 

80 

138  days 

12.051 

90 

192  days 

0.000 

south  of  the  equator  in 
degrees  of  latitude.  For  more 
exact  locations  each  degree 
is  divided  into  60  minutes 
and  each  minute  into  60 
seconds. 

Degrees  differ  greatly  in 
length.  You  can  quickly  see 
that  3io  of  the  distance 
around  the  earth  at  the 
equator,  where  it  is  large, 
will  be  much  more  than 
tss  of  the  distance  around 
the  earth  near  the  pole.  For 
exact  lengths  of  degrees  of 
longitude  at  different 
distances  from  the  equator,  see  the  table  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page. 

12.  The  shape  of  the  earth. — We  say  the 
earth  is  round  like  a ball;  but  it  is  not 
exactly  round.  Actually,  it  is  slightly  flat- 
tened because  it  spins  so  fast.  The  other 
planets  are  also  flattened  a little  for  the  same 
reason.  The  earth  turns  around  an  imaginary 
central  line  called  the  axis,  of  which  one  end 
is  the  North  Pole  and  the  other  end  is  the 
South  Pole.  It  is  so  nearly  round  that  the 
polar  diameter  (distance  through  the  earth 
from  pole  to  pole)  is  7899.4  miles,  while  the 
equatorial  diameter  is  7926.7. 

13.  Keeping  time. — Fig.  D also  shows  us 
something  about  how  we  count  time.  The 
earth  rotates  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east, 
and  every  time  it  goes  around  once  we  call 
it  a day,  divided  into  24  hours.  In  Fig.  D 
we  see  at  the  right  the  rays  of  the  sun,  which 
are  always  lighting  up  one-half  of  the  earth 
and  leaving  the  other  half  in  shadow.  In 
this  figure  the  Greenwich  meridian  is  the 
shadow  line,  or  sunrise  line.  Therefore  it 
is  sunrise  at  Greenwich,  and  since  the  sun 
shines  on  both  poles  we  know  (Fig.  F)  that  it 
must  be  March  21st  or  September  21st. 

How  fast  does  sunrise  travel?  In  24  hours 
it  goes  round  the  world,  360  degrees.  In  one 
hour  it  therefore  goes  15  degrees.  How  long 
does  it  take  to  go  one  degree? 

14.  Standard  time. — How  shall  we  keep 
time  on  this  whirling  globe  where  the  sunrise 


APPENDIX 


5 


and  noon  travel  westward  many  miles  a min- 
ute? How  many  miles  a minute?  Since 
we  have  the  habit  of  meeting  trains  we  need 
to  agree  on  how  we  shall  set  our  clocks. 
For  convenience  we  divide  the  United  States 
into  bands  or  belts  (Fig.  E)  about  15  de- 
grees wide.  In  the  eastern  belt  every- 
body keeps  75th  meridian  time.  In  the 
central  belt  everybody  keeps  90th  meridian 
time.  The  lines  between  the  belts  are  ir- 
regular because  it  would  be  very  incon- 
venient for  the  conductor  of  a train  to  change 
his  time  a few  miles  outside  of  a city  like 
Columbus,  Ohio,  or  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
Therefore  we  zigzag  the  edges  for  the  sake  of 
convenience.  Every  time  a traveler  going 
west  crosses  into  a new  time  belt  he  sets  his 
watch  backward  one  hour.  If  he  goes  east- 
ward he  sets  it  forward  one  hour. 

15.  International  date  line. — Suppose  he 
went  westward  clear  around  the  world, 
setting  his  watch  back  an  hour  every  fifteen 
degrees.  When  he  got  back  home,  he  would 
be  one  day  behind  the  calendars  of  the  home 
folks.  Those  twenty-four  hours  that  he  had 
lost  by  moving  his  watch  back  would  have 
taken  a day,  and  he  would  therefore  say  it  was 
Saturday  when  it  was  really  Sunday.  To  avoid 
this  trouble  men  have  made  an  international 
date  line  out  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  (Fig.  10) 
where  it  will  make  the  least  trouble.  Every 
time  you  cross  that  line  going  west  you  move 


your  calendar  back  one  day.  Going  east  you 
move  it  ahead  one  day. 

16.  Change  of  seasons. — To  understand 
our  change  of  seasons,  do  the  following: 
On  a sheet  of  paper  mark  a place  near  the  cen- 
ter, and  call  it  sun.  Around  this  draw  a line 
to  show  the  path  of  the  earth.  Now  stick  a 
pin  into  the  paper  somewhere  in  your  path  of 
the  earth.  This  pin  represents  the  earth’s  axis. 
The  flat  sheet  of  paper  represents  tne  plane  of 
the  earth’s  path  or  orbit.  The  axis  of  the  earth 
points  to  the  same  place  in  the  sky  all  the 
time,  and  it  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  orbit.  Look  at  Fig.  F and  see  that  the 
axis  is  slanting.  Remember  that  the  earth 
goes  clear  around  the  sun,  and  you  can  see 
that  the  North  Pole  is  in  darkness  when  it  is 
inclined  away  from  the  sun  during  northern 
winter.  On  December  21st,  our  shortest  day, 
the  sun  shines  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  no 
farther  north  than  the  place  marked  by  the 
Arctic  Circle.  At  that  time  a place  just  south 
of  the  Arctic  Circle  has  only  a few  minutes  of 
sunshine  each  day,  and  places  inside  the  Arctic 
Circle  have  many  days  with  no  sun  at  all. 

When  the  earth  is  on  the  other  side  of  the 
sun,  June  21st,  the  North  Pole  (Fig.  F) 
is  inclined  toward  the  sun,  and  the  sun 
shines  clear  across  it  to  the  Arctic  Circle 
on  the  other  side.  At  this  time  a place  just 
south  of  the  Arctic  Circle  has  only  a few 
minutes  daily  when  the  sun  cannot  be  seen, 


Fig.  F.  Three  positions  of  the  world  showing  how  the  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  (Sec. 

16)  causes  change  of  seasons. 


6 


APPENDIX 


Fig.  G.  The  earth’s  prevailing  winds  and  air  circulation. 


and  places  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  have 
many  days  when  the  sun  does  not  set  at  all. 
This  makes  the  Arctic  tundra  have  such 
surprising  plant  life  (Sec.  355).  The  Antarc- 
tic Circle  is  23|  degrees  from  the  South  Pole. 

The  Tropic  of  Cancer,  23|  degrees  from  the 
equator,  is  the  most  northerly  place  on  which 
the  sun’s  rays  fall  perpendicularly  in  June. 
The  Tropic  of  Capricorn  is  the  same  distance 
south  of  the  equator.  Can  you  tell  why? 

17.  Equinox.— On  the  21st  of  March  and 
the  21st  of  September  the  sun  shines  on  both 
poles  (Fig.  F).  The  days  and  nights  are  every- 
where of  equal  length,  and  for  that  reason 
we  say  it  is  equinox. 

18.  The  zones. — Geographers  have  divided 
the  earth  into  belts  called  zones  (Fig.  D)  be- 
cause of  the  differences  in  sunshine  at  different 
seasons.  The  zone  along  the  equator  between 
the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn  is  called 
the  torrid  zone  because  of  its  heat.  Around 
each  pole  there  is  a frigid  zone,  [so  named 
because  of  its  cold.  The  Arctic  Circle  bounds 
the  northern,  and  the  Antarctic  Circle  the 
southern  frigid  zone.  Between  each  frigid  and 
the  torrid  zone  there  is  a temperate  zone,  so 
called  because  its  average  temperature  is 
between  that  of  the  torrid  and  that  of  the 
frigid  zones.  Find  all  the  zones  on  Figs.  F 
and  G.  In  which  zone  do  you  live?  In  which 
zone  is  it  winter  when  we  have  summer. 


19.  The  wind  systems  of  the  world. — 

Examine  this  drawing  (Fig.  G)  carefully, 
and  you  will  see  that  at  the  equator, 
where  the  air  is  very  hot  and  therefore  light, 
it  is  ascending.  (See  edges  of  drawing.) 
At  high  elevations  it  turns  and  travels  back 
toward  the  poles,  while  surface  winds,  the 
trade  winds,  come  from  the  northeast  and 
the  southeast  to  take  its  place  (Fig.  540). 

Just  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and 
again  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  is 
a region  of  descending  air  where  there  is  so 
little  wind  that  sailing  vessels  sometimes  have 
trouble  to  keep  sailing  along.  Sailors  call 
these  places  the  Horse  Latitude  calms. . - 

North  of  the  Northern  Horse  Latitudes 
and  south  of  the  Southern  Horse  Latitudes 
the  wind  blows  so  nearly  from  the  west  that 
these  zones  are  called  the  prevailing  wester- 
lies. These  westerlies  blow  very  regularly, 
but  it  is  hard  for  the  people  who  live  in  the 
midst  of  these  winds  to  understand  that  they 
are  in  the  zone  of  the  westerlies  because  of 
the  great  eddies  or  cyclones,  several  hundreds 
of  miles  across,  that  come  along  every  few 
days.  One  of  these  cyclones  is  shown  in 
the  westerly  wind  zone  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  (Fig.  G).  It  blows  along  with 
the  westerly  winds,  but  around  its  center  the 
wind  is  blowing  in  all  directions.  For  a full 
account  of  the  cyclones  see  Secs.  59  to  72, 
and  of  the  trade  winds.  Secs.  741,  744. 

20.  Ocean  currents. — As  the  wind  blows 
over  water  it  rubs  against  the  surface.  This 
rubbing  or  friction  draws  the  water  along  with 
the  wind.  Thus  the  ocean  has  currents.  Look 
at  Fig.  327.  What  direction  have  the  currents 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  where  the 
prevailing  westerlies  blow?  where  the  trade 
winds  blow?  The  currents  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  north  of  the  equator  blow  one  way  in 
winter  and  another  in  summer.  Examine 
Figs.  509  and  510  and  see  if  you  can  not 
explain  why  these  currents  thus  change. 

How  do  the  North  Atlantic  and  North 
Pacific  currents  help  you  understand  why 
the  climate  is  so  much  alike  on  the  east  sides 
of  the  two  oceans  and  also  on  their  west 
sides? 


APPENDIX,  PART  II 


SOME  IMPORTANT  STATISTICS,  ETC. 


I.  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  Area  in  square  miles,  total  population,  population  per  square  mile,, 
value  of  trade  with  the  United  States,  and  value  of  total  imports  and  exports. 

Figures  of  total  population  and  area  per  square  mile,  taken^from  the  most  reliable  authorities  available,  are 
given  for  the  year  indicated.  Figures  of  total  imports  and  exports  approximate  trade  values  in  normal  years. 

Several  things  influence  the  amount  of  trade  that  the  people  of  a country  may  have.  It  may  be  small 
because  the  people  are  poor,  as  in  Mexico,  or  because  the  country  has  a great  variety  of  resources  and  industries. 
Thus  the  United  States  has  a greater  variety  of  resources  than  the  United  Kingdom,  but  less  trade  per  capita 
because  we  supply  so  many  of  our  own  needs.  Calculate  the  per  capita  trade  of  the  United  States;  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  Newfoundland,  Cuba,  and  Canada  have  a much  smaller  variety  of  resources  than  the 
United  States.  Estimate  the  per  capita  trade  of  China;  of  the  Falkland  Islands.  Explain  the  difference. 


Country. 

North  America 

Alaska 

Bermuda  Islands 

Canada 

Alberta 

British  Columbia 

Manitoba 

New  Brunswick 

Northwest  Territory. . . . 

Nova  Scotia 

Ontario 

Prince  Edward  Island . . . 

Quebec 

Saskatchewan 

Yukon  Territory 

Central  America 

British  Honduras 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Panama  Canal  Zone. . . . 

Salvador 

Greenland 

Mexico 

Newfoundland 

Labrador 

United  States  (Land  Area) 

West  Indies 

Bahama  Islands 

Cuba 

Dominican  Republic .... 

Haiti 

Jamaica 

Lesser  Antilles 

Porto  Rico 

Virgin  Islands  (U.  S.) . . . 

South  America 

Argentina 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British  Guiana 

Chile 

Colombia 

Dutch  Guiana 

Ecuador 

Falkland  Islands 

French  Guiana 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Area, 

Total 

SQ.  M. 

Population. 

8,500,000 

150,000,000 

1920 

590,884 

54,899 

1920 

20 

22,000 

1921 

3,729,700 

8,788,000 

1921 

255,300 

588,000 

1921 

355,900 

525,000 

1921 

251,800 

610,000 

1921 

28,000 

388,000 

1921 

1,242,200 

8,000 

1921 

21,400 

524,000 

1921 

407,300 

2,934,000 

1921 

2,184 

89,000 

1921 

706,800 

2,361,000 

1921 

251,700 

758,000 

1921 

207,100 

' 4,157 

218,900 

5,716,000 

1921 

8,600 

45,000 

1920 

23,000 

468,000 

1914 

48,300 

2,004,000 

1921 

44,300 

637,000 

1920 

49,200 

638,000 

1920 

31,900 

401,000 

1920 

436 

21,650 

1921 

13,200 

1,501.000 

1911 

830,000 

13,500 

1918 

767,300 

15,502,000 

1920 

42,700 

264,000 

1919 

120,000 

3,647 

1920 

2,973,890 

105,710,620 

92,400 

9,933,000 

1921 

4,400 

53,000 

1919 

44,200 

2,889,000 

1919 

19,300 

955,000 

1913 

11,100 

2,500,000 

1921 

4,200 

858,000 

1918 

5,600 

1,343,000 

1920 

3,435 

1,309,172 

1917 

149 

26,051 

7,570,000 

56,400,000 

1921 

1,153,400 

8,699,000 

1915 

514,200 

2,890,000 

1920 

3,275,600 

30,645,000 

1921 

89,500 

298,000 

1920 

289,800 

3,755,000 

1918 

440,800 

5,855,000 

1921 

46,100 

113,000 

1919 

118,600 

2,000,000 

1911 

6,500 

3,300 

1911 

32,000 

49,000 

1917 

75,700 

1,000,000 

1919 

722,500 

4,500,000 

1920 

72,200 

1,495,000 

1920 

398,600 

2,412,000 

(7) 


Pop.  per 

Trade  with 

Total  Imports 

SQ.  M. 

U.  S.  1920. 

and  Exports. 

$97,800,000 

$100,800,000 

1,100 

6,000,000 

8,000,000 

0 

2 

1,584,000,000 

2,576,000,000 

1 

2 

13 

24 

7 

40 

3 

3 

3,390,000 

26 

5 

7,000,000 

20 

20,000,000 

30,000,000 

41 

30,000,000 

32,000,000 

14 

24,000,000 

25,000,000 

13 

17,000,000 

28,000,000 

13 

49 

114 

20,000,000 

38,000,000 

230,000 

20 

387,000,000 

6 

15,000,000 

69,000,000 

36 

10,170,814,000 

108 

12 

65 

1,236,000,000 

1,290,000,000 

49 

79,000,000 

225 

28,000,000 

204 

25,000,000 

48,200,000 

240 

381 

280,000,000 

304,000,000 

175 

8,000,000 

7 

1,385,000,000 

8 

420,000,000 

1,196,000,000 

5 

15,000,000 

92,000,000 

9 

385,000,000 

956,800,000 

3 

11,000,000 

13 

175,000,000 

432,400,000 

13 

112,000,000 

2 

3,000,000 

17 

26,000,000 

50,600,000 

12,000,000 

1 

1,000,000 

13 

3,000,000 

9,200,000 

6 

110,000,000 

144,900,000 

21 

67,000,000 

138,000,000 

6 

51,000,000 

69,000,000 

n-23 


APPENDIX 


8 


Country. 

Area, 

SQ.  M. 

T otal 
Population. 

Pop.  per 

SQ.  M. 

Europe 

3,870,000 

464,680,000 

Albania 

1918 

11,000 

1,400,000 

127 

Andorra 

1918 

191 

5,000 

26 

Austria 

1919 

30,700 

6,131,000 

200 

Belgium 

1920 

11,700 

7,684,000 

657 

British  Isles 

1921 

121,600 

47,308,000 

389 

Great  Britain 

1921 

88,800 

42,768,000 

483 

England 

1921 

50,900 

35,679,000 

701 

Wales 

1921 

7,500 

2,207,000 

294 

Scotland . . 

1921 

30,400 

4,882,000 

161 

Ireland 

1921 

32,600 

4,390,000 

135 

Other  Islands 

1911 

300 

149,000 

497 

Gibraltar 

1921 

2 

17,700 

8,900 

Malta 

1920 

118 

225,000 

1,907 

Bulgaria 

1920 

40,700 

4,861,000 

119 

Czechoslovakia 

1921 

54,200 

13,596,000 

251 

Danzig 

1919 

790 

330,000 

418 

Denmark  (total) 

1921 

17,100 

3,289,000 

192 

Faroe  Islands 

1921 

540 

21,300 

39 

Esthonia 

1920 

23,200 

1,750,000 

75 

Finland 

1919 

149,600 

3,335,000 

22 

France  (total) 

1921 

212,700 

39,210,000 

185 

Corsica 

1921 

3,400 

282,000 

83 

Germany 

1919 

172,000 

55,000,000 

320 

Greece  (total) 

1919 

41,900 

5,000,000 

119 

Crete 

1920 

2,950 

118,000 

40 

Hungary 

1921 

35,700 

7,841,000 

220 

Iceland 

1920 

39,700 

95,000 

2 

Italy 

1921 

118,000 

40,070,000 

340 

Sardinia 

1915 

9,300 

881,000 

95 

Sicily 

1915 

9,900 

3,793,000 

383 

Territory  acquired  from  Austria 

1921 

7,400 

1,408,000 

190 

Latvia 

1920 

25,000 

1,503,000 

60 

Liechtenstein 

1912 

65 

11,000 

169 

Lithuania 

1919 

59,600 

4,800,000 

81 

Luxemburg 

1916 

999 

264,000 

264 

Monaco 

1913 

8 

23,000 

2,875 

Netherlands 

1920 

12,600 

6,841,000 

543 

N orway 

1920 

125,000 

2,646,000 

21 

Poland 

1921 

149,000 

26,886,000 

180 

Portugal  (total) 

1911 

35,500 

5,958,000 

168 

Azores 

1911 

922 

243,000 

264 

Madeira  Islands 

1911 

314 

170,000 

541 

Rumania 

1919 

122,300 

17,393,000 

142 

Russia  (Soviet  Republic) 

1920 

7,041,120 

132,000,000 

17 

San  Marino 

1920 

38 

12,000 

316 

Spain  (total) 

1919 

194,800 

20,784,000 

107 

Balearic  Islands 

1919 

1,900 

331,000 

174 

Canary  Islands 

1919 

2,800 

521,000 

186 

Sweden 

1920 

173,000 

5,904,000 

34 

Switzerland 

1920 

15,900 

3,880,000 

244 

Turkey  in  Europe 

1920 

10,900 

1,891,000 

173 

Ukrania 

1920 

174,500 

26,002,000 

149 

Yugoslavia 

1920 

95,600 

11,338,000 

119 

Asia 

17,200,000 

872,500,000 

51 

Afghanistan 

1918 

245,000 

6,381,000 

26 

Arabian  Peninsula 

1918 

1,000,000 

5,000,000 

5 

Aden 

1921 

9,000 

55,000 

6 

Asir 

1920 

20,000 

1,000,000 

50 

Hejaz 

1920 

100,000 

750,000 

8 

Oman 

1920 

82,000 

500,000 

6 

Yemen 

1920 

75,000 

1,000,000 

13 

Remaining  Territories 

1920 

700,000 

1,750,000 

2 

Armenia  (Soviet  Republic) 

1920 

15,240 

1,214,000 

80 

Azerbaijan  (Soviet  Republic) . . . 

1920 

33,900 

2,097,000 

62 

Baluchistan 

1921 

54,200 

422,000 

8 

Burma 

1921 

230,800 

13,206,000 

58 

Bhutan 

1918 

20,000 

250,000 

13 

Ceylon 

1921 

25,500 

4,498,000 

177 

Chinese  Republic 

1919 

3,914,000 

320,650,000 

82 

China  proper 

1919 

1,532,000 

302,110,000 

197 

Trade  with 
U.  S.  1920. 


$21,000,000 

330,000,000 

5,695,000,000 


2,109,000,000 


150,000,000 

80,000,000 


7,670,000 


106,000,000 


24,000,000 

842,000,000 


400,000,000 

60,000,000 


447,000,000 


341.000. 000 

116.000. 000 

70.000. 000 

34.000. 000 


11,000,000 

17,000,000 


194,000,000 


146.000. 000 

100.000. 000 
42,000,000 


2,055,000,000 


338,000,000 


Total  Imports 
and  Exports. 


$9,200,000,000 


69,000,000 


690,000,000 


6,900,000,000 


19,700,000 

1,426,000,000 


2,088,400,000 

611,800,000 


156,400,000 


207,000,000 


437,000,000 


1,094,800,000 

883,200,000 


1,150,000,000 


APPENDIX 


9 


COUNTRY. 

Asia — (Continued) 

Manchuria 

Mongolia 

Sinkiang 

Tibet 

Cyprus 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Borneo 

Celebes 

Java 

New  Guinea  (see  Islands  of 
Pacific) 

Sumatra 

Other  Islands 

Georgia  (Soviet  Republic) ..... 

Indian  Empire 

Iraq  (Mesopotamia) 

Japanese  Empire 

Japan  proper 

Chosen  (Korea) 

Sakhalin 

Taiwan  (Formosa) 

Malay  Peninsula 

Federated  Malay  States 

N on-Federated  States 

Straits  Settlements 

French  Indo-China 

Siam 

Nepal 

Palestine 

Persia 

Philippine  Islands 

Siberia  (Soviet  Republic) 

Bokhara 

Khiva 

Steppes,  The 

Syria 

Transcaspian  Province 

Turkestan  (Russia) 

Turkey  in  Asia 

Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Larger  Islands  of  the  Pacific 

Australia 

Federal  Territory 

New  South  Wales 

Northern  Territory 

Queensland 

South  Australia 

Tasmania 

Victoria 

West  Australia 

Bismarck  Archipelago 

Fiji  Islands 

Guam 

Hawaiian  Islands 

New  Caledonia 

New  Guinea  (British) 

New  Guinea  (Dutch) 

New  Hebrides 

New  Zealand 

Samoan  Islands 

American  Samoa 

Western  Samoa 

Solomon  Islands 

Tonga  (Friendly)  Islands 

Africa 

Independent  Countries: 

Abyssinia 

Liberia 

Belgian  Sphere  of  Influence: 
Belgian  Congo 


Area, 

Total 

Pop.  PER 

Trade  with 

Total  Imports 

8Q.  M. 

Population. 

8Q.  M. 

U.  S.  1920. 

and  Exports. 

1919 

364,000 

20,000,000 

16 

1919 

1,368,000 

1,800,000 

1 

1919 

550,000 

2,000,000 

4 

1919 

463,000 

2,000,000 

4 

1921 

3,580 

310,808 

87 

1917 

683,000 

47,000,000 

69 

$226,000,000 

1917 

212,700 

1,514,000 

7 

1917 

72,100 

3,094,000 

43 

1917 

50,600 

34,157,000 

675 

1917 

159,800 

5,027,000 

31 

1917 

239,800 

3,207,000 

13 

1915 

32,800 

3,053,000 

93 

1921 

1,802,600 

319,075,000 

177 

276,000,000 

$1,150,000,000 

1920 

143,300 

2,849,000 

20 

1920 

260,700 

77,005,000 

295 

791,000,000 

1,840,000,000 

1920 

148,800 

55,961,000 

376 

1920 

84,700 

17,284,000 

204 

3,000,000 

1920 

13,300 

106,000 

8 

1920 

13,900 

3,654,000 

263 

1920 

507,600 

28,337,000 

58 

1919 

27,500 

1,280,000 

47 

1918 

23,500 

955,000 

41 

1919 

1,600 

846,000 

529 

210,000,000 

1914 

256,000 

16,990,000 

66 

5,000,000 

1912 

199,000 

8,266,000 

42 

2,000,000 

92,000,000 

1918 

54,000 

5,600,000 

104 

1921 

9,000 

770,000 

86 

1919 

630,000 

10,000,000 

16 

45,000,000 

124,200,000 

1920 

115,026 

10,607,872 

92 

213,000,000 

300,000,000 

1920 

4,210,400 

9,258,000 

2 

1920 

79,400 

3,000,000 

39 

1920 

24,300 

519,000 

21 

1915 

710,900 

4,017,000 

6 

1920 

65,000 

3,000,000 

46 

1915 

235,100 

553,000 

2 

1920 

577,400 

7,201,000 

12 

1920 

175,000 

8,000,000 

46 

1921 

2,975,000 

5,437,000 

2 

165,000,000 

690,000,000 

1921 

940 

2,570 

3 

1921 

309,400 

2,100,000 

7 

1921 

523,600 

3,800 

1921 

670,500 

758,000 

i 

1921 

380,000 

495,000 

i 

1921 

26,200 

214,000 

8 

1921 

87,800 

1,532,000 

17 

1921 

975,900 

332,000 

1913 

20,000 

188,000 

9 

1920 

7,400 

163,000 

22 

1920 

210 

13,275 

63 

1920 

6,449 

259,208 

40 

266,000,000 

282,0(0  000 

1911 

7,700 

50,600 

7 

1919 

90,500 

350,000 

3 

1919 

152,000 

200,000 

1 

1920 

5,500 

60,000 

11 

1920 

105,000 

1,219,000 

12 

74,000,000 

276,000.000 

1920 

1,277 

45,100 

35 

225,000 

324,000 

1920 

77 

8,056 

105 

1921 

1,200 

37,000 

31 

1921 

11,000 

150,000 

14 

1919 

385 

23,500 

61 

11,600,000 

142,750,000 

12 

316,000,000 

1919 

350,000 

8,000,000 

20 

1919 

40,000 

2,000,000 

50 

300,000 

1,840,000 

1920 

909,700 

11,000,000 

12 

1,000,000 

28,700,000 

APPENDIX 


10 


Country. 

Area, 
SQ.  M. 

Total 

Population. 

Pop.  per 
SQ.  M. 

Africa — (Continued) 

British  Sphere  of  Influence: 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 

1920 

1,014,000 

3,400,000 

3 

Basutoland 

1921 

11,700 

498,000 

43 

Bechuanaland 

1921 

275,000 

152,983 

British  East  Africa 

721,300 

9,898,000 

East  African  Protectorate. . 

245,000 

2,630,000 

11 

• Pemba  (Island) 

1910 

380 

83,000 

218 

Tanganyika  Territory 

1919 

365,000 

4,000,000 

11 

Uganda  Territory 

1920 

110,300 

3,072,000 

28 

Zanzibar  (Island); 

1910 

640 

113,600 

178 

British  Somaliland 

1911 

68,000 

300,000 

4 

British  West  Africa 

1920 

447,500 

20,652,000 

46 

Cameroon  (British  and  French) 

1919 

191,100 

2,540,000 

13 

Gambia 

1920 

4,500 

248,000 

55 

Egypt 

1917 

350,000 

12,751,000 

36 

Gold  Coast 

1921 

80,000 

2,030,000 

25 

Nigeria 

1920 

332,000 

16,250,000 

49 

Sierra  Leone 

1911 

4,000 

75,600 

19 

Nyasaland 

1921 

39,600 

1,203,000 

30 

Rhodesia 

440,000 

1,736,000 

4 

Northern  Rhodesia 

1921 

291,000 

932,000 

3 

Southern  Rhodesia 

1921 

149,000 

804,000 

5 

Southwest  Africa 

1921 

322,400 

237,000 

Swaziland 

1921 

6,700 

134,000 

20 

Togoland  (British  and  French) 

1913 

33,700 

1,032,000 

31 

Union  of  South  Africa 

1921 

473,200 

6,923,000 

15 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

1921 

277,000 

2,781,000 

10 

Natal 

1911 

35,300 

1,428,000 

34 

Orange  Free  State 

1921 

50,400 

628,000 

12 

Transvaal 

1921 

110,500 

2,086,000 

19 

French  Sphere  of  Influence: 

Algeria 

1921 

222,200 

5,800,000 

26 

Cameroon  (see  British) 

French  Equatorial  Africa 

1915 

982,000 

6,370,000 

7 

French  Somali  Coast 

1921 

5,800 

65,000 

11 

French  West  Africa  and  Sahara 

1921 

1,800,500 

12,284,000 

6 

Colony  of  the  Upper  Volta. 

1921 

154,400 

2,974,000 

19 

Dahomey 

1921 

42,400 

842,000 

20 

French  Guinea 

1921 

95,200 

1,876,000 

20 

French  Sudan 

1921 

617,600 

2,475,000 

4 

Ivory  Coast 

1921 

122,000 

1,546,000 

13 

Mauretania 

1921 

347,400 

262,000 

Senegal 

1921 

74,100 

1,226,000 

17 

Upper  Niger  Territory 

1921 

347,400 

1,084,000 

3 

Madagascar 

1917 

228,000 

3,545,000 

16 

Morocco 

1917 

221,000 

5,400,000 

24 

Togoland  (see  British) 

Tunis 

1921 

50,000 

2,094,000 

42 

Italian  Sphere  of  Influence: 

Eritrea 

1920 

45,800 

406,000 

9 

Italian  Somaliland 

1915 

139,400 

650,000 

5 

Libia 

1911 

406,000 

523,000 

1 

Portuguese  Sphere  of  Influence: 

Angola  (Portuguese  West  Africa)  19 18 

484,800 

4,119,000 

8 

Mozambique 

1918 

426,700 

3,120,000 

7 

Portuguese  Guinea 

1917 

13,900 

289,000 

21 

Spanish  Sphere  of  Influence: 

Rio  de  Ore 

1920 

109,200 

500 

Spanish  Guinea 

1920 

9,500 

200,000 

21 

Spanish  Morocco 

1920 

7,700 

600,000 

78 

Trade  with  Total  Imports 

U.  S.  1920.  and  Exports. 


$9,000,000 


34,000,000 


135,000,000  $800,000,000 

119,600,000 


81,000,000  473,800,000 


2,500,000  52,000,000 

6,000,000 


II.  AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS,  AND 
OCCUPATIONS  OF  PEOPLE  IN  THE  VARIOUS  STATES. 

Note  to  Teacher.— Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  these  figures  are  shown  in  abbreviated  form. 
This  is  valuable  for  two  reasons.  It  enables  us  to  get  figures  close  together  for  purposes  of  comparison,  and 
it  gives  a needed  opportunity  to  familiarize  the  student  with  one  of  the  usual  forms  of  showing  figures.  There 
should  be  some  drill  to  be  sure  that  pupils  understand  what  each  column  of  figures  really  means.  In  examining 
the  figures  for  manufactures,  it  should  be  remembered  that  this  was  a period  of  high  prices  due  to  the  war,  and 
that  the  manufacturer  does  not  create  all  of  this  value,  because  he  has  to  use  many  expensive  raw  materials. 


APPENDIX 


11 


It  is  better  to  measure  the  value  of  agriculture  and  manufacturing  by  the  number  of  people  supported 
than  by  the  value  of  the  products  reported  in  the  census. 

In  examining  the  figures  for  agriculture  we  must  remember  that  the  farm  family  uses  many  things  pro- 
duced on  the  farm.  (U.  S.  census  1920.) 


State. 

Land 
Area, 
Sq.  Miles, 
1920. 

Populatior 

per 

Sq.  Mile 
in  1920. 

Populatior 
in  1920 
in 

Thou- 

sands. 

Popula- 
tion 
in  1910 
in 

Thou- 

sands. 

Distribu 

Years 

tic 

Total 

Persons 

Occupiec 

in 

Thou- 

sands. 

tion  of 
f Age  in 
>ns,  by  Si 

Percent 
Each  O 

Agri- 
culture 
Fores  tr> 
and 
Animal 
Hus- 
bandry 

Arsons 
Gainful  C 
ates,  192 

age  of 
ccupatior 

Manu- 
factur- 
ing and 
Mechan- 
ical 
Indus- 
tries. 

Iver  10 
ccupa- 
0. 

"otal  for 
al  Class. 

Extrac- 
tion of 
Min- 
erals. 

Value* 
of  All 
Farm 
Crops 
in  1919, 
Million 
Dollars. 

Value 

of 

Manu- 

factured 

Products 

1919, 

(Prelim- 

inary 

Statistics 

of 

Census 

Bureau). 

Million 

Dollars. 

Alabama 

51,279 

45 

.8 

2,348 

2,138 

908 

56 

17 

4 

304 

493 

Arizona 

113,810 

2 

9 

334 

204 

131 

28 

18 

12 

42 

121 

Arkansas 

52,525 

33 

_4 

1,752 

1,574 

635 

64 

12 

1 

341 

200 

California 

155,652 

22 

6 

3,426 

2,377 

1,511 

18 

28 

2 

590 

1,981 

Colorado 

103,658 

9 

i 

939 

799 

366 

2f 

20 

6 

181 

276 

Connecticut 

4,820 

286 

.4 

1,380 

1,114 

590 

6 

54 

44 

1,392 

Delaware 

1,965 

113 

5 

223 

202 

91 

19 

38 

23 

165 

Dist.  of  Columbia 

60 

7,292 

.9 

437 

331 

236 

19 

69 

Florida 

54,861 

17 

7 

968 

752 

385 

32 

26 

i 

80 

213 

Georgia 

58,725 

49 

3 

2,895 

2,609 

1,129 

54 

16 

541 

693 

Idaho 

83,354 

5 

2 

431 

325 

153 

48 

16 

3 

126 

81 

Illinois 

56,043 

115 

7 

6,485 

5,638 

2,627 

14 

33 

3 

865 

5,425 

Indiana 

36,045 

81 

3 

2,930 

2,700 

1,117 

26 

34 

3 

497 

1,899 

Iowa 

55,586 

43 

2 

2,404 

2,224 

859 

38 

21 

2 

890 

745 

Kansas 

81,774 

21 

6 

1,769 

1,690 

624 

37 

20 

3 

589 

914 

Kentucky 

40,181 

60 

1 

2,416 

2,289 

851 

46 

17 

6 

347 

396 

Louisiana 

45,409 

39 

6 

1,798 

1.656 

681 

43 

20 

1 

206 

676 

Maine 

29,895 

25 

7 

768 

742 

310 

25 

39 

100 

457 

Maryland 

9,941 

145 

8 

1,449 

1,295 

603 

16 

33 

1 

110 

874 

Massachusetts 

8,039 

479 

2 

3,852 

3,366 

1,728 

3 

51 

54 

4,011 

Michigan 

57,480 

63 

8 

3,668 

2,810 

1,474 

20 

42 

2 

404 

3,466 

Minnesota 

80,858 

29 

5 

2,387 

2,075 

907 

34 

22 

2 

506 

1,218 

Mississippi 

46,362 

38 

6 

1,790 

1,797 

721 

70 

10 

336 

198 

Missouri 

68,727 

49 

5 

3,404 

3,293 

1,317 

30 

25 

2 

559 

1,599 

Montana 

146,201 

3 

8 

548 

376 

214 

40 

15 

8 

70 

167 

Nebraska 

76,808 

16 

9 

1,296 

1,192 

457 

41 

18 

1 

520 

596 

Nevada 

109,821 

0 

7 

77 

81 

38 

23 

19 

16 

14 

23 

New  Hampshire 

9,031 

49 

1 

443 

430 

193 

16 

51 

24 

407 

New  Jersey 

7,514 

420 

0 

3,155 

2,537 

1,310 

5 

48 

87 

3,676 

New  Mexico 

122,503 

2 

9 

360 

327 

122 

45 

13 

6 

41 

18 

New  York 

47,654 

217 

9 

10,385 

9,113 

4,505 

7 

39 

417 

8,867 

North  Carolina 

48,740 

52 

5 

2,559 

2,206 

896 

53 

24 

503 

944 

North  Dakota 

70,183 

9 

2 

646 

577 

207 

58 

9 

1 

302 

57 

Ohio 

40,740 

141 

4 

5,759 

4,767 

2,300 

16 

42 

3 

607 

5,100 

Oklahoma 

69,414 

29 

2 

2,028 

1,657 

681 

41 

15 

6 

550 

401 

Oregon 

95,607 

8 

2 

783 

672 

322 

29 

27 

1 

132 

367 

Pennsylvania 

' 44,832 

194 

5 

8,720 

7,665 

3,426 

8 

42 

10 

410 

7,317 

Rhode  Island 

1,067 

566 

4 

604 

542 

275 

3 

59 

5 

747 

South  Carolina 

30,495 

55 

2 

1,683 

1,515 

674 

62 

16 

437 

381 

South  Dakota 

76,868 

8 

3 

636 

583 

217 

54 

12 

1 

311 

62 

Tennessee 

41,687 

56 

1 

2,337 

2,184 

830 

48 

18 

2 

318 

556 

Texas 

262,398 

17 

8 

4,663 

3,896 

1,719 

46 

16 

2 

1,072 

1,000 

Utah 

82,184 

5 

5 

449 

373 

149 

29 

23 

7 

58 

157 

Vermont 

9,124 

38. 

6 

352 

355 

138 

32 

32 

1 

48 

168 

Virginia 

40,262 

57. 

4 

2,309 

2,061 

833 

36 

24 

2 

293 

644 

Washington 

66,836 

20. 

3 

1,356 

1,141 

578 

23 

31 

2 

227 

810 

West  Virginia 

24,022 

60. 

9 

1,463 

1,221 

491 

26 

24 

21 

97 

472 

Wisconsin 

55,256 

47. 

6 

2,632 

2,333 

100 

31 

34 

445 

1,847 

Wyoming 

97,594 

2. 

0 

194 

145 

82 

32 

19 

11 

30 

81 

United  States  (Conti- 
nental)   

2.973,890 

35 

5 

105,710 

91,972 

41,609 

26 

31 

3 

14,755 

62,428 

* Value  of  all  farm  crops  is  expressed  in  millions.  Amounts  of  $500,000  and  over  are  counted  as  another 


unit. 


12 


APPENDIX 


II.  AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS— (Continued) 


State. 

Outlying  Possessions 

Alaska 

American  Samoa 

Guam 

Hawaii 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Soldiers,  etc.,  abroad 

Virgin  Islands 

Total  land  and  water  area,  United  States  and  possessions 


Area, 

Population 

SQ.  MILES. 

in  1920. 

590,884 

54,899 

77 

8,056 

210 

13,275 

6,449 

259,208 

436 

21,650 

115,026 

10,607,872 

3,435 

1,309,172 

117,238 

149 

26,051 

Population 

Pop.  per  sq. 

in  1910. 

MILE  IN  1920. 

64,356 

0.1 

104.6 

63.2 

191,909 

40.2 

50.1 

92.2 

1,118,012 

380.5 

55,608 

174.8 

3,743,455  118,010,803  93,402,151  31.1 


III.  THE  WORLD’S  GREATEST  SEAPORTS. 


Figures  are  for  1919  or  the  latest  available.  Trade  is  calculated  on  the  basis  of  $4.60  to  the  pound  sterling. 

In  examining  these  figures  several  things  are  to  be  noticed.  One  is  that  some  ports  have  a very  large 
tonnage,  or  amount  of  shipping  entered  and  cleared,  because  they  are  ports  of  call.  Thus  vessels  make  London 
and  Liverpool  their  chief  port,  often  their  only  port,  but  vessels  from  many  North  Sea  ports  stop  at  Antwerp 
on  the  way  out  to  the  Atlantic.  Singapore,  Shanghai,  Yokohama,  Rio  Janeiro,  and  Montevideo  are  also  ports 
of  call.  Cardiff  has  low  value  of  trade  because  her  chief  trade  is  the  export  of  coal,  the  cheapest  important 
commodity  in  trade.  Figures  for  cities  in  the  United  States  are  for  customs  districts. 


City  Tons  Entered.  Tons  Cleared.  Trade  Value. 


City.  Tons  Entered.  Tons  Cleared.  Trade  Value. 


Liverpool  . . . 7,159,000  6,658,000 

London 7,745,000  5,335,000 

New  York  . . .10,943,000  10,548,000 
Hamburg  .12,997,000  13,192,000 
Antwerp.  . .13,757,000  13,722,000 

Marseille 5,299,000  3,402,000 

Hull 1,979,052  1,474,034 

Manchester  . . 1,240,000  839,606 

Montreal.  . 1,898,000  1,961,000 

Washington  . 3,350,000  3,296,000 

Bremen 1,511,000  1,506,000 

Glasgow  1,927,780  2,961,790 

Philadelphia..  1,965,000  2,118,000 

Havre 2,642,000  1,112,000 

Genoa 5,336,000  5,119,000 


$3,844,909,000 

3.771.426.000 

3.554.880.000 

1.749.472.000 

1.114.437.000 

757.206.000 

680.906.000 

675.697.000 

670.864.000 

538.190.000 

535.716.000 

507.144.000 

500.250.000 

498.290.000 

467.852.000 


Kobe 5,335,000 

New  Orleans..  3,153,000 

Calcutta 1,390,000 

San  Francisco  1,173,000 
Yokohama...  3,456,000 
Singapore.  . . 6,602,000 
Buenos  Aires.  3,909,000 
Bordeaux.  . . . 2,824,000 

Shanghai 7,810,000 

Bombay 1,698,000 

Sydney 1,079,000 

Alexandria . . . 967,000 

Rio  de  Janeiro  3,067,000 

Cardiff 5,599,000 

Montevideo..  6,489,000 


5.182.000 

3.068.000 

1.715.000 

1.364.000 

3.359.000 

6.612.000 


1.014.000 

7.906.000 

1.451.000 

1.102.000 

1.344.000 

3.031.000 

6.163.000 

6.473.000 


$463,073,000 

458.846.000 

442.805.000 

442.318.000 

437.239.000 

422.460.000 

418.397.000 

396.267.000 

381.845.000 

366.772.000 

362.986.000 

261.464.000 

150.226.000 

142.515.000 
89,824,000 


IV.  TABLE  OF  OCEAN  DISTANCES.  From  leading  U.  S. 

4,715 

4,786 


New  York  to — Miles 

Liverpool 3,053 

Gibraltar 3,207 

St.  Vincent  (Cape  Verde)  3,202 

Cape  Town 6,815 

Barbados 1,829 

Pernambuco 3,696 

Rio  de  Janerio 4,778 

Montevideo 5,834 

San  Juan,  P.  R 1,428 

Colon 1,981 

Havana 1,227 

Boston  to — 

Liverpool 2,872 

Montreal  to — 

Liverpool 2,872 

Port  Nelson  to — 

Liverpool 3,000 

New  Orleans  to — 

Colon 1,380 

Havana 597 

Newport  News 1,741 

Liverpool 4,553 

Gibraltar 4,576 

Galveston  to — 

Colon 

Havana 

New  York 


1,481 

765 

1,992 


Liverpool 

Gibraltar 

Colon  to — 

Panama 

Panama  to — 

Valparaiso 

San  Francisco 

Honolulu 

Tahiti  (Society  Islands) . 

Wellington 

Gibraltar  to — 

Plymouth 

Port  Said 

Port  Said  to — 

Suez 

Suez  to — 

Aden 

Aden  to — 

Bombay 

Colombo 

Hobart 

Mauritius 

Zanzibar 

Cape  Town  to — 

Mozambique 

Mauritius 

Melbourne 

Wellington 


47 

2,608 

3,277 

4.665 

4,530 

6,512 

1,060 

1,920 

103 

1,310 

1,640 

2,130 

6,600 

2,340 

1,770 


ports  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Colombo  to — 

Melbourne 

Sunda  Strait 

Singapore 

Calcutta 

Rangoon 

San  Francisco  to — 

Seattle 

Cape  Nome 

Honolulu 

Yokohama 

Honolulu  to — 

Yokohama 

Midway 

Guam 

Samoa 

Sydney 

Yokohama  to — 

Shanghai 

Hong  Kong 

Manila 


1,850 

2,290 

6,030 

6,769 

Distance  saved  by  Panama  Canal  for  vessel  going  from  New  York 


Singapore  to — 

Hong  Kong 

Manila 

Bangkok 

Calcutta 

Colombo 

to  San  Francisco,  7,873  miles. 


4,730 

1.770 
1,560 
1,220 
1,200 

775 

2.771 
2,100 
4,791 

3,445 

1,160 

3,337 

2,240 

4,594 

1,050 

1,590 

1,753 

1,440 

1,386 

830 

1,630 

1,560 


APPENDIX 


13 


V.  CITIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  HAVING  A POPULATION  OF  100,000  AND  OVER. 


Population, 


City.  1920. 

New  York,  N.  Y 5,620,048 

Chicago,  111 2,701,705 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,823,779 

Detroit,  Mich 993,678 

Cleveland,  Ohio 796,841 

St.  Louis,  Mo 772,897 

Boston,  Mass 748,060 

Baltimore,  Md 733,826 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 588,343 

Los  Angeles,  Calif 576,673 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 506,775 

San  Francisco,  Calif 506,676 

Milwaukee,  Wis 457,147 

Washington,  D.  C 437,571 

Newark,  N.  J 414,524 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 401,247 

New  Orleans,  La 387,219 

Minneapolis,  Minn 380,582 

Kansas  City,  Mo 324,410 

Seattle,  Wash 315,312 

Indianapolis,  Ind 314,194 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 298,103 

Rochester,  N.  Y 295,750 


Population, 


City.  1920. 

Portland,  Ore 258,288 

Denver,  Colo 256,491 

Toledo,  Ohio ' 243,164 

Providence,  R.  1 237,595 

Columbus,  Ohio 237,031 

Louisville,  Ky 234,891 

St.  Paul,  Minn 234,698 

Oakland,  Calif 216,261 

Akron,  Ohio 208,435 

Atlanta,  Ga 200,616 

Omaha,  Neb.  191,601 

Worcester,  Mass 179,754 

Birmingham,  Ala 178,806 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 171,717 

Richmond,  Va 171,667 

New  Haven,  Conn 162,537 

Memphis,  Tenn 162,351 

San  Antonio,  Tex 161,379 

Dallas,  Tex 158,976 

Dayton,  Ohio 152,559 

Bridgeport,  Conn 143,555 

Houston,  Tex 138,276 

Hartford,  Conn. ........  138,036 


Population, 


City.  1920. 

Scranton,  Pa 137,783 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 137,634 

Paterson,  N.  J 135,875 

Youngstown,  Ohio 132,358 

Springfield,  Mass 129,614 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 126,468 

New  Bedford,  Mass 121,217 

Fall  River,  Mass 120,485 

Trenton,  N.  J 119,289 

Nashville,  Tenn  118,342 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 118,110 

Camden,  N.  J 116,309 

Norfolk,  Va 115,777 

Albany,  N.  Y 113,544 

Lowell,  Mass 112,759 

Wilmington,  Del 110,168 

Cambridge,  Mass 109,694 

Reading,  Pa 107,784 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 106,482 

Spokane,  Wash 104,437 

Kansas  City,  Kan 101,177 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 100,176 


VI.  ELEVATION,  LOCATION,  AND  POPULATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS 
POSSESSIONS  HAVING  A POPULATION  OF  20,000  OR  OVER,  INCLUDING  THE  CAPITAL  AND 
LARGEST  CITY  OF  EACH  STATE.  ELEVATIONS  WERE  KINDLY  FURNISHED  BY  THE  U.  S. 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


Alt. 

N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

Alt. 

N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

Thous.) 

( Thous. ) 

Aberdeen,  Wash..  . 

10 

47.0  123.9 

15,337 

14 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

10 

40.6 

74.1 

76,754 

56 

Akron,  Ohio 

1080 

41. 

81.5 

208,435 

69 

Beaumont,  Tex.. . . 

24 

30. 

94.2 

40,422 

21 

Alameda,  Calif. . . . 

262 

37.7  122.7 

28,806 

23 

Belleville,  N.  J. . . . 

264 

40.8 

74.1 

15,660 

Albany,  N.  Y 

140 

42.7 

73.8 

113,544 

100 

Belleville,  111 

480 

38.5 

90.0 

24,823 

21 

Albuquerque,  N.M. 

4954 

35.1  107.4 

15,157 

11 

Bellingham,  Wash. 

100 

48.6  122.5 

25,585 

24 

Alexandria,  La. . . . 

77 

31.3 

92.5 

17,510 

11 

Beloit,  Wis 

743 

42.5 

89. 

21,284 

15 

Alexandria,  Va. . . . 

33 

38.8 

77.0 

18,060 

15 

Berkeley,  Calif. . . . 

600 

37.8  122.3 

56,036 

40 

Allentown,  Pa 

321 

40.6 

75.5 

73,502 

52 

Berlin,  N.  H 

1013 

44.5 

71.2 

16,104 

12 

Alliance,  Ohio 

1040 

40.9 

81.1 

21,603 

15 

Bessemer,  Ala 

512 

33.4 

87.0 

18,674 

11 

Alton,  111 

578 

38.8 

90.1 

24,682 

18 

Bethlehem,  Pa 

300 

40.6 

75.4 

50,358 

13 

Altoona,  Pa 

1181 

40.5 

78.4 

60,331 

52 

Beverly,  Mass 

100 

42.6 

70.8 

22,561 

19 

Amarillo,  Tex 

3667 

35.2  101.7 

15,494 

10 

Biddeford,  Me 

75 

43.5 

70.5 

18,008 

17 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y. . 

276 

42.9 

74.1 

33,524 

31 

Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

866 

42.1 

75.9 

66,800 

48 

Anderson,  Ind 

874 

40.1 

85.8 

29,767 

22 

Birmingham,  Ala. . 

610 

35.5 

86.8 

178,806 

133 

Annapolis,  Md. . . . 

23 

38.9 

76.6 

11,214 

9 

Bismarck,  N.  D..  . 

1672 

4G.7  100.9 

7,122 

5 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich. . 

843 

42.3 

83.7 

19,516 

15 

Bloomfield,  N.  J..  . 

182 

40.7 

74.2 

22,019 

15 

Anniston,  Ala 

709 

33.7 

85.8 

17,734 

13 

Bloomington,  111..  . 

830 

40.5 

89. 

28,725 

26 

Ansonia,  Conn 

31 

41.3 

73.1 

17,643 

15 

Bluefield,  W.  Va. . . 

2558 

37.3 

81.2 

15,282 

11 

Appleton,  Wis 

790 

44.3 

88.4 

19,561 

17 

Boise,  Idaho 

2700 

43.6  116.3 

21,393 

17 

Arlington,  Mass. . . 

46 

42.4 

71.1 

18,665 

11 

Boston,  Mass 

100 

42.3 

71.1 

748,060 

670 

Asheville,  N.  C..  . . 

2208 

35.5 

82.5 

28.504 

19 

Braddock,  Pa 

1200 

40.4 

79.8 

20,879 

19 

Ashtabula,  Ohio. . . 

700 

41.8 

81.9 

22,082 

18 

Bradford,  Pa 

859 

42.0 

78.7 

15,525 

15 

Athens,  Ga 

705 

34.0 

83.4 

16,748 

15 

Bridgeport,  Conn. . 

40 

41.2 

73.2 

143,555 

102 

Atlanta,  Ga 

1050 

33.7 

84.4 

200,616 

155 

Bristol,  Conn 

400 

41.6 

72.9 

20,620 

10 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 

10 

39.4 

74.4 

50,707 

46 

Brockton,  Mass.  . . 

130 

42.1 

71. 

66,254 

57 

Attleboro,  Mass. . . 

137 

41.9 

71.3 

19,731 

16 

Brookline,  Mass. . . 

200 

42.3 

71.1 

37,748 

28 

Auburn,’ Me 

148 

44.1 

70.3 

16.985 

15 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

572 

42.9 

78.9 

506,775 

424 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

709 

42.9 

76.5 

36,192 

35 

Burlington,  Iowa.  . 

542 

40.8 

91.1 

24,057 

24 

Augusta,  Ga 

134 

33.4 

82. 

52,548 

41 

Burlington,  Vt. . . . 

109 

44.5 

73.3 

22,779 

20 

Augusta,  Me 

153 

44.3 

69.7 

14,114 

13 

Butler,  Pa 

1077 

40.8 

79.8 

23,778 

21 

Aurora,  111 

647 

41.7 

88.2 

36,397 

30 

Butte,  Mont 

5769 

46. 

112.5 

41,611 

39 

Austin,  Tex 

502 

30.1 

92.7 

34,876 

30 

Cairo,  111 

327 

37.0 

89.2 

15,203 

15 

Bakersfield,  Calif. . 

400 

35.4 

119.0 

18,638 

13 

Cambridge,  Mass. . 

140 

42.4 

71.1 

109,694 

105 

Baltimore,  Md. . . . 

70 

39.3 

76.6 

733,826 

558 

Camden,  N.  J 

31 

39.9 

75.1 

116,309 

95 

Bangor,  Me 

24 

44.8 

68.8 

25,978 

25 

Canton,  Ohio 

1080 

40.7 

81.4 

87,091 

50 

Barberton,  Ohio. . . 

968 

41.0 

81.5 

18,811 

9 

Carbondale,  Pa. . . . 

1069 

41.6 

75.5 

18,640 

17 

Baton  Rouge,  La. . 

60 

30.4 

91.1 

21,782 

15 

Carson  City,  Nev. . 

4678 

39.1 119.5 

1,685 

2 

Battle  Creek,  Mich. 

824 

42.2 

85.2 

36,164 

25 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 

732 

42. 

91.6 

45,566 

33 

Bay  City,  Mich. . , 

586 

43.5 

83.8 

47,554 

45 

Central  Falls,  R.  I. 

100 

41.9 

71.4 

24,174 

23 

14 


APPENDIX 


CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS,  ETC.  (Continued) 


Alt. 


Champaign,  111. . . . 738 

Charleston,  S.  C..  . 15 

Charleston,  W.  Va.  601 
Charlotte,  N.  C.  . 759 

Charlotte  Amalie, 
Virgin  Islands. . . 10 

Chattanooga, Tenn.  693 

Chelsea,  Mass 100 

Chester,  Pa 40 

Cheyenne,  Wyo.. . . 6060 

Chicago,  111 598 

ChicagoHeights.Ill.  684 
Chicopee,  Mass. .. . 180 

Chillicothe,  Ohio . . 643 

Cicero,  111 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  . 553 

Clarksburg,  W.  Va.  1007 
Cleveland,  Ohio  . . 669 

Cleveland  Heights, 

Ohio 900 

Clifton,  N.  J 66 

Clinton,  Iowa 590 

Cohoes,  N.  Y 192 

Colorado  Springs, 

Colo 5982 

Columbia,  S.  C. . . . 315 

Columbus,  Ga 250 

Columbus,  Ohio. . . 780 

Concord,  N.  H..  . . 228 

Corning,  N.  Y 936 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa  994 
Covington,  Ky..  . . 513 

Cranston,  R.  I..  . . 80 

Cumberland,  Md. . 687 

Dallas,  Tex 434 

Danbury,  Conn 371 

Danville,  111 603 

Danville,  Va 408 

Davenport,  Iowa.  . 592 

Dayton,  Ohio 743 

Decatur,  111 682 

Denison,  Tex 757 

Denver,  Colo 5278 

Des  Moines,  Iowa . 807 

Detroit,  Mich 584 

Dover,  Del 34 

Dubuque,  Iowa.  . . 874 

Duluth,  Minn 606 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y. . . . 680 

Dunmore,  Pa 1000 

Duquesne,  Pa 935 

Durham,  N.  C 405 

East  Chicago,  Ind.  581 
East  Cleveland,  O.  660 
East  Liverpool,  O..  731 

Easton,  Pa 364 

East  Orange,  N.  J..  182 

E.  Providence,  R.  I.  100 
East  St.  Louis,  111..  414 

Eau  Claire,  Wis.. . . 797 

Elgin,  111 745 

Elizabeth,  N.  J..  . . 38 

Elkhart,  Ind 754 

Elmira,  N.  Y 859 

El  Paso,  Tex 3710 

Elyria,  Ohio 721 

Enid,  Okla 1247 

Erie,  Pa 800 

Evanston,  111 602 

Evansville,  Ind..  . . 394 


N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

(Thous.) 

40.2 

88.2 

15,873 

12 

32.8 

80. 

67,957 

59 

38.4 

81.7 

39,608 

2? 

35.2 

80.8 

46,338 

34 

18.0 

64.7 

7,747 

35. 

85.2 

57,895 

45 

42.4 

71. 

43,184 

32 

39.8 

75.4 

58,030 

39 

41.2 

104.8 

13,829 

11 

41.8 

87.6 

2,701,705 

2,185 

41.5 

87.6 

19,653 

15 

42.2 

72.6 

36,214 

25 

39.3 

83.0 

15,831 

15 

41.8 

87.7 

44,995 

15 

39.1 

84.5 

401,247 

364 

39.3 

80.4 

27,869 

9 

41.4 

81.8 

796,841 

561 

41.5 

81.7 

15,236 

3 

40.7 

74.1 

26,470 

12 

41.8 

90.2 

24,151 

26 

42.7 

73.8 

22,987 

25 

38.8  : 

L04.8 

30,105 

29 

33.9 

81. 

37,524 

26 

32.4 

84.9 

31,125 

21 

40. 

83. 

237,031 

182 

43.2 

71.6 

22,167 

21 

42.1 

77.1 

15,820 

14 

41.2 

95.8 

36,162 

29 

39. 

84.4 

57,121 

53 

41.8 

71.4 

29,407 

21 

39.7 

78.8 

29,837 

22 

32.6 

96.8 

158,976 

92 

41.4 

73.5 

18,943 

20 

40.1 

87.6 

33,776 

28 

36.5 

79.4 

21,539 

19 

41.5 

90.6 

56,727 

43 

39.7 

84.2 

152,559 

117 

39.8 

88.9 

43,818 

31 

33.8 

96.5 

17,065 

14 

39.7 

105. 

256,491 

213 

41.5 

93.5 

126,468 

86 

42.3 

83. 

993,678 

466 

39.1 

75.6 

4,042 

4 

42.5 

90.7 

39,141 

38 

46.9 

92.4 

98,917 

78 

42.5 

79.4 

19,336 

17 

41.4 

75.6 

20,250 

18 

40.4 

79.8 

19,011 

16 

36. 

79. 

21,719 

18 

41.6 

87.5 

35,967 

19 

41.4 

81.5 

27,292 

9 

40.6 

81. 

21,411 

20 

40.7 

75.3 

33,813 

29 

40.7 

74.2 

50,710 

34 

41.8 

71.4 

21,793 

16 

38.6 

90.1 

66,767 

59 

44.8 

91.5 

20,906 

18 

42. 

88.2 

27.454 

26 

40.5 

74.3 

95,783 

73 

41.8 

86.1 

24,277 

19 

42.1 

76.8 

45,393 

37 

31.7  : 

105.9 

77,560 

39 

41.3 

82.1 

20,474 

15 

36.4 

97.9 

16,576 

14 

42.1 

80.2 

93,372 

67 

42. 

87.6 

37,234 

25 

38. 

87.5 

85,264 

70 

Alt. 


Everett,  Mass 100 

Everett,  Wash 150 

Fairmont,  W.  Va. . 883 

Fall  River,  Mass.. . 200 

Fargo,  N.  Dak. . . . 906 

Farrell,  Pa 945 

Findlay,  Ohio 780 

Fitchburg,  Mass.  . 600 

Flint,  Mich 733 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis..  764 
Fort  Dodge,  Iowa.  1011 
Fort  Smith,  Ark. . . 448 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind. . 780 

Fort  Worth,  Tex.  . 619 

Framingham, Mass.  199 

Frankfort,  Ky 511 

Freeport,  111." 780 

Fresno,  Calif 290 

Galesburg,  111 789 

Galveston,  Tex.. . . 10 

Gardner,  Mass. . . . 1030 

Garfield,  N.  J 60 

Gary,  Ind 581 

Glens  Falls,  N.  Y..  150 

Gloucester,  Mass. . 80 

Gloversville,  N.  Y.  798 
Grand  Rapids, Mich.  654 
Great  Falls,  Mont.  3332 

Green  Bay,  Wis 591 

Greenfield,  Mass. . . 204 

Greensboro,  N.  C..  836 

Greenville,  S.  C. . . 970 

Hackensack,  N.  J. . 14 

Hagerstown,  Md.. . 522 

Hamilton,  Ohio.  . . 605 

Hammond,  Ind.  . . 590 

Hamtramck,  Mich.  630 

Hannibal,  Mo 489 

Harrisburg,  Pa. . . . 357 

Harrison,  N.  J 38 

Hartford,  Conn.. . . 40 

Haverhill,  Mass. . . 100 

Hazleton,  Pa 1600 

Helena,  Mont 4111 

Highland  Park, 

Mich 639 

Hoboken,  N.  J. . . . 260 

Holyoke,  Mass. . . . 200 

Homestead,  Pa..  . . 761 

Honolulu,  Hawaii.  10 

Houston,  Tex 61 

Huntington,  W.Va.  564 
Hutchinson,  Kans.  1530 
Indianapolis  Ind. . 720 

Ironwood,  Mich. . . 1506 
Irvington,  N.  J. . . . 160 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 815 

Jackson,  Mich 947 

Jackson,  Miss 297 

Jacksonville,  Fla. . . 11 

Jamestown,  N.  Y. . 1311 
Janesville,  Wis. . . . 803 

Jefferson  City,  Mo.  627 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. . 101 

Johnstown,  Pa 1180 

Joliet,  111 545 

Joplin,  Mo 1008 

Juneau,  Alaska.  ...  10 

Kalamazoo,  Mich..  793 
Kansas  City,  Kans.  753 


N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

(Thous.) 

42.4 

71.1 

40,120 

33 

42.4  122.3 

27,644 

25 

39.5 

80.2 

17,851 

10 

42.7 

71.1 

120,485 

119 

46.9 

96.9 

21,961 

14 

41.2 

80.5 

15,586 

10 

41.0 

83.6 

17,021 

15 

42.6 

71.8 

41,029 

38 

43. 

83.6 

91,599 

39 

43.8 

88.4 

23,427 

19 

42.5 

94.2 

19,347 

16 

35.4 

94.5 

28,870 

24 

41.1 

85.1 

86,549 

64 

32.7 

97.2 

106,482 

73 

42.3 

71.5 

17,033 

13 

38.1 

84.5 

9,805 

10 

42.3 

89.6 

19,669 

18 

36.7 

119.7 

45,086 

25 

40.9 

90.4 

23,834 

22 

29.3 

94.9 

44,255 

37 

42.6 

72.0 

16,971 

15 

40.9 

74.1 

19,381 

10 

41.5 

87.5 

55,378 

17 

43.3 

73.6 

16,638 

15 

42.6 

70.6 

22,947 

24 

43. 

74.3 

22,075 

21 

43. 

85.6 

137,634 

113 

47.4 

111.4 

24,121 

14 

44.5 

88. 

31,017 

25 

42.6 

72.6 

15,462 

10 

36.1 

79.8 

19,861 

16 

34.8 

82.4 

23,127 

16 

40.9 

74.1 

17,667 

14 

39.6 

77.7 

28,064 

17 

39.3 

84.5 

39,675 

35 

41.6 

87.5 

36,004 

21 

42.3 

83. 

48,615 

4 

39.7 

91.4 

19,306 

18 

40.2 

76.9 

75,917 

64 

40.7 

74.2 

15,721 

14 

41.8 

72.7 

138,036 

99 

42.7 

71. 

53,884 

44 

41. 

76. 

32,277 

25 

46.5 

112. 

12,037 

13 

42.3 

83.1 

46,499 

4 

40.7 

74. 

68,166 

70 

42.2 

72.6 

60,203 

58 

40.4 

79.9 

20,452 

19 

21.4 

157.9 

83,327 

52 

29.7 

95.5 

138,276 

79 

38.5 

82.5 

50,177 

31 

38. 

97.9 

23,298 

16 

39.7 

85.1 

314,194 

234 

46.4 

90.2 

15,739 

13 

40.7 

74.2 

25,480 

12 

42.4 

76.5 

17,004 

15 

42.2 

84.4 

48,374 

31 

32.2 

90. 

22,817 

21 

29.6 

81.6 

91,558 

58 

42.1 

79.2 

38,917 

31 

42.7 

89.0 

18,293 

14 

38  5 

92.1 

14,490 

12 

40.6 

74.1 

298,103 

268 

40.3 

79. 

67,327 

55 

41.5 

88.1 

38,442 

35 

37. 

94.5 

29,902 

32 

58.4: 

134.5 

3,058 

2 

42.3 

85.5 

48,487 

39 

39.1 

94.7 

101,177 

82 

APPENDIX 


15 


CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS,  ETC.  (Continued) 


Alt. 

N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

Kansas  City,  Mo. . 

766 

39.1  94.6 

(Thous.) 

324,410  248 

Kearny,  N.  J 

111 

40.7  74.2 

26,724 

19 

Kenosha,  Wis 

607 

42.6  88.8 

40,472 

21 

Key  West,  Fla . . . . 

10 

24.6  81.8 

18,749 

20 

Kingston,  N.  Y.  . . 

224 

41.9  74. 

26,688 

26 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  . . 

932 

35.9  84. 

77,818 

36 

Kokomo,  Ind 

813 

40.5  86.2 

30,067 

17 

Lackawanna,  N.  Y. 

600 

42.8  78.9 

17,918 

15 

La  Crosse,  Wis. 

580 

43.8  91.1 

30,421 

30 

Lafayette,  Ind 

594 

40.4  86.9 

22,486 

20 

La  Grange,  Ga 

789 

33.0  85.0 

17,038 

6 

Lakewood,  Ohio 

41.4  81.8 

41,732 

15 

Lancaster,  Pa 

367 

40. 

76.3 

53,150 

47 

Lansing,  Mich .... 

844 

42.6  84.5 

57.327 

31 

Laredo,  Tex 

438 

27.4  99.5 

22,710 

15 

Lawrence,  Mass. . . 

100 

42.7  71.1 

94,270 

86 

Leavenworth,  Kan. 

769 

39.3  95.0 

16,912 

19 

Lebanon,  Pa 

474 

40.4  76.5 

24,643 

19 

Leominster,  Mass. . 

404 

42.5  71.7 

19,744 

18 

Lewiston,  Me 

196 

44.1  70.2 

31,791 

26 

Lexington,  Ky  . 

947 

38. 

84.3 

41,534 

35 

Lima,  Ohio 

877 

40.7  84.1 

41,326 

31 

Lincoln,  Neb 

1,140 

40.7  96.6 

54,948 

44 

Little  Rock,  Ark . . 

288 

34.7  92.2 

65,142 

46 

Lockport,  N.  Y . . 

570 

43.2  78.7 

21,308 

18 

Logansport,  Ind. 

592 

40.7  86.2 

21,626 

19 

Long  Beach,  Calif. 

10 

33.8  118.1 

55,593 

18 

Lorain,  Ohio 

959 

41.4  82.2 

37,295 

29 

Los  Angeles,  Calif . 

339 

34.  118.2 

576,673 

319 

Louisville,  Ky.  . . . 

463 

38.2  85.5 

234,891 

224 

Lowell,  Mass 

140 

42.6  71.4 

112,759 

106 

Lynchburg,  Va. . . . 

531 

37.4  79.2 

30,070 

29 

Lynn,  Mass 

160 

42.4  70.9 

99,148 

89 

McKeesport,  Pa. 

750 

40.4  79.8 

46,781 

43 

McKees  Rocks,  Pa. 

725 

40.5  80.1 

16,713 

15 

Macon,  Ga 

334 

32.8  83.6 

52,995 

41 

Madison,  Wis 

924 

43. 

89.4 

38,378 

26 

Mahanoy,  Pa 

1,231 

40.8  76.1 

15,599 

16 

Malden,  Mass.  . . . 

100 

42.4  71.1 

49,103 

44 

Manchester,  N.  H. 

224 

43. 

71.5 

78,384 

70 

Manila,  P.  I 

10 

14.6  121.0 

283,613 

234 

Manitowoc,  Wis.  . . 

592 

44.1  87.7 

17,563 

13 

Mansfield,  Ohio. 

1,237 

40.8  82.5 

27,824 

21 

Marion,  Ind 

810 

40.5  85.7 

23,747 

19 

Marion,  Ohio 

986 

40.5  83.1 

27,891 

18 

Marshalltown, 
Iowa 

899 

42.0  92.9 

15,731 

13 

Mason,  Iowa 

1,126 

43.1  93.1 

20,065 

11 

Massillon,  Ohio . . . 

939 

40.8  81.4 

17,428 

14 

Medford,  Mass. . . . 

20 

42.4  71.1 

39,038 

23 

Melrose,  Mass.  . 

59 

42.4  71.1 

18,204 

16 

Memphis,  Tenn.  . . 

274 

35.2  90. 

162,351 

131 

Meriden,  Conn.  . 

150 

40.6  86.2 

34,764 

32 

Meriden,  Miss.  . , , 

344 

32.2  88.5 

23,399 

23 

Miami,  Fla 

15 

25.8  80.2 

29,571 

5 

Michigan  City,  Ind. 

597 

41.7  86.9 

19,457 

19 

Middletown,  N.  Y. 

562 

41.4  74.4 

18.420 

15 

Middletown,  Ohio. 

653 

39.5  84.3 

23,594 

13 

Milwaukee,  Wis. . . 

636 

43. 

87.9 

457,147 

374 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

847 

45. 

93.1 

380,582 

301 

Mishawaka,  Ind . . . 

743 

41.7  86.2 

15,195 

12 

Mobile,  Ala 

15 

30.6  88. 

60,777 

52 

Moline,  111 

574 

41.4  90.5 

30,734 

24 

Monessen,  Pa 

762 

40.1  79.9 

18,179 

12 

Montclair,  N.  J. 

241 

40.8  74.2 

28,810 

22 

Montgomery,  Ala. . 

160 

32.4  86.3 

43,464 

38 

Montpelier,  Vt. . . . 

523 

44.2  72.6 

7,125 

8 

Mount  Carmel,  Pa. 

1,056 

40.8  76.4 

17,469 

18 

Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y 

180 

40.9  73.8 

42,726 

31 

Muncie,  Ind 

948 

40.2  85.3 

36,524 

24 

Alt. 

N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

Muscatine,  Iowa . . 

(Thous.) 

552 

41.4 

91.0 

16,068 

16 

Muskegon,  Mich . . 

589 

43.2 

86.1 

36,570 

24 

Muskogee,  Okla.  . 

612 

35.7 

95.3 

30,277 

25 

Nanticoke,  Pa.  . . . 

560 

41.2 

76.1 

22,614 

19 

Nashua.  N.  H . . . . 

168 

42.8 

71.5 

28,379 

26 

Nashville,  Tenn.  . . 

497 

36. 

86.8 

118,342 

110 

New  Albany,  Ind. . 

464 

38.2 

85.8 

22,992 

21 

Newark,  N.  J.  . . . 

235 

40.7 

74.1 

414,524 

347 

Newark,  Ohio 

836 

40. 

82.5 

26,718 

25 

NewBedford.Mass. 

100 

41.6 

70.9 

121,217 

97 

New  Britain,  Conn. 
New  Brunswick, 

300 

41.7 

72.8 

59,316 

44 

N.  J 

71 

40.5 

74.5 

32,779 

23 

Newburgh,  N.  Y . . 

94 

41.5 

74. 

30,366 

28 

New  Castle,  Pa.  . 

806 

41. 

80.2 

44,938 

36 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

40 

41.2 

72.9 

162,537 

134 

New  London,  Conn. 

100 

41.3 

72.1 

25,688 

20 

New  Orleans,  La.  . 

5 

29.9 

90.1 

387,219 

339 

Newport,  Ky 

512 

39. 

84.3 

29,317 

30 

Newport,  R.  I . . . . 

100 

41.5 

71.2 

30,255 

27 

Newport  News,  Va. 

22 

36.9 

76.5 

35,596 

20 

New  Rochelle,  N.Y. 

100 

40.9 

73.8 

36,213 

29 

Newton,  Mass.  . . . 

80 

42.3 

71.2 

46,054 

40 

New  York,  N.  Y.  . 

36 

40.8 

73.9 

5,620,048 

4,767 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

603 

43.1 

79. 

50,760 

30 

Norfolk,  Va 

15 

36.8 

76.3 

115,777 

67 

Norristown,  Pa . . . 

83 

40.1 

75.4 

32,319 

28 

N.  Adams,  Mass . . 

800 

42.6 

73.1 

22,282 

22 

Northampton, Mass.  200 

42.3 

72.6 

21,951 

19 

North  Tonawanda, 

N.  Y 

580 

43.0 

78.9 

15,482 

12 

Norwalk,  Conn.  . . 

100 

41.1 

73.4 

27,743 

24 

Norwich,  Conn 

200 

41.5 

72.1 

29,685 

28 

Norwood,  Ohio. . . . 

600 

39.2 

84.5 

24,966 

16 

Oakland,  Calif.  . . . 

10 

37.7  122.2 

216,261 

150 

Oak  Park,  111 

630 

41.8 

87.8 

39,858 

19 

Ogden,  Utah 

4,300 

41.2 

112. 

32,804 

26 

Oil  City,  Pa 

Oklahoma  City, 

1,009 

41.4 

79.8 

21,274 

16 

Okla 

1,199 

35.4 

97.6 

91,295 

64 

Okmulgee,  Okla. 

650 

35.6 

96.0 

17,430 

4 

Olean,  N.  Y.  . 

1,452 

42.1 

78.4 

20,506 

15 

Omaha,  Neb 

1,040 

41.2 

96. 

191,601 

124 

Orange,  N.  J 

220 

40.7 

74.3 

33,268 

30 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

755 

44. 

88.5 

33,162 

33 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

295 

43.4 

76.5 

23,626 

23 

Ottumwa,  Iowa  . . . 

653 

41. 

92.4 

23,003 

22 

Owensboro,  Ky.  . . 

393 

57.9 

87.1 

17,424 

16 

Paducah,  Ky 

326 

37. 

88.6 

24,735 

23 

Parkersburg,  W.Va. 

615 

39.3 

81.6 

20,050 

18 

Parsons,  Kan 

902 

37.4 

95.3 

16,028 

12 

Passaic,  N.  J 

60 

40.8 

74.1 

63,841 

55 

Paterson,  N.  J . . 

180 

40.9 

74.2 

135,875 

126 

Pawtucket,  R.  I 

100 

41.8 

71.3 

64,248 

52 

Peabody,  Mass. . . . 

19 

42.5 

70.9 

19,552 

16 

Peeksldll,  N.  Y . . . 

11 

41.3 

73.9 

15,868 

15 

Pensacola,  Fla.  . 

39 

30.3 

87.1 

31,035 

23 

Peoria,  111 . . 

465 

40.6 

89.7 

76,121 

67 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. 

10 

40.5 

74.3 

41,707 

32 

Petersburg,  Va. . . 

88 

37.2 

77.5 

31,012 

24 

Philadelphia,  Pa. . . 

68 

39.9 

75.1 

1,823,779 

1,549 

Phillipsburg,  N.  J . 

218 

40.7 

75.2 

16,923 

14 

Phoenix,  Ariz 

1,090 

33.4  112. 

29,053 

11 

Pierre,  S.  D 

1,490 

44.3  100.4 

3,209 

4 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark . . . 

234 

34.2 

92.0 

19,280 

15 

Pittsburg,  Kan .... 

932 

37.4 

94.7 

18,052 

15 

Pittsburgh,  Pa ... . 

758 

40.5 

80. 

588,343 

534 

Pittsfield,  Mass.  . . 

1,000 

42.4 

73.2 

41,763 

32 

Pittston,  Pa 

570 

41.3 

75.8 

18,497 

16 

Plainfield,  N.  J. . . . 

107 

40.6 

74.4 

27,700 

21 

10 


APPENDIX 


CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS,  ETC.  (Continued) 


Alt. 


Plymouth,  Pa 535 

Pontiac,  Mich 940 

Port  Arthur,  Tex. . 10 

Port  Chester,  N.  Y.  34 
Port  Huron,  Mich.  589 

Portland,  Me 66 

Portland,  Ore 54 

Portsmouth,  Ohio.  535 
Portsmouth,  Va. . . 10 

Pottstown,  Pa 139 

Pottsville,  Pa 900 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y.  173 
Providence,  R.  I. . . 10 

Pueblo,  Colo 4695 

Quincy,  111 984 

Quincy,  Mass 100 

Racine,  Wis 626 

Raleigh,  N.  C 362 

Ranger,  Tex 1444 

Reading,  Pa 264 

Reno,  Nev 4495 

Revere,  Mass 180 

Richmond,  Calif. . . 10 

Richmond,  Ind..  . . 939 

Richmond,  Va. . ..  . 164 

Riverside,  Calif 848 

Roanoke,  Ya 925 

Rochester,  N.  Y. . . 512 

Rockford,  111 729 

Rock  Island,  111.. . . 581 

Rome,  N.  Y 460 

Sacramento,  Calif..  31 

Saginaw,  Mich 601 

St.  Cloud,  Minn.. . 1043 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. . . . 874 

St.  Louis,  Mo 413 

St.  Paul,  Minn..  . . 180 

Salem,  Mass 100 

Salem,  Ore. 171 

Salt  Lake  City, 

Utah 4760 

San  Antonio,  Tex. . 661 

San  Bernardino, 

Calif 1049 

San  Diego,  Calif. . . 300 

Sandusky,  Ohio . . . 598 

SanFrancisco, Calif.  900 
San  Jose,  Calif. ...  98 

San  Juan,  P.  R.  . . 10 

Santa  Ana,  Calif.. . 139 

Santa  Barbara, 

Calif 69 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.  6850 
Santa  Monica, 

Calif 79 

Savannah,  Ga 20 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.  235 

Scranton,  Pa 744 

Seattle,  Wash 25 

Sedalia,  Mo 909 

Selma,  Ala 127 

Shamokin,  Pa 900 

Sharon,  Pa 356 

Shawnee,  Okla 1042 

Sheboygan,  Wis. . . 589 

Shenandoah,  Pa. . . 1300 
Shreveport,  La. . . . 204 

Sioux  City,  Iowa . . 1106 
Sioux  Falls,  S.  Dak.  1398 
Somerville,  Mass. . 100 


N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

(thous.l 

41.2 

76.0 

16,500 

17 

42.6 

83.2 

34,273 

15 

30. 

94. 

22,251 

8 

41.0 

73.6 

16,573 

13 

43. 

82.5 

25,944 

19 

43.7 

70.2 

69,272 

59 

45.5  122.7 

258,288 

207 

38.8 

83. 

33,011 

23 

36.8 

76.4 

54,387 

33 

40.2 

75.6 

17,431 

16 

40.6 

76.2 

21,876 

20 

41.8 

73.9 

35,000 

28 

41.8 

71.4 

237,595 

224 

38.2  104.6 

43,050 

42 

40. 

91.3 

35,978 

37 

42.2 

71. 

47,876 

33 

42.1 

87.9 

58,593 

38 

35.8 

78.8 

24,418 

19 

32.6 

98.6 

16,205 

40.3 

76. 

107,784 

96 

39.7  119.8 

12,016 

11 

42.4 

71. 

28,823 

18 

37.9  122.4 

16,843 

7 

39.9 

84.9 

26,765 

22 

37.5 

77.5 

171,667 

128 

3.40  117.4 

19,341 

15 

37.3 

80. 

50,842 

35 

43.2 

77.5 

295,750 

218 

42.2 

89. 

65,651 

45 

41.4 

90.6 

35,177 

24 

43.2 

78.6 

26,341 

20 

38.5  121.5 

65,908 

45 

43.4 

84. 

61,903 

51 

45.6 

94.1 

15,873 

11 

39.7 

94.9 

77,939 

77 

38.5 

90.2 

772,897 

687 

44.9 

93. 

234,698 

215 

42.5 

70.9 

42,529 

44 

44.9  123. 

17,679 

14 

40.7  112. 

118,110 

93 

29.4 

98.5 

161,379 

97 

34.1  117.3 

18,721 

13 

32.7  117.1 

74,683 

40 

41.3 

82.7 

22,897 

20 

37.8  122.4 

506,676 

417 

37.2 

121.9 

39,642 

29 

18.5 

66.1 

70,707 

49 

33.8  117.9 

15,485 

8 

34.7  119.7 

19,441 

12 

35.6  106. 

7,236 

5 

34.0  118.2 

15,252 

8 

32.1 

81.1 

83,252 

65 

42.8 

73.9 

88,723 

73 

41.4 

75.7 

137,783 

130 

47.5  122.2 

315,312 

237 

38.6 

93.2 

21,144 

18 

32.4 

87.0 

15,589 

14 

40.7 

76.6 

21.204 

20 

41.2 

80.6 

21,747 

15 

35.3 

96.9 

15,348 

12 

43.7 

87.7 

30,955 

26 

40.8 

76.3 

24,726 

26 

32.4 

93.8 

43,874 

28 

42.5 

96.3 

71,227 

48 

43.5 

96.9 

25,202 

14 

42.4 

71. 

93,091 

77 

Alt. 


South  Bend,  Ind.  . 712 

Spartanburg,  S.  C..  878 

Spokane,  Wash.. . . 1889 

Springfield,  111 598 

Springfield,  Mass. . 180 

Springfield,  Mo..  . . 1300 
Springfield,  Ohio.  . 979 

Stamford,  Conn. . . 40 

Steubenville,  Ohio.  714 
Stockton,  Calif. ...  18 

Sunbury,  Pa 445 

Superior,  Wis 650 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. . . . 410 

Tacoma,  Wash..  . . 110 

Tallahassee,  Fla. . . 215 

Tampa,  Fla 15 

Taunton,  Mass..  . . 80 

Terre  Haute,  Ind. . 485 

Toledo,  Ohio 603 

Topeka,  Kans 928 

Torrington,  Conn..  600 

Trenton,  N.  J 60 

Troy,  N.  Y 200 

Tucson,  Ariz 2375 

Tulsa,  Okla 711 

Union,  N.  J 104 

Uniontown,  Pa. . . . 980 

Utica,  N.  Y 436 

Vallejo,  Calif 44 

Vicksburg,  Miss. . . 201 

Vincennes,  Ind. . . . 467 

Waco,  Tex 396 

Walla  Walla, Wash.  936 
Waltham,  Mass. . . 80 

Warren,  Ohio 880 

Washington,  D.  C.  90 
Washington,  Pa..  . 1156 
Waterbury,  Conn..  500 
Waterloo,  Iowa.  . . 852 

Watertown,  Mass..  80 
Watertown,  N.  Y..  478 

Watervliet,  N.Y...  49 

Waukegan,  111 664 

Wausau,  Wis 1167 

Waycross,  Ga 138 

Westfield,  Mass 149 

WestHoboken.N.J.  10 
West  New  York, 

N.  J 10 

West  Orange,  N.  J.  100 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.. . 678 

White  Plains,  N.  Y.  201 

Wichita,  Kans 1295 

Wichita  Falls,  Tex.  951 
Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. . 580 

Wilkinsburg,  Pa. . . 922 

Williamsport,  Pa. . 528 

Wilmington,  Del.. . 100 

Winona,  Minn 666 

Winston-Salem, 

N.  C 884 

Winthrop,  Mass. . . 10 

Woburn,  Mass 98 

Woonsocket,  R.  I..  140 

Worcester,  Mass. . . 600 

Yakima,  Wash..  . . 1065 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 300 

York,  Pa 371 

Youngstown,  Ohio.  847 
Zanesville,  Ohio.  . . 726 


N.° 

w.° 

1920 

1910 

(thous.l 

41.8 

85.2 

70,983 

54 

34.8 

82. 

22,638 

18 

47.6 

117.6 

104,437 

104 

39.7 

89.6 

59,183 

52 

42.1 

72.5 

129,614 

89 

37.1 

93.1 

39,631 

35 

39.9 

83.9 

60,840 

47 

41. 

73.5 

40,067 

29 

40.4 

81. 

28,508 

22 

37.9 

121.2 

40,296 

23 

40.9 

76.8 

15,721 

14 

46.7 

92.1 

39,671 

40 

43. 

76.1 

171,717 

137 

47.3 

122.4 

96,965 

84 

30.3 

84.3 

5,637 

5 

27.9 

82.3 

51,608 

38 

41.9 

71.1 

37,137 

34 

39.4 

87.3 

66,083 

58 

41.6 

83.5 

243,164 

168 

39. 

95.6 

50,022 

44 

41.8 

73.1 

20,623 

15 

40.2 

74.9 

119,289 

97 

42.7 

74.7 

72,013 

77 

32.2: 

111. 

20,292 

13 

36.1 

96. 

72,075 

18 

40.6 

74.3 

20,651 

21 

39.9 

79.8 

15,692 

13 

43.1 

75  1 

94,156 

74 

38.2 

122.2 

21,107 

11 

32.3 

90.9 

18,072 

21 

38.7 

87.5 

17,160 

15 

31.4 

97.2 

38,500 

26 

46.1 

118.4 

15,503 

19 

42.4 

71.2 

30,915 

28 

41.2 

80.9 

27,050 

11 

38.9 

77. 

437,571 

331 

40.2 

80.2 

21,480 

19 

41.5 

73.1 

91,715 

73 

42.5 

92.3 

36,230 

27 

42.2 

71.1 

21,457 

13 

44. 

75.9 

31,285 

27 

42.7 

73.7 

16,073 

15 

42.4 

87.8 

19,226 

16 

45.0 

89.6 

18,661 

17 

31.2 

82.4 

18,068 

14 

42.  lj 

I 72.8 

18,604 

16 

40.7 

74. 

40,074 

35 

40.7 

74. 

29,926 

14 

40.8 

74.2 

15,573 

11 

41. 

80.9 

56,208 

42 

41. 

73.8 

21,031 

16 

37.7 

97.2 

72,217 

52 

33.7 

98.4 

40,079 

8 

41.3 

76. 

73,833 

67 

40.4 

79.8 

24,403 

19 

41.3 

77.1 

36,198 

32 

39.7 

75.6 

110,168 

87 

44.0 

91.6 

19,143 

19 

36.1 

80.3 

48,395 

23 

42.4 

71.0 

15,455 

10 

42.5 

71.4 

16,574 

15 

42. 

71.5 

43,496 

38 

42.2 

71.3 

179,754 

146 

46.7  : 

120.5 

18,539 

14 

40.9 

73.8 

100,176 

80 

39.9' 

76.7 

47,512 

45 

41. 

80.8 

132,358 

79 

39.9 

82. 

29,569 

28 

APPENDIX  17 

VII.  CITIES  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  HAVING  A POPULATION  OF  100,000  AND  OVER, 
AND  SOME  OTHER  CITIES  OF  IMPORTANCE. 


Population  figures,  stated  in  nearest  thousands,  are  from  the  latest  available  data,  and  are  estimated  where 

no  census  figures  are  obtainable. 


Aachen .... 

Germany.  . . 
Scotland .... 

146.000 

159.000 

Cadiz 

. Spain . 

63,000 

791,000 

Gottenborg. 
Gratz 

Sweden 

202,000 

158,000 

Aberdeen . . 

Cairo 

■ Egypt 

. Austria 

Adelaide.  . 

Australia . . . 

255,000 

Calais 

. France 

73,000 

Guadalajara. Mexico. . . . 

119,000 

Adrianople. 
Agra 

Greece 

50,000 

186,000 

Calcutta.  . . 

. India . . 

1,263,000 

59,000 

Hague,  The 
Halifax .... 

Netherlands 

353,000 

99,000 

India 

Cambridge. 

. England .... 

. England. . . 

Ahmadabad 

India 

274,000 

Campinas. . 
Canton .... 

. Brazil 

35,000 

950.000 

207.000 

Halifax . . 

Canada 

70,000 

182,000 

110,000 

Aleppo .... 

Syria 

250.000 

445.000 

. China . . 

Halle 

Germany.  . 
Germany.  . 

Alexandria . 

Egypt 

Cape  Town. 

. South  Africa 

Hamborn . . 

Algiers.  . . . 
Allahabad. . 

Algeria 

206,000 

156,000 

Cardiff .... 

. W ales . . 

200,000 

162,000 

Hamburg.  . 
Hamilton.  . 

Germany.  . 
Canada . . . . 

986,000 

82,000 

India 

Cassel 

. Germany . . . 

Altona 

Amoy 

Germany.  . . 
China 

169.000 

400.000 

160.000 

Cartagena. . 
Cawnpur. . . 
Cettinje.  . . 

. Spain 

. India . . . 

103.000 

213.000 

Hammer- 
fest . . 

N orway . . . 
China 

3,000 

730,000 

Amritsar . . . 

India 

. Yugoslavia. . 

5,000 

Hangchow . 

Amsterdam. 

.Netherlands 

642.000 

334.000 

Changsha.  . 
Charlotten- 

. China 

550,000 

Hankow . . . 

China  . 

1,500,000 

Antwerp . . . 

Belgium .... 

Hanoi 

.French  In- 

Archangel . . 

Russia 

43,000 

burg .... 

. Germany . . . 

323,000 

do-China 

150,000 

Astrakhan. . 

Russia 

164,000 

Chemnitz . . 

. Germany . . . 

304,000 

Hanover.  . . 

. Germany.  . 

310,000 

Asuncion. . . 

Paraguay . . . 
Greece 

100,000 

Chinkiang. . 
Cholon .... 

. China 

478,000 

Havana. . . . 

. Cuba  .... 

364.000 

163.000 

189.000 

Athens 

301.000 

158.000 

.French  In- 

Havre 

France 

Auckland . . 

.NewZealand 

do-China . 

227,000 

Helsingfors. 

. Finland  . . . 

Augsburg . . 

.Germany. 

155,000 

ChristchurchNew  Zea- 

Hiroshima  . 

.Japan 

162,000 

Bagdad . . 

Traq 

250,000 

land 

106,000 

Hongkong. . 

. China 

561,000 

Bahia 

Brazil 

348.000 

250.000 

Chungking. 
Cologne.  . . 

. China . . . 

440.000 

633.000 

H owrah 

India 

158.000 

110.000 

Baku 

.Azerbaijan. . 

. Germany . . . 

Huddersfield  England . . . 

Bangalore . 

.India 

238,000 

Colombo. . . 

. Ceylon 

244,000 

Hull 

. England . . . 

278,000 

Bangkok. 
Barcelona . . 

Siam 

. Spain 

541.000 

582.000 

Constanti- 
nople .... 

. Turkey 

1,000,000 

Hyderabad. 
Irkutsk.  . . . 

. India 

. Siberia .... 

404.000 

129.000 

Bareilly. . . . 

. India 

128,000 

Copenhagen  Denmark. . . 

666,000 

Jaffa 

. Palestine . . 

45,000 

Bari 

. Italy 

109.000 

156.000 

Cordoba . . . 

Argentina. . . 
. Ireland 

156,000 

77,000 

Jaipur 

. India 

120,000 

Barmen .... 

Germany.  . . 

Cork 

Jerusalem . . 

.Palestine.  . 

64,000 

Basel 

Basra 

Switzerland. 
Iraq 

136,000 

85,000 

Coventry.  . 
Crefeld .... 

.England. . . . 
. Germany . . . 

128,000 

124,000 

Johannes- 
burg  

South  Africa  284,000 

Batavia 

Java 

240,000 

Croydon. . . 

.England. . . . 

191,000 

Kabul 

. Afghanistan 

150,000 

Batum 

Georgia ... 
Syria 

46,000 

180,000 

275,000 

Dacca . 

India 

117.000 

250.000 

Kanazawa. . 

Japan 

159.000 

216.000 
136.000 

Beirut.  . 

Damascus. . 

. Syria  . 

Karachi . . . 

India 

Belem 

Brazil 

Danzig .... 

. Independ- 

Karlsruhe.  . 

. Germany.  . 

Belfast .... 

Ireland 

393,000 

ent  City . . 

330,000 

Kazan. .... 

. Russia .... 

195,000 

Belgrade . . . 
Benares .... 

Yugoslavia. . 
India 

120,000 

199,000 

Delhi 

. India 

303.000 

130.000 

Kharkof . . . 

. Russia .... 

258.000 

205.000 

Derby 

. England . . . . 

Kiel 

. Germany.  . 

Bergen.  . . . 

Norway. . . . 

91,000 

Dortmund . 

. Germany . . 

295,000 

Kiev 

. Russia .... 

519,000 

Berlin 

Germany. . . 

1,903,000 

Dresden.  . . 

. Germany . . . 

529,000 

Kioto 

. Japan 

591,000 

Berne 

Switzerland. 

105,000 

Dublin .... 

. Ireland 

403,000 

Kishenef . . . 

. Rumania . . 

114,000 

Birkenhead 

England. . . . 

146,000 

Duisburg.  . 

. Germany . . . 

244,000 

Kobe 

. Japan 

609,000 

Birmingham  England. . . . 

919,000 

Dundee .... 

. Scotland. . . . 

168,000 

Kokland . . . 

. Siberia .... 

119,000 

Blackburn . . 

England .... 

127,000 

Durazzo . 

. Albania .... 

5,000 

Konigsburg. 

. Germany. . 

261,000 

Bogota .... 

Colombia. . . 

144,000 

Dusseldorf . 

. Germany.  . . 

407,000 

Krakow.  . . 

Poland .... 

176,000 

Bombay.  . 

India 

1,173,000 

East  Ham. . 

. England. . . . 

143,000 

Lahore.  . . . 

India 

280,000 

Bochum . . 

Germany.  . . 

143,000 

Edinburgh . 

. Scotland. . . . 

420,000 

La  Paz .... 

.Bolivia 

107,000 

Bologna . . . 
Bolton .... 

Italy 

England .... 

190.000 

179.000 

Ekaterino- 
slav 

. Russia 

220,000 

La  Plata . . . 
Leeds: . . . . 

Argentina. . 
. England . . . 

90,000 

458,000 

Bordeaux. 

France 

267,000 

Elberfeld. . . 

. Germany . . . 

157,000 

Leicester. . . 

England . . . . 

234,000 

Bradford . . . 

.England. . . . 

286,000 

Erfurt 

. Germany . . . 

130,000 

Leipzig .... 

Germany . . 

604,000 

Bremen ... 

Germany.  . . 

258,000 

Erzerum.  . . 

.Armenia. . . . 

80,000 

Leith 

. Scotland. . . 

80,000 

Breslau.  . . . 

Germany.  . . 

528,000 

Essen 

. Germany . . . 

439,000 

Lemberg. . . 

Poland 

206,000 

Brest 

France 

74,000 

Fez 

. Morocco. . . 

63,000 

Leningrad. . 

Russia 

2,319,000 

Brighton . . . 

England. . . . 

142,000 

Fiurne 

. Italian 

Leyton .... 

England.  . . 

128,000 

Brisbane . . . 

Australia . . . 

210,000 

City 

50,000 

Liege 

.Belgium. . . 

165,000 

Bristol 

England .... 

377,000 

Florence . . . 

Italy 

242,000 

Lille 

France 

201,000 

Bruges.  . . . 

Belgium. . . 

54,000 

Flushing.  . . 

. Netherlands 

23,000 

Lima 

Peru 

176,000 

Brunn 

Czechoslo- 

Frankfort.  . 

Germany.  . . 

433,000 

Lisbon .... 

Portugal 

490,000 

vakia.  . . . 

221,000 

Fuchow. . . . 

. China 

650,000 

Liverpool.  . 

England . . . . 

803,000 

Brunswick . 

Germany.  , , 

140,000 

Gateshead. . 

. England .... 

125,000 

Livourne . . . 

Italy 

108,000 

Brusa 

Brussels . . . 
Budapest 

Turkey 

Belgium 

Hungary. 

110,000 

685,000 

1,185,000 

Gelsen- 
kirchen . . 
Geneva. . . . 

. Germany . . 
. Switzerland. 

169.000 

135.000 

Lodz Poland.  . . . 

London 

(boroughs)  England  . . . 

452,000 

4,483,000 

BuenosAires  Argentina . . 

1,674,000 

Genoa 

Italy 

300,000 

London 

Bukharest. . 

Rumania. 

309,000  | 

Ghent 

Belgium . . . . 

166,000 

(greater) . 

.England.  . . . 

7,476,000 

Burnley.  . . 

England  — 

103,000  1 

Glasgow . . . 

. Scotland. . , . 

1,034,000 

Lucknow..  . 

. India 

244,000 

18 


APPENDIX 


FOREIGN  CITIES 

HAVING 

A POPULATION  OF 

100,000  AND  OVER, 

ETC.  (Continued) 

Lyon 

. France .... 

562,000 

Pilsen 

Czechoslo- 

Southamp- 

Madras. . . . 

India 

523,000 

vakia.  . 

88,000 

ton 

. England . . . 

160,000 

Madrid.  . . . 

Spain 

609,000 

Ping  Yang. . 

.Chosen 

South  ShieldsEngland. . . 

117,000 

Madura . . . 

India 

139,000 

(Korea) . 

59,000 

Spalatro . . 

. Austria .... 

21,000 

Magdeburg 

.Germany.  . 

286,000 

Piraeus ... 

Greece .... 

133,000 

Srinagar . 

. India 

142,000 

Mainz 

Germany . . 

108,000 

Pisa 

1 taly 

67,000 

Stettin.  . . . 

. Germany . . 

233,000 

Malaga.  . . 

Spain 

136,000 

Plauen .... 

Germany.  . 

105,000 

Stockholm . 

. Sweden . . . 

419,000 

Manchester 

. England  . . 

731,000 

Plymouth 

England. . . 

210,000 

Stockport.  . 

England . . . 

123,000 

Mandalay . . 

Burma  . 

147,000 

Poona 

India 

177,000 

Stoke 

. England . . . 

240,000 

Manila ... 

. Philippine 

Port-au- 

Strasburg . . 

. France  ... 

167,000 

Islands. . 

283,000 

Prince 

Haiti 

120,000 

Stuttgart . . 

. Germany . . 

309,000 

Mannheim 

Germany . 

230,000 

Porto  Alegre. Brazil 

150,000 

Suchau .... 

China 

550,000 

Marakesh  . 

. Morocco. . . 

102,000 

Port  Said . 

Egypt 

91,000 

Sucre 

Bolivia. . . . 

30,000 

Marseille. . . 

. France .... 

586,000 

Portsmouth 

England. . . 

247,000 

Suez 

■ Egypt 

31,000 

Meshed .... 

Persia 

80,000 

Posen 

Poland. 

157,000 

Sunderland 

. England . . . 

159,000 

Mekka .... 

El  Hejaz . . 

70,000 

Prague. . . 

Czechoslo- 

Surabaya. . 

.Java 

161,000 

Melbourne 

Australia . . 

784,000 

vakia . . . 

676,000 

Surat 

India 

118,000 

Messina.  . . 

Italy 

150,000 

Preston .... 

England . . . 

117,000 

Swansea . . . 

. Wales 

158,000 

Mexico  City.  Mexico. . . . 

1,080,000 

Quebec . . 

Canada . . . 

79,000 

Sydney .... 

. Australia . . 

857,000 

Middles- 

Rangoon . . . 

Burma 

340,000 

Szegedin.  . . 

Hungary.  . 

110,000 

brough . . 

England . . . 

131,000 

Reval 

Esthonia . . 

160,000 

Tabriz 

. Persia 

200,000 

Milan  . . . . 

Italy 

663,000 

Reykjavik. 

Iceland .... 

7,000 

Tashkend. 

. Turkestan . 

272,000 

Montevideo . Uraguay. . 

362,000 

Rheims.  . . . 

France .... 

77,000 

Teheran . . , 

. Persia 

220,000 

Montreal . . 

Canada. . . 

607,000 

Rhondda 

Wales 

163,000 

Tientsin . . . 

. China 

839,000 

Moscow.  . . 

Russia. 

1,050,000 

Riga 

Latvia ... 

185,000 

Tiflis 

. Georgia . . . 

328,000 

Mosul 

Iraq  (Mes- 

Rio  de  Jane- 

Tokio 

. Japan 

2,173,000 

opotamia 

90,000 

iro  (Feder 

Tomsk. . . . 

. Siberia  . . 

117,000 

Mukden . 

Manchuria 

158,000 

al  Dist.) . 

Brazil 

1,158,000 

Toronto . . . 

. Canada . . . 

377,000 

Mulheim. . . 

Germany.  . 

127,000 

Rome ... 

Italy 

591,000 

Tottenham. 

. England.  . . 

147,000 

Munich . . . 

Germany.  . 

631,000 

Rosario . . 

Argentina 

223,000 

Toulon ... 

. France .... 

106,000 

Murcia . . . . 

Spain 

124,000 

Rostov 

Russia . . 

124,000 

Toulouse . . . 

. France .... 

175,000 

Nagasaki . . 

Japan 

177,000 

Rotterdam . 

Netherlands 

511,000 

Trebizond . . 

. Turkey 

55,000 

Nagoya. . . . 

Japan 

430,000 

Roubaix . 

France .... 

113,000 

Trichinapoli  India 

120,000 

Nagpur. . . . 

. India 

150,000 

Rouen . . 

France  . . 

124,000 

Tripoli  ... 

Libia  

73,000 

Nancy 

. France .... 

113,000 

Saarbrucken. Germany . . 

105,000 

Tucuman . . 

. Argentina. . 

91,000 

Nanking. 

. China 

390,000 

Saigon 

French-In- 

Tula 

Russia .... 

141,000 

Nantes . , 

. France .... 

184,000 

do-China 

72,000 

Tunis 

Tunis 

170,000 

Naples .... 

Italy 

698,000 

Saint 

Turin 

Italy 

452,000 

Neukolln. . . 

Germany . 

262,000 

Etienne. . 

France . . . 

168,000 

Utrecht .... 

. Netherlands 

140,000 

Newcastle. . 

England. . . 

275,000 

St.  John . 

Canada . . . 

47,000 

Valencia 

. Spain 

236,000 

Nice 

France .... 

156,000 

St.  John’s. . 

Newfound- 

Valparaiso . 

. Chile 

182,000 

Ningpo .... 

China 

700,000 

land  . . 

34,000 

Vancouver . 

.Canada.  . . 

100,000 

Nish 

Yugoslavia 

25,000 

Salford  . 

England . . . 

234,000 

Varna 

Bulgaria. . . 

51,000 

Nizhni  Nov- 

Saloniki . . . 

Greece .... 

170,000 

Venice 

Italy 

168,000 

gorod .... 

Russia .... 

112,000 

Salvador. . 

Brazil 

348,000 

Verdun 

. France 

22,000 

Norwich . . . 

England . . . 

121,000 

Samara.  . . 

Russia ... 

144,000 

Versailles.  . 

. France 

65,000 

Nottingham.  England. . . 

263,000 

Samarang  . 

J ava 

107,000 

Vienna.  . . . 

. Austria 

1,841,000 

Nuremburg 

Germany. 

353,000 

Samarkand 

Siberia .... 

98,000 

Vilna 

. Lithuania  . . 

205,000 

Odessa .... 

Russia.  . . . 

631,000 

Santiago. 

Chile 

507,000 

Vladivostok 

. Siberia 

91,000 

Oldham 

England.  . . 

145,000 

Sao  Paulo . 

Brazil 

504,000 

Waltham- 

Omsk 

Siberia ... 

136,000 

Saratov .... 

Russia .... 

235,000 

stow.  . . . 

. England  . . . 

127,000 

Oporto ... 

Portugal . . . 

204,000 

Scutari . . . . 

Albania . . . 

32,000 

Warsaw.  . . 

Poland 

931,000 

Oran  . 

Algeria .... 

141,000 

Semipala- 

Wellington. 

New  Zealand  107,000 

Osaka 

Japan . 

1,253,000 

tinsk 

Siberia 

32,000 

Wenchow . . 

, China 

225,000 

Oslo 

N orway . . . 

258,000 

Seoul . . 

Chosen 

West  Ham . 

England.  . . . 

301,000 

Ostend ... 

Belgium . . 

48,000 

(Korea) . 

247,000 

Wiener- 

Ottawa 

Canada . . . 

107,000 

Seville 

Spain . 

151,000 

Neustadt. 

. Austria 

35,000 

Oxford .... 

England.  . 

57,000 

Shanghai 

China 

1,100,000 

Wiesbaden 

Germany . . . 

98,000 

Palermo 

Italy 

346,000 

Shasi 

China 

105,000 

Willesden . . 

.England. . . . 

167,000 

Paris 

France 

2,906,000 

Sheffield 

England . . . . 

491,000 

Winnipeg . 

. Canada . . . . 

178,000 

Patna 

India ." 

120,000 

Singapore. 

Straits  Set- 

Y okohama . 

Japan 

423,000 

Peking  ... 

China 

1,300,000 

tlements. 

424,000 

Zara 

Italy 

33,000 

Pprramhunn  Rrazil 

216,000 

Smyrna 

Turkey 

375,000 

Zaragoza. . . 

Spain 

118,000 

Perth 

Australia . . 

155,000 

Sofia 

Bulgaria . . . 

154,000 

Zurich 

Switzerland. 

207,000 

INDEX 

How  to  use  this  index:  Much  work  has  been  put  upon  this  index  so  that  the  users  of  this  book  may  quickly 
get  an  understanding  of  a state,  a commodity,  an  industry  or  any  particular  subject  here  treated.  Persons  using 
the  index  should  remember  that  the  book  is  based  on  geographic  regions  rather  than  upon  political  divisions. 
Under  this  plan  a state  is  often  described  along  with  its  neighbors.  Thus  the  index  for  a state  may  refer  to  a 
page  where  the  name  of  the  state  does  not  appear,  but  where  the  state  or  a part  of  the  state  is  described  as  a 
part  of  a region.  To  get  an  understanding  of  the  climate  of  a state  it  is  often  necessary  to  know  about  the  move- 
ments of  storms  which  are  described  fully  in  the  part  of  the  book  dealing  with  other  states. 

Explanation  of  Symbols:  Geographic  and  proper  names  are  indexed  in  black-face  type,  (Aden),  other  subjects 
in  light-face,  (air).  Map  references  are  given  by  italic  figures  in  parentheses,  with  or  without  location,  as  ( 307  Q3) 
or  (307).  The  more  important  discussions  of  subjects  are  indicated  by  black-face  figures,  as  353.  Other  refer- 
ences are  in  light-face  figures,  as  356.  Illustrations  are  shown  by  italic  figures  with  asterisk,  as  *353.  All  refer- 
ences are  to  page  numbers.  Abbreviations:  agr. — agriculture;  App. — Appendix;  mfg. — manufacturing. 

Key  to  Pronunciation : ate,  senate,  rare,  cat,  local,  far,  ask,  parade;  scene,  event,  edge,  novel,  refer;  right,  sin; 
cold,  obey,  cord,  stop,  e&mpare;  unit,  unite,  burn,  cut,  focus,  menu;  boot,  foot;  found;  boil;  function;  chase;  good; 
joy;  the  n,  thick;  hw=whasin  when;  zh  = z as  in  azure;  kh=  chasm  loch. 


abaca  (&b'd-ca),  (Manila  hemp),  346. 

Abyssinia  (2,b"Is-sIn'I-d),  (351  R5), 

367. 

Adelaide  (Sd 'e-lad),  (419  03),  418, 
*420,  427,  431. 

Aden  (a'den),  (307  P4),  302. 

Adirondack  (&d"l-ron'd&k)  Mts.,  (119 
PI),  160,  *161,  162. 

Adis  Abeba  (a'dls  a-ba'ba),  (351  R5), 
367. 

Adriatic  (a"drl-3,t'lk)  Sea,  (208  Q3), 
264,  277. 

Aegean  (A-je'an)  Sea,  (209  R4),  264. 

Afghanistan  (S,f-gS,n"I-stan'),  (307  Q3), 
(310  P3),  317,  318. 

Africa  (Sf'rT-kd),  (286,  351);  Great 
Desert  section,  284-297;  Mediter- 
ranean section,  271-283  ; south  of 
the  Sahara,  350-374;  animals,  353; 
cattle,  (222);  climate,  (212,  213), 
353,  (356),  (357);  European  con- 
quest, 352;  coast,  350;  minerals, 
(6),  365-366,  370;  natural  barriers, 
350;  occupations,  (303);  popula- 
tion, (207);  regions  (see  Table  of 
Contents);  sheep,  (70);  statis- 
tics, App.  10;  trade,  (6),  (286),  301- 
303,  373-374;  transportation,  350, 
353,  (372);  refer  by  name  to  par- 
ticular regions  and  countries. 

agricultural  experiment  stations,  *58, 
227. 

agricultural  machinery:  flail,  *245, 

*278;  hay  loader,  *46;  hay  stacker, 
*47;  mowing  machine,  *277,  *314; 
plow,  *16,  *61 , *244,  *270;  rake,  *60; 
tractor,  *16,  49. 

agriculture,  cooperative,  239,  313; 
intensive:  California,  106;  Japan, 
320;  Mediterranean  Region,  281; 
Rhine  Valley,  226. 

agriculture,  schools  of,  159,  170. 

air,  42,  91  (see  atmosphere) . 

airplane  wood,  spruce,  93. 

Akkra  (Sk'rd),  (351  N5),  358. 

Akron  (sk'ron),  (39  R2),  49. 

Alabama  ( Si  "d-ba'md ) , (19  R4),  (27 
Q2);  Appalachian  section,  145-149, 
152-153;  Cotton  Belt  section, 
22-36;  agr.,  (24),  25,  29-30.  (3/),  35; 
cities,  34,  148,  (193),  (201);  cli- 
mate, 24,  *25,  (91),  (128),  41-46; 
cotton,  22-25,  30;  iron,  148;  lum- 
ber, 32,  *96;  mfg.,  33,  148;  mining, 
(32),  35,  (50),  147,  148;  surface  and 
soil,  25,  (27),  28,  146-147;  trade, 
(19),  148,  (193). 


Alameda  (a-ld-ma'dd),  (94  N3),  113, 
*114. 

Alaska  (d-l&s'kd),  (12,  97);  Pacific 
Coast  and  Mountain  section,  90- 
99;  Northern  Forest  section,  179- 
181;  Tundra  section,  181-185;  ani- 
mals, 184,  185;  climate,  (84),  (212), 
92,181;  fishing,  99;  forests,  93,  95, 
99,  179;  mining,  96,  180;  reindeer, 
184;  transportation  and  trade,  96, 
98. 

Albania  (Sl-ba'nl-a),  ( 208  R3),  265. 

Albert  (STbert),  Lake,  354. 

Alberta  (al'bhr'td),  (12),  (56),  (59  P5), 
*62,  *67;  Northern  Forest  section, 
179-181;  Plains  section,  64-71; 
Wheat  Belt,  55-64;  agr.,  55,  58, 
61-62,  *63;  cattle,  62,  68;  climate, 
55,  61,  (84);  dairying,  62;  free 
land,  60-61. 

Aleutian  (d-lu'shan)  Islands,  (97  N3), 
90. 

Alexandria  (&l"6g-zdn'drl-d),  (35/  Q2), 
294. 

alfalfa,  acreage  U.  S.,  *66;  Argentina, 
397;  Great  Plains,  69;  Imperial 
Valley,  101;  Southwestern  Pla- 
teaus, 87. 

Algeria  (S,l-je'ri-d),  (286  P2),  (351  02); 
Mediterranean  section,  271-283; 
Desert  section,  284-292;  agr.,  *223, 
279-281;  ancient  ruins,  272;  cli- 
mate, 276;  government,  275;  oases, 
284,  289-291;  people,  275,  288; 
trade,  283,  (286). 

Algiers  (al-jerz'),  (351  02),  283,  302. 

Allegheny  - Cumberland  (Sl'-e-ga-nF 
kum'ber-l&nd)  Plateau,  (19),  152- 
156.  * 

Allentown  (3,1'en-toun),  (119  P3),  147. 

alluvial  fan  (see  rivers). 

Almaden  (al-ma-dan';  Sl-md-den'), 
(208  04),  282. 

Almeria  (8,1-ma-re'a),  (208  04),  276, 

almonds)  HO,  */,2,  280 

Alps  (alps)  Mts.,  (204  P3),  251-255; 
Dinaric  (dl-nSr'Ik),  [204  Q3),  264, 
277;  tunnels,  251,  303;  water 
power,  258- 

Alsace  (al-sas'),  259,  262. 

Altai  (al'ti)  Mts.,  (310  R2),  318. 

altitude  of  cities,  App.  13-16. 

Altoona  (5,1-too'nd),  (119  N3),  149. 

Amazon  (&m'd-z5n)  River,  (376  P3), 
375,  381,  *382,  387,  (411);  Valley, 
381. 


Amsterdam  (&m'ster-d3m),  ( 208  P2), 
228,  230. 

Amur  (a-moor')  River,  (311  W2),  319, 
332,  333. 

Anaconda  (5,n"d-k5n'dd),  (65  Nl), 
73,  *74. 

Andes  (Sn-dez'),  (376),  401;  Central 
Plateau,  405-407;  Northern,  401- 
404;  Southern,  407. 

Andorra  (an-dor'rd),  (208  P3),  255. 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  (351  Q4). 

Angola  (an-go'ld),  (351  P7);  Desert 
section,  371-372;  Grassland  sec- 
tion, 365-367;  Tropic  Forest  sec- 
tion, 354-358. 

Antabamba  (&n"td-bS,m'bd),  (376  N4), 
406. 

Antarctic  (ant-ark'tlk)  Circle,  App.  6. 

Antarctic  Continent,  (183),  185-186. 

antelope,  288. 

Anticosti  (an-tl-k6s'tl)  Island,  (59 
U5),  135,  215. 

An  tie  tarn  (5n-te'tam),  146. 

Antofagasta  (Sm"t6-fa-gas'ta),  (379 
N5)  408. 

ants,  white,  192. 

Antwerp  (Snt'werp),  (208  P2),  225, 

228,  229. 

Appalachian  (Sp"d-la'chl-an)  Region, 
(19  S2),  145-156;  Allegheny-Cum- 
berland  Plateau,  152-156;  Caro- 
lina Mts.,  157;  Ridges  and  Valleys, 
149-151;  Great  Valley,  145-149. 

apples,  Appalachian  Ridges,  149;  Cal- 
ifornia, 111;  Maryland,  *149,  149; 
New  York,  169;  Nova  Scotia,  134; 
Ohio  Valley,  *51,  52,  *53;  Oregon, 
80;  Ozarks,  158;  Virginia,  141; 
Washington,  80,  *80. 

apricots,  316. 

Arabia  (d-ra'bi-d),  ( 307  P3),  (305), 
284,  291-292  , 296,  (309). 

Arabic  (fir'd-blk)  figures,  348. 

Arabs  (Sr'abs),  275,  *288,  289,  *295, 
298. 

Aral  (Sx'al)  Sea,  (305  Q2),  314. 

Ararat  (S.r'd-r§,t),  Mt.,  (305  P3),  298. 

Archangel  (ark-an'jel),  (209  Tl), 
211. 

Arctic  (ark'tik)  Circle,  181,  App.  5; 
current,  136,  (211);  Sea,  (182),  185. 

Arctic  Lands:  Asia,  308;  Europe,  249; 
North  America,  181. 

area,  comparisons,  *225;  all  coun- 
tries, see  Appendix. 

Argentina  (ar"jen-te'na),  (377),  (379 
06);  Andean  section,  407;  Grass- 


(19) 


20 


INDEX 


land  section,  388-390;  Semi-arid 
section,  400;  Temperate  agricul- 
tural section,  394-399;  agr.,  *280, 
396,  *398,  400;  cattle,  *31,  (222), 
*378,  390,  *394,  (389),  400;  cities, 
*380,  398;  climate,  395;  forests, 
398;  government,  380;  immigra- 
tion, 398;  landed  estates,  396; 
meat  industry,  397;  people,  380, 
396;  sheep,  (70),  *395,  *399,  400, 
*424)  statistics,  App.  7;  surface, 
395;  transportation  and  trade, 
(376),  *394,  *395,  400,  411-412; 
wheat,  (55),  394,  *396,  395-396. 

Arica  (a-re'ka),  (379  N4),  408,  *4/3. 

Arizona  (ar-l-zo'nd),  (57),  (65  N4), 
Lower  Colorado  Region,  100-103; 
Southwestern  Plateaus,  85-90;  agr., 
*47,  86,  *86,  87,  89,  101,  102; 
cities,  88,  (201))  climate,  85,  (91), 
100;  forests,  85,  89;  Grand  Can- 
yon, (65  N3),  *85,  86;  irrigation, 
(77);  mining,  *74,  *87,  88,  89,  171; 
surface,  *85,  *86,  86,  *87,  101;  water 
power,  (113). 

Arkansas  (ar'kan-so"),  (18),  (27  P2); 
Cotton  Belt,  22-35;  Ozark  and  Oua- 
chita Highlands,  157-159;  agr.,  25, 
29,  30,  35,  (41),  158-159;  cities, 
159,  (201))  climate,  24,  (90),  (91), 
41-46,  158;  corn,  29,  (40))  cotton, 
(24),  25;  fruit,  158;  lumber,  32, 
*96,  *158,  159;  mining,  (32))  rice, 
35,  *35)  surface  and  soil,  28,  29, 
158-159;  transportation,  (50),  157, 
158,  (325). 

Arkansas  River,  (57  R5),  68,  69,  159. 

Armenia  (ar-me'nl-d),  ( 209  T3),  298- 
300. 

Aroostook  (d-roos'took)  Valley,  (129 
01),  160. 

artesian  wells  (see  wells). 

Asia  (a'shd),  (305),  (307))  Asia  Minor 
and  Iran  section,  298-301;  Great 
Desert  section,  284-297;  Mediter- 
ranean section,  271-283;  Eastern 
and  Southern  section,  304-349; 
ancient  civilization,  304,  306;  ani- 
mals, 304;  barriers  to  travel,  (305), 
348;  canals,  348;  caravan  trade, 
348;  cattle,  (222))  climate,  (211), 
(212),  (213),  (309))  coal,  (6);  geo- 
graphic wonders,  304;  method  of 
study,  306;  occupations,  (303)) 
people,  306;  petroleum,  (7);  popu- 
lation density,  (207))  railways  and 
navigable  rivers,  348,  (349))  re- 
gions, (305))  sheep,  (70))  size,  304; 
statistics,  App.  8-9;  trade,!  (6),  302, 
(310),  348-349;  wheat,  (55);  refer 
to  particular  countries  and  regions. 

Asia  Minor  (a'shd  ml'ner),  (209  S4), 
272,  275,  298,  301. 

asphalt,  196. 

Assam  (as"sam'),  336. 

Athabaska  (ath"d-bas'kd),  Lake,  (56 
PI),  181. 

Athens  (ath'Snz),  (209  R4),  264,  272, 
280. 

Atlanta  (at-l&n'td),  (23  N3),  34. 

Atlantic  (at-l&n'tlk)  City,  (119  P4), 
123,  126,  *126. 

Atlantic  Coast  Plain,  (19  U2),  118. 


Atlas  (St'lds)  Mts.,  (286  02),  282,  289. 
atmosphere,  circulation  of,  360-361 
of,  405,  406 
moisture,  9? 


App.,  6;  density 
* 284; 


heating  of, 
pressure,  42. 

Auckland  (ok 'land),  (417  P4),  432. 

Audenarde  (o-de-nard'),  *227 . 

Augusta  (o-gus 'to),  (119  02),  132 
161. 

Australasia  (os"tral-a'shd),  414-415. 

Australia  (os-tra'll-d),  (4/7),  (419), 
414-427;  cattle,  (423))  climate 
(211),  (212),  416,  (423))  govern- 
ment, 416;  grain  production,  *421) 
immigration  restriction,  416,  423 
minerals,  (7),  *370,  427;  navigable 
rivers,  (431))  occupations,  (303)) 
people,  415,  416,  423;  population, 
(207),  (422))  products,  (419),  429; 
rabbits,  426;  railways,  (431))  re- 
gions, (419)  (see  Table  of  Con- 
tents); settlement,  415,  416; 

sheep,  (70),  *414,  *424,  (426))  size, 
414;  statistics,  App.  9;  trade,  *395, 
(419),  429-430;  wheat,  (55),  *421) 
wild  life,  415.  Refer  by  name  to 
particular  regions  and  states. 

Austria  (os-trl-d),  (209  Q3),  (242  N4); 
Mountain  section,  254;  Vienna 
Basin  section,  271;  agr.,  (206), 
(222),  (223),  (225),  (237),  271;  cities, 
271;  climate,  (203),  271;  forests, 
*259,  *260,  *261. 

automobile  industry,  167;  tires,  49. 

avalanche,  252. 

axis,  earth’s,  App.  5-6,  App.  *5. 

Azerbaijan,  299. 

Azof  (a-zof')  Sea,  (205  S3),  244. 

Azores  (d-zorz'),  (8),  281. 

bacteria  (see  legumes). 

“Bad  Lands,”  67-68. 

Bagdad  (bSg'd&d),  (307  P3),  295, 
*296,  302,  316. 

Bahamas  (bd-ha'mdz),  (23  04),  196. 

Bahia  (ba-e'd),  (379  R4),  386,  412. 
Bahia  Blanca  (ba-e'd  blan'kd),  (379 
06),  398. 

Baikal  (bl"kal'),  Lake,  (307  S2),  312 

Baku  (ba-koo),  (209  T3),  299,  302. 

balata  (b2,l'd-td),  385. 

Balearic  (bal"6-&r'Ik)  Islands,  (208 
P4),  280. 

Balkan  (bol'kan)  Mt.  Region,  (204 
R3),  (242),  263-268. 

Baltic  (bol'tlk)  Sea,  (204  Q2),  237, 
247. 

Baltimore  (bol'tl-mor),  (119  04),  120, 
122,  126,  *127 , 139. 

Baluchistan  (ba-loo"chSs-tan'),  (307 
Q3),  298. 

bamboo,  320,  329,  *338,  *341. 

bananas,  Africa,  356;  Central  Ameri- 
ca, 190-192,  (193))  Colombia,  385; 
Hawaii,  433;  trade  in,  (193),  West 
Indies  195 

Bangor  (ban'gor),  (129  02),  132,  161. 

Barbados  (bar-ba'doz),  (/9/R3),  196. 

Barcelona  (bar"se-lo'nd),  (208  P3), 
283. 

barley,  acreage,  (233))  Abyssinia, 
367;  California,  112;  Central 
European  Upland  Region,  261 ; 
China,  328;  Columbia  Basin,  79; 


Great  Plains,  71;  Japan,  333; 
Mediterranean  Lands,  279 ; North- 
ern Wheat  Region,  62;  Rocky 
Mountain  Region,  76;  Russia,  238, 
245;  Siberia,  313;  Willamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley,  115. 
barometer,  42,  43. 

Barranquilla  (bar"ran-kel'ya),  (379 
Nl),  385. 

Basel  (ba'zel),  (208  P3),  253. 

Basra  (bas'ra),  (310  N3),  295, 

302. 

Bass  (bas)  Strait,  (417  04),  421,  427. 
Basutoland  (bd-soo'tS-land),  (287 
R8),  370. 

Batum  (ba-tobm'),  (209  T3),  299,  301. 
Bavaria  (bd-va'rl-d),  (242  M4),  259. 
Bayonne  (ba-yon'),  *174,  176. 
beans,  dry,  (31),  169;  lima,  107;  soy, 
321,  322,  326,  328,  333;  velvet,  30. 
bear,  polar,  *184,  185. 

Bedouins  (bSd'do-lns),  288-289,  *290. 
bee  raising,  253. 

beets,  forage,  170,  (222),  227,  232,  238. 
beets,  sugar  (see  sugar). 

Belfast  (bH'fast),  (219  N3),  218.  220. 
Belgian  Congo  (see  Congo). 

Belgium  (b81'jl-*m),  (204),  (208  P2); 
Low  Countries  and  Lower  Rhine 
Valley,  225-232;  Central  European 
Uplands,  259-263;  agr.,  (206),  *215, 
(225),  226-227,  *231,  (237),  259;  area, 
*225,  231;  cattle,  (222))  cities, 
(208),  *227,  228-229,  230;  climate, 
(203),  (212),  229;  colonies,  (8),  228; 
government,  231;  mfg.,  227,  229- 
230,  *232,  262;  mining,  229,  230; 
people,  *225,  *228,  230,  231,  259; 
surface,  (204),  225,  259;  swine, 
(229))  transportation  and  trade, 
227-230. 

Belgrade  (b61"grad'),  (242  P5),  265, 
*270,  302. 

Belle  Isle  (b6l"il'),  Strait  of,  (59  Y4), 
136. 

Bengal  (b6n-gol'),  336. 

Bengal  Bay,  (310  R5),  335. 

Berbers  (bflr'berz),  275,  289. 

Bering  (ba'rlng)  Sea,  (305  V2),  99. 
Berkeley  (bftrk'll),  (94  N3),  113,  *114. 
Berlin  (ber-lln'),  (208  Q2),  238,  *240, 
241  302. 

Bethlehem  (b6th'lS-h8m),  Pa.,  (119 
P3),  147,  148. 

Big  Horn  Mts.,  (56  Q4),  74. 

Big  Horn  River,  (56  Q4),  68. 

Bilbao  (bll-ba'o),  (208  03),  282,  397. 
Bingham  (bing'am),  83. 

Binghamton  (blng'am-tun),  (119  P2), 
156. 

Birmingham  (bir'mlng-am),  (27  Q2), 
147,  148. 

Birmingham,  England,  (219  03),  218. 
Bisbee  (blz'bS),  (65  04),  *87,  88. 
Biscay  (bls'ka),  Bay  of,  (204  03), 
234,  282. 

Bismarck  (bfs'mark)  Islands  (New 
Britain  Arch.),  (417  03);  Pacific 
Islands,  430-434,  434. 

“Black  Belt,”  28. 

“Black  Earth”  country,  245. 

Black  Forest,  260. 

Black  Hills,  (56  R4),  *68,  70. 


INDEX 


21 


Black  Race,  341,  350,  416,  434. 

Black  Sea,  (205  S3),  237,  264,  271, 277. 

Blackstone  (blak'stdn ) River,  131. 

Blanc,  Mt.  (blah  mon),  ( 204  P3), 
*251. 

Blue  Ridge  Mts.,  (19  S3),  139,  145, 
*147,  157. 

boa  constrictor,  382. 

Boers  (boorz),  370. 

Bogota  (bo"go-ta'),  (379  N2),  403. 

Bohemia  (bo-he'ml-a),  ( 242  03),  259 
(see  Czechoslovakia). 

Boise  (boi'za),  (65  M2),  80. 

Bolivia  (bo-le'vya),  (376),  (379  04); 
Amazon  Valley  Section,  381-383; 
Grassland  section,  388-390;  Plateau 
section,  405-407;  agr.,  390,  405, 
406;  cattle,  390;  cities,  390,  405, 
406;  climate,  388,  405;  mining, 
406;  people,  378,  *402]  transporta- 
tion and  trade,  (376),  388,  390, 
406,  407,  (411). 

Bombay  (bom-ba'),  (310  Q5),  337,  338, 
*340. 

book  making,  241. 

borax,  82. 

Bordeaux  (bor'do'),  (208  03),  233, 

235. 

Borneo  (bor'nfi-o),  (342  02),  (309), 
341. 

Bosnia  (bfiz'nl-a),  (242  05),  *264 
(see  Jugoslavia ). 

Bosporus  (bos'po-rus)  Strait,  (209 
R3),  272,  282,  302. 

Boston  (bos'tun),  (129  N3),  128,  *131 , 
*132,  133,  134. 

Botany  (bot'a-nf)  Bay,  415. 

Bothnia  (both'nl-a),  Gulf  of,  (208 
Ql),  247,  248. 

Boulogne  (boo-lon'),  (208  P2),  235. 

Bradford  (br&d'ferd),  (219  03),  218. 

Brahmaputra  (braTna-poot'ra)  Val- 
ley, (311  S4),  336. 

Brazil  (brct-zil'),  (376),  (379  P4);  Ama- 
zon Valley  section,  381-383;  South- 
east Trade  Wind  Coast  section, 
386-387;  Grassland  section,  388- 
390;  Subtropical  Agr.  section,  392- 
394;  East  Temperate  Agr.  section, 
394-399;  agr.,  383,  *384,  386,  392- 
393,  394;  area,  *225]  cattle,  (222), 
390,  393;  cities,  (379),  386  , 3 92, 
*393,  394;  climate,  (212),  (356),  382, 
386,  389,  392,  395;  coffee,  *375, 
392-393;  conquering  disease,  386; 
conquest  and  settlement,  378,  380, 
386;  forests,  381-383,  389,  393, 
398;  government,  380,  386;  immi- 
gration, 380,  393,  398-399;  iron, 
393;  mfg.,  392,  394;  people,  (207), 

380,  382,  386,  388;  population,  380, 
App.  7;  rubber,  *382,  383;  surface, 
375,  (376),  381,  386,  *387,  389,  392; 
transportation  and  trade,  (376), 

381,  383,  386,  388,  390,  392,  393, 
(411)]  wild  life,  382,  389. 

Brazil  nuts,  383,  *384. 

breadfruit,  431. 

breeze,  land  and  sea,  123,  126. 

Bremen  (bra'men),  (208  P2),  241. 

Breslau  (brgs'lou),  (242  03),  241,  302. 

Brest  (brSst),  (208  03),  *233,  235, 
*236. 


Briey  (bre'a"),  (208  P3),  262. 

Brisbane  (brlz'ban),  (417  04),  421. 

Bristol  (brls'tul),  (219  03),  221. 

British  Columbia  (ko-lQm'bl-d),  (57), 
(59  04) ; Rocky  Mountain  section, 
72-78;  Pacific  Mountain  section, 
90-99;  Puget  Sound  section,  114- 
117;  agr.,  115;  climate  (84),  92, 
115;  fisheries,  116;  forests,  93,  95; 
resources,  116;  transportation  and 
trade,  (56),  73,  98,  116-117. 

British  East  Africa,  grasslands,  366; 
forests,  358. 

British  Empire,  (8),  214;  area,  *225] 
climatic  factors  in  growth  of,  215, 
223;  human  factors  in  growth  of, 
223-224;  population,  *324]  world 
location,  221. 

British  Honduras,  (191  P3);  Low 
Plains,  187-193. 

British  Isles  (see  United  Kingdom). 

Brittany  (brlt'a-nl),  (204  03),  233, 
*234. 

Brockton  (brfik'tun),  (129  N3),  132. 

Bronx  (bronks),  174. 

Brooklyn  (brook'Un),  (119  Q3),  174. 

Brown  Race,  340,  341,  *416,  430. 

Brownsville  (brounz'vll),  (26  03),  71. 

Bruges  (broozh),  (208  P2),  228. 

Brussels  (brus'sels),  (208  P2),  230. 

Bucharest  (boo"kd-rfet'),  (209  R3), 
269. 

Budapest  (boo'da-p&t"),  (208  Q3), 
*270,  270. 

Buenaventura  (bwa"na-v6n-too'ra) , 
(379  N2),  384. 

Buenos  Aires  (bwa/nos  e'ras,  bo'nus 
a'rlz),  (379  P6),  *380,  390,  395,  398, 
411,  412. 

Buffalo  (buf'd-lo),  (119  N2),  63,  177. 

buffalo,  American,  66,  *67]  water, 
338  *341 

bulbs,  Dutch,  *226,  227. 

Bulgaria  (bobl-ga/rl-a),  (209  R3),  (242 
P5);  agr.,  (206),  (223),  (229),  (237), 
266,  (269)]  government,  264,  265; 
people,  264,  265;  surface  (242), 
263-264;  village  life,  266. 

burlap,  218,  336. 

Burma  (bhr'md),  ( 307  R3),  *35,  (311), 
(335),  *339,  340. 

Bushmen,  371- 

Butte  (but),  (65  Nl),  73. 

butter  (see  dairy  products). 

cables,  (432),  *432. 

cacao  (kd-ka'o),  196,  358,  383,  384, 
386;  production,  leading  coun- 
tries *410 

Cadiz' (kadiz),  (208  04\,  283. 

Cagayan  (ka"ga-yan')  River,  (344 
03),  346. 

Cairo  (ki'ro),  (351  R2),  294. 

Calais  (ka-la')t  (208  P2),  235. 

Calcutta  (kal-kut'a),  (307  R3),  *332, 
336,  *347. 

Caldera  (kal-da'ra),  (377  N5),  408. 

California  (k&lT-for'nl-a),  (56),  (94 
N3);  Central  Valleys,  108-114; 
Colorado  Basin,  100-102;  Great 
Basin,  81-84;  Pacific  Mountains, 
90-99;  Southern  Valley,  103-108; 
agr.,  (31),  (46),  (47),  (66),  *67,  *70, 
103-105,  *105,  105-112,  113,  (169)] 


almonds  and  walnuts,  110;  (112)] 
cities,  107,  112-113,  *114,,  (201)] 
climate,  82,  (91),  *91,  90-92  104- 

105,  *106,  107,  108-109,  276,  for- 
ests, 93-96,  107;  fruit,  (21),  (24), 
*100,  101,  *102,  (105),  106,  109-111, 
(112),  *113]  gold,  *74,  96;  Imperial 
Valley,  (57  06),  100-102;  irriga- 
tion, (77),  105,  106,  109,  113; 
mfg.,  104,  112-113;  petroleum, 

(32),  107;  population,  (201),  *272] 
rice,  *35,  112,  (113)]  soil,  *108,  109, 
111;  surface,  90,  *91,  *100,  *101 , 103, 
*105.  *106,  *107,  *108,  109,  *111] 
trade,  107,  112,  (325)]  waterpower, 
98,  *111,  113,  (113). 

California,  East  Coast  of  Gulf  of,  (57 
P7),  102. 

California,  Gulf  of,  (57  P7),  100. 
California  - Mediterranean  climate, 
105,  *106,  108,  276,  *282,  368,  408. 
418. 

calms,  360-361,  App.  6. 

Callao  (kal-ya'o),  (379  N4),  404. 
Camden  (khm'den),  (119  P4),  142. 
camel,  *285,  288,  *314^  315,  317. 
Cameroon  (k&m'er-oon),  (351  P5); 
Forest,  354-358;  Grassland,  360- 
365. 

camphor,  322. 

Canada  (k&n'a-da),  (8),  (59)]  agr., 
(55),  60-63,  1.34,  *220]  canals,  164; 
cities,  63,  128;  climate,  55,  61, 
(84),  136,  179,  181;  dairving, 

(170),  170;  fisheries,  128,  '*134, 
136;  forests,  93,  96,  161,  179; 
fox  farms,  134;  free  land,  60; 
government, 62,  136,  370;  irrigation, 
68;  minerals,  *87,  180;  mfg.,  133, 
135;  provinces,  62;  railroads,  72, 
98,  134;  reindeer,  184;  surface, 
58,  (59),  92,  128,  182;  trade,  (125), 
134,  172,  *200]  wheat  belt,  55, 
*63]  see  also  particular  names  of 
provinces. 

canal,  *140,  *163,  *248]  Erie,  173; 
New  York  Barge,  (119),  164,  173, 
*177]  Panama,  190,  (191)]  Soo,  (39 
Rl),  *163]  Suez,  (286  S2),  302-303; 
Sweden,  *248]  Welland,  (39  S2),  164. 
Canal  Zone,  Panama,  (191  N4),  190. 
canary  (ka-na'rl)  birds,  Hartz  Mts., 
262. 

Canary  Islands,  (2S6N3),  281, 360,  *372. 
Canberra  (k&n-b6r'd),  (417  04),  416. 
cane  sugar  (see  sugar). 
cannibals,  343,  434. 
canning  industry,  99,  *109,  116,  122. 
Cantabrian  (kan-ta'brl-an)  Mts.,  (204 
03),  255. 

Canton  (k&n'ton),  (307  S3),  329,  330. 
Cape  Breton  (bret'un),  (59  U5),  137. 
Cape  Cod,  (129  N3),  121,  126. 

Cape  Horn,  (379  08),  401. 

Cape  May,  (119  P4),  126. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  (351  Q9),  370. 
Cape  to  Cairo  railroad,  373. 

Cape  Town,  (351  P9),  369. 

Capricorn  (see  tropic). 

Caracas  (ka-ra'kas),  (379  01 ),  *400, 401. 
caravan  routes,  Asia,  (349). 
caravan  trade,  289,  300,  348. 

Cardiff  (kar'dlf),  (219  03),  217,  222. 


92 


INDEX 


Caribbean  (k&r-l-be'an ) Sea,  (191 Q3), 
17,  349. 

caribou  (k&r'I-boo),  184. 

Carpathian  (kar-pa'thl-Sn)  Mts.,  (205 
R3),  255,  268. 

Carpentaria  (kar"p6n-tar'Id),  Gulf  of, 
(417  N3),  425. 

Carson  (kar'sun)  City,  (94  03),  83. 

Cartagena  (kar'ta-ha'na),  (379  Nl), 
385,  411. 

Cascade  (k&s-kad)  Mts.,  (198  M3), 
80,  117. 

Caspian  (kS,s'pI-an)  Sea,  (205  T3), 
237,  238,  301,  (310  N2),  315. 

cassava  (ka-sa'va),  189,  362. 

cataract  (see  waterfall). 

cattle,  African  grassland,  363-366, 
368;  Argentina,  *378,  (389),  *394; 
Australia,  (423),  *425,  429;  Cotton 
Belt,  30,  31;  Denmark,  *231,  239; 
distribution,  *31,  (47),  (222);  Ger- 
many, *31,  240;  Great  Plains, 
64-66;  Holland,  227;  Imperial 
Valley,  101;  Prairie  Corn  Belt,  47; 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  77 ; South 
American  grassland,  390;  Switzer- 
land, 252,  *254;  Texas,  (47),  64-68, 
*66;  United  Kingdom,  216. 

cattle  ticks,  *30,  31. 

Caucasus  (ko'kd-sus),  (205  T3),  256, 
258,  277,  299. 

caves,  17,  *17. 

Celebes  (s81'e-bez)  Islands,  (342  P3), 
345. 

cement,  147,  230. 

Central  America,  (191  P3),  (84),  187- 
193;  bananas,  190-192;  climate, 
187,  189;  forests,  188,  189;  gov- 
ernment, 188;  trade,  189. 

Central  European  Uplands,  259-263. 

Central  Farming  Region,  U.  S.,  36-54. 

Cerro  de  Pasco  (s6r'o  da  pas'ko), 
(379  N4),  *403,  404. 

Cevennes  (sa"ven')  Mts.,  (204  P3), 
261. 

Ceylon  (sl-16n'),  (305  R4),  (335), 

337,  *338,  (339). 

Chad  (chad),  Lake,  (351  P4),  362. 

Charleston  (charlz'tun),  (23  03),  21, 
34. 

Charlotte  Amalie  (shar-l5t'a-ma-lS-e), 
196. 

Charlottesville  (shar'15ts-vll),  (2302), 
140,  144. 

Chattanooga  (ch3t"a-noo'gd),  (27 
Ql),  148. 

cheese  (see  dairy  products). 

Chesapeake  (ch6s'a-pek)  Bay,  (19  T2), 
122,  139. 

Chester  (chSs'ter),  Pa.,  (125  Q3),  141. 

chestnuts,  European,  280. 

Chicago  (shl-ko'go),  (39  Q2),  48,  80, 

165-166. 

chicle  (chik'l),  189. 

Chile  (che'la,  chll'll),  (376),  (379); 
Andean  section,  407 ; Pacific  Coast 
section,  407-410;  agr.,  (398),  408, 
409,410;  cattle,  (389);  cities,  (379), 
409;  climate,  (357),  407,  410;  com- 
pared to  U.  S.,  (409);  forests,  407, 
410;  government,  409;  irriga- 
tion, 409;  mining,  *87,  408,  412; 
people,  380,  408;  surface  and  soil, 


(376),  407,  409;  transportation  and 
trade,  (376),  409,  (411);  water 
power,  409,  410. 

China,  (307  S3),  (311);  agr.,  *324,  326, 
327,  328,  329;  area,  *225;  cities, 
330;  climate,  (309),  324,  328;  com- 
parison with  Southeastern  U.  S., 
324;  government,  329,  331;  Great 
Wall,  (311  T3),  315.  326;  mining, 
331;  mode  of  living,  328,  329; 
modern,  329;  North,  328;  people, 
306,  325,  326,  345;  population, 
(207),  *324,  *325;  rice,  327-328; 
silk  production,  *322;  surface, 
(311),  324,  325;  trade  and  trans- 
port, *317,  (325),  326,  *328,  *329, 
330,  *331,  348,  (349);  undeveloped 
resources,  330,  331.  (See  Mon- 
golia, Tibet,  Turkestan). 

Chinese  Region,  324-331. 

Chinook  (chi-nook')  wind,  61. 

Chosen  (see  Korea). 

cinchona  (sln-ko'nd),  343. 

Cincinnati  (sln-sin-S'tl),  (39  R3),  53. 

cities,  cause  of,  147-148;  commer- 
cial, examples:  New  York,  173-175; 
London,  222,  223;  mfg.,  132,  133; 
examples:  Pittsburgh,  154;  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  148;  Manchester, 
218;  map  of  U.  S.,  (201);  mining, 
73,  427. 

citrus  fruits,  21,  (21),  110,  (112),  276, 
277,  (278),  368,  408,  420. 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (syoo'tluith"  bo-le'- 
var),  (376  02),  391. 

Cleveland  (klev'land),  (39  R2),  166, 
*168. 

climate — elements  of : Chinook  wind ; 
61;  cold  waves,  43;  cyclones, 
41-45,  90,  (90);  Australia,  421, 
Europe,  (256);  Great  Britain,  215; 
Japan  and  Korea,  319;  Lower 
California,  92;  dew,  91;  desert 
winds,  277;  drought,  *91,  284, 
424;  evaporation,  90,  91 ; frost,  91, 
106;  land  breezes,  123;  hurricanes, 
194;  rain,  40-43,  *44,  92;  sand 
storms,  284;  sea  breezes,  123,  126; 
thundershower,  44,  46;  tornado, 
45. — Types  of:  Arctic,  181,  184; 
California-Mediterranean,  108,  276, 
368,  408,  418;  continental,  (211), 
(212),  '(213);  Corn  Belt,  40;  Cotton 
Belt,  24;  desert,  284,  285,  317,  424; 
doldrum,  354,  360,  361;  Inland 
Basin  region,  79,  298;  monsoon, 
319,  334;  oceanic,  212;  spring 
wheat,  55;  trade  winds,  187,  284, 
(434);  tropic  grassland,  (356),  (357), 
361,  388,  391. 

climate  and  energy,  115,  215.. 

cloth,  printing,  *131 ; weaving,  *217 . 

clothing,  home  production,  3;  fac- 
tory production,  *175,  175,  176. 

cloves,  Zanzibar,  359. 

Clyde  (klid)  River,  (219  02),  220. 

coal,  (6);  Alaska,  96;  anthracite, 
*148,  150,  *151;  Australia,  422; 
Belgium,  229;  bituminous,  150, 
*152,  *153;  China,  331;  distribu- 
tion, U.  S.,  (32)  (see  particular 
states);  Europe,  241,  244,  250; 
Great  Britain,  217,  222;  impor- 


tance of,  5,  10;  Manchuria,  333; 
Saar  Valley,  252;  Sakhalin  Island, 
323;  Shantung,  322;  Siberia,  309. 
coaling  stations,  (6),  196. 
coastal  plain,  118,  239,  325. 
coast  line  (see  shore  line). 

Cobalt  (kd'bolt),  (59  T5),  180. 
cocoa  (see  cacao). 

coconuts,  Celebes  Islands,  345; 
Central  America,  193;  India,  337; 
Philippines,  *343,  346;  products, 
431;  Polynesia,  432;  West  In- 
dies  X95 

Cocos  (ko'kbs)  Island,  (432). 
codfishing,  136-137,  213. 
coffee,  Abyssinia,  367;  Arabia,  292; 
Brazil,  *375,  386,  392,  393;  Central 
America,  189. 

Cohoes  (ko-hoz),  (119  Q2),  177. 
coke,  155,  *155. 
cold  wave  (see  climate). 
collars,  Troy,  177. 

Cologne  (k6-lon'),  (208  P2),  230. 
Colombia  (kS-15m'bl-d),  (376),  (379 
N2);  Amazon  forest,  381-383; 
Coast  forest  section,  384-385;  An- 
dean section,  401-404;  Grasslands, 
391;  agr.,  384,  385,  402;  cities, 
(376),  384,  403,  404;  climate  (356), 

381,  382,  384,  385,  391,  401; 
forests,  381,  384,  385;  gold,  404; 
Panama  hats,  385;  people,  378, 

382,  384,  385,  403,  404;  trans- 
portation and  trade,  (376),  384,  385, 
391,  402,  403,  404,  (411). 

Colon  (k6-16n'),  (191  P4),  190. 
Colorado,  (65  03);  Great  Plains 
region,  64-71;  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  72-78;  Southwestern  Pla- 
teau, 85-89;  agr.,  (46),  (55),  (58), 
68-70,  76,  77,  87,  89,  (145);  alfalfa, 
(66),  69;  cattle,  (47),  66,  87;  cities, 
70,  73,  (201);  climate,  *67,  72,  85, 
90-92  (91);  forests,  72-74,  *74,  *75, 
irrigation,  68-69,  *76,  *77,  (77); 
mining,  (32),  73,  *74;  population, 
(201);  sugar  beet,  (31),  *67,  69; 
surface,  64-67,  72,  *73,  *75,  85,  *85; 
waterpower,  77. 

Colorado  (k5l-o-ra'd6 ) River,  (57  P5); 
Canyon,  (57  P6),  *85,  86,  100; 
delta,  100-102;  plateau,  86. 
Colorado  Springs,  (65  P3),  70. 
Columbia  (ko-lum'bl-a)  Basin,  (56 
03),  78-81,  116,  117. 

Columbia  River,  (56  N3),  80,  81. 
Columbia  University*  *175. 

Columbus  (k6-lum'bus),  (39  R3),  48. 
commerce,  importance  of,  1-10;  sta- 
tistics of,  App.  7. 

Coney  (ko'nl)  Island,  (174),  175. 
Congo  (kQn'go)  and  Guinea  Coast 
Forest,  (286  R6),  354-358,  365. 
Congo,  Belgian,  (286  R6),  (351  Q6); 
agr.,  356-357;  climate,  354,  (356), 
(357);  forest,  354-355;  govern- 
ment, (8),  357;  insect  pests,  355; 
life  in  the  jungle,  355-356;  oil 
palm,  *356,  357;  transportation  and 
trade,  (286),  *354,  357-358,  (372), 
*373. 

Congo  River,  (286  Q6),  355,  358,  373. 
Connecticut,  (125),  (129  M4);  agr., 


INDEX 


23 


133-135;  brass  mfg.,  130;  cities, 
(129),  130,  132,  (201);  climate, 
41-46,  (91),  (128);  dairy  products, 

133,  (145),  (169);  hardware,  130; 
mfg.,  130,  131,  132;  people,  130, 

134,  (201);  surface,  128,  (129); 
tobacco,  134. 

conservation  of  soil,  51,  *51 , 99,  *324, 
*345;  of  forests,  *95,  99,  *171 , 180, 
*261. 

Constantinople  (kdn-st&n  "tl-no'pl ) , 

(209  R3),  264,  272,  *273,  283,  302, 
316. 

continental  climate  (see  climate). 
Continental  divide,  (65  04). 

Cook  Inlet,  98. 

Copenhagen  (ko  "pen-ha/gen),  (208 
Q2),  239. 

copper,  Alaska,  96;  Africa,  365,  366, 
Arizona,  *87,  88;  Chile,  *87,  408; 
China,  331;  Michigan,  *87,  171; 
mining,  73,  *74,  83,  *87;  Montana, 

73,  *74,  *87;  Nevada,  83,  *87;  Peru, 
*403,  404;  production,  states  and 
countries,  *87;  Siberia,  318;  Spain, 
282;  Utah,  83,  *87. 
copra  (kSp'ra),  Polynesia,  432,  434; 

Zanzibar,  359. 
coral  islands,  Florida,  17. 
cork,  *280,  281. 

com:  acreage,  Europe,  (269),  U.  S. 
and  Canda,  (40);  Africa,  356,  362, 
*363,  369;  Argentina,  396;  Aus- 
tralia, 421;  Brazil,  393;  China, 
*326,  328;  Corn  Belt,  U.  S.,  46-48; 
Cotton  Belt,  29;  growing,  46; 
Hopi,  *36;  Kaffir,  (66),  70,  365; 
Mediterranean  Region,  *269,  277 , 
279;  South  Africa,  369;  sugar,  134; 

U.  S.  production  by  states,  *45. 

Com  Belt,  American,  36-50,  270;  — 
European,  268-271,  *269. 

Corsica  (kor'sl-ka),  (208  P3),  150,  281. 
Cossacks  (kSs'aks),  315. 

Costa  Rica  (kSs'ta  re'ka),  (13),  (191 
P3);  agr.,  189;  cities,  *190,  (191); 
climate,  (84),  187,  188;  govern- 
ment, 188;  the  banana,  190-193, 
(193). 

“Cote  d’Or”  (kot"dor'),  261. 
cotton,  22-25,  (24),  *24,  28,  *28,  *322; 
boll  weevil,  advance  of,  in  U.  S., 
(30),  *30;  ginning,  25,  *28. 
cotton  growing,  25,  *25;  Arizona,  102, 
California,  102,  Cotton  Belt,  U.  S. 
22-25,  Egypt,  *24,  294,  India,  *24, 
337,  (339),  Iraq  (Mesopotamia), 
295-296,  Sudan,  363. 
cotton  manufacturing,  */,  *130,  *354; 
England,  218,  Italy,  283,  New 
England,  *130,  131,  Pennsylvania, 
142,  U.  S.  Cotton  Belt,  33. 
cottonseed,  products  from,  25. 
cotton  trade,  (18),  22,  24,  235. 
cranberries,  121. 

Crater  Lake,  (94  N2),  96. 
creameries,  U.  S.,  (145). 

Crimean  (kri-me'an)  Mts.,  277. 

Crimean  Peninsula,  (205  S3),  277. 
Cripple  Creek,  (65  03),  73. 
crop  rotation,  46,  76. 

Crystal  Spring,  17. 

Cuba,  (12),  ( 191  Q2);  agr.,  195; 


climate,  (84),  193,  194;  govern- 
ment, 194;  people,  194;  sugar, 
195,  *195;  trade,  (193),  195,  196. 
Cumberland  (kum'ber-land),  (125 
Q4),  149. 

Cumberland  Gap,  146. 

Cumberland  Mts.,  (19  R3),  146. 
Cumberland  Valley,  (19  R3),  147. 
Curasao  (kob-ra-sa'S),  (379  01),  403. 
Curityba  (kdo"rg-te'ba),  (379  Q5),  393. 
currents,  ocean,  App.  6. 
cutlery,  England,  218. 

Cuzco  (kobs'ko),  (379  N4),  401,  405. 
cyclone  (see  climate). 
cypress,  *20,  32. 

Czechoslovakia  (chek'o-slo-vfik'I-a) , 
(204),  (242  04),  Carpathian  sec- 
tion, 255,  Upland  section,  259-263 ; 
agr,  (206),  (223),  (225),  (228),  (237), 
255,  261 ; cattle,  sheep  and  swine, 
(222),  (229),  255;  forests,  255,  260; 
government,  259;  people,  259; 
surface,  (242),  2 55,  259. 

Dahomey  (351  05);  Forest,  354-358; 

Grassland,  360-365. 

Dairen  (dl'rSn),  (307  T3),  332. 
dairying,  Australia,  421;  British 
Isles,  215-216;  California,  112; 
Canada,  62,  170,  (170);  Denmark, 
239;  Holland,  227;  Maryland,  140; 
Michigan,  170;  Minnesota,  61-62, 
170;  New  England,  133,  160,  170; 
New  York,  156, 170;  New  Zealand, 
428,  429;  North  Dakota,  61,  62; 
Pennsylvania,  140,  156;  Siberia, 
313;  Sweden,  239;  Switzerland, 
152;  U.  S.,  (145),  (169);  Wisconsin, 
170. 

Dallas  (dSl'ds),  (26  02),  34. 

Dalmatia  (dal-ma'shi-a),  277. 
Danbury  (d&n'bgr-I),  (129  M4),  132. 
“anube  (d&n'ub)  River,  (205  R3), 
260,  269. 

Danube  Valley,  (205  R3),  268. 
Danville  (d&n'vil),  Va.,  (23  02),  144, 
Danzig  (dant'zlkh),  (208  Q2),  246. 
Dardanelles  (dar'da-nglz")  Strait, 
(205  R4),  272,  282. 

Dar-es-Salaam  (dar=gs=sd-lam'),  (351 
R6),  *353. 

Darjeeling  (dar-jel'Ing),  (310  R4), 
*304. 

Darling  (dar'llng)  River,  (419  03), 
426. 

date  fine,  App.  5. 
date  palm,  California,  101,  *102; 

Sahara  Desert,  289-291,  *291 . 

Davis  (da'vls)  Strait,  (59  V3),  136, 
(211). 

Dawson  (do'sun),  (59  N3),  180. 
daylight,  App.,  2,  3,  5. 

Dayton  (da'tun),  (39  R3),  *48. 

Dead  Sea,  (305  03),  283. 

Death  Valley,  (57  05),  82,  84,  90. 
degree  (see  latitude,  longitude). 
Delaware  (dgl'd-w&r),  (19  T2),  (23 
02);  Piedmont  region,  138-145; 
Coast  Plain  region,  118-127;  agr., 
(46)  (see  truck  farming);  cities, 
141,  (201);  climate,  41-46,  (91), 
126,  (128);  dairying,  140,  (145), 
(169);  fish  and  oysters,  122,  *122; 
mfg.,  141,  142;  surface,  (19),  118, 


120,  *120;  truck  farming,  *120, 

121,  *121 ; waterways,  harbors,  120 
Delaware  Bay,  (19  T2),  122. 
Delaware  River,  (19  Tl),  (141),  142, 

147. 

Delta  (dgl'ta),  Colorado,  100,  (101), 
see  rivers,  work  of);  Ganges,  336; 
Mississippi,  28;  Nile,  292,  293; 
Rhine,  225;  Yangtze  and  Hwang, 
325,  327. 

Denmark  (dgn'mark),  (242  M2), 
(204);  agr.,  (206),  (222),  (223), 

(225),  *231,  (237),  238,  239,  244; 
cattle,  (222),  *231;  climate,  (203), 
(213),  238;  dairying,  239,  313; 
government,  240,  243;  people, 
(207),  *230,  238;  surface,  (204), 
237  239. 

Denver  (dSn'ver),  (65  03),  70. 
desert,  agr.,  289-291;  animals,  *285, 
288,  *290,  commerce  (see  caravans); 
oases,  289-297;  people,  288,  289, 
317;  plants,  285,  *288,  *291,  *297; 
types  of,  284,  314,  316,  371,  408, 
424. 

Des  Moines  (dg  moin),  (38  P2),  48. 
Detroit  (de-troit'),  (39  R2),  48,  107, 
167,  168. 
dew,  91. 

diamonds,  Amsterdam,  230;  South 
Africa,  370. 

Dieppe  (de-gp'),  235. 
dikes,  226,  *227,  228. 

Dinaric  Alps  Mts.,  (204  Q3),  264,  277. 
District  of  Columbia,  (23),  (125  Q4), 
143. 

doldrums,  360-361. 

Dominican  (do-mln'I-kdn)  Republic, 
(191  Q3);  agr.,  195;  climate,  (84), 
194-195;  government,  195;  people, 
194. 

Donner  (dSn'er),  92. 

Don  (dQn)  River,  (205  T3),  246. 
Dover  (do'ver),  England,  (219  P3), 
235. 

Drakensberg  (dra'ken-burg)  Mts., 
(287  R9),  369. 

Dresden  (drgz'den),  (208  Q2),  241. 
droughts,  24,  60,  *91,  284,  285,  424 
(see  also  deserts). 
dry  farming,  69,  89,  *297. 

Dublin  (dublln),  (219  N3),  214. 
Duluth  (du-looth),  (38  PI),  63,  165. 
Dundee  (dun-de'),  (219  02),  218. 
dunes,  284. 

Durham  (dur'am),  (23  02),  144. 
Dutch  East  Indies,  343,  345,  (417  N3). 
dyes,  241. 

Earth,  shape  of,  App.  4;  size,  App.  1; 

motions  of,  App.  1,  App.  4. 
earthquake,  319. 

East  African  Lowland  Forest,  358-359. 
East  Indies  (In-dlz),  (417  M3),  341. 
ebb  tide,  App.  3. 

Ecuador  (gk'wa-dor),  (376  N3),  (379 
N3);  Amazon  Valley,  381-385; 
Coast  Forest,  384;  Northern  An- 
des, 401-404;  agr.,  383,  384,  *410; 
cities,  384,  404;  climate,  (356), 
(357),  384,  404;  home  industries, 
385,  402,  *403;  people,  (207),  378, 
384,  385,  *403,  404;  trade  and 
transport,  (376),  404,  (411). 


11-24 


24 


INDEX 


Egypt  (e'jlpt),  ( 351  Q3),  103,  (286  S3); 
the  Great  Desert,  292-295;  Tropic 
Grasslands,  360-365 ; agr.,  *24,  *292, 
362;  cities,  294;  climate,  (212), 
284,  (356),  357);  cotton,  *24,  294, 
363,  360-361;  government,  293, 
362;  irrigation,  292-295;  people, 
292,  293,  *294,  363;  Sphinx  and 
Pyramids,  *295;  transportation  and 
trade,  (286),  294,  (372),  363. 

Elbe  (6lb)  River,  (204  Q2),  241,  269. 

electrical  equipment,  177,  *240. 

electricity,  5. 

elephant,  *332,  *355,  356,  362. 

Elmira  (61-mi'ra),  (119  02),  156. 

El  Paso  (61  pa/so),  (26  M2),  87. 

England  (Ing'land),  (208  02),  (219), 
214-225;  agr.,  (206),  215-216,  *220, 

(222) ,  (223),  (225),  (229),  (237); 

cities,  218,  (219),  220,  221,  222, 
*223;  climate,  (203),  (211),  (212), 
215,  216;  colonies,  (8);  government, 
214,  *224;  mfg.,  217-220,  *221; 
mining,  217,  220,  224;  population, 
(207);  shipbuilding,  218-219,  220; 
surface,  214-215,  (219);  trade, 

(204),  221,  222,  223;  world  loca- 
tion, 221. 

English  (In'gllsh)  Channel,  (204  02), 
228. 

English  walnuts,  110,  280. 

equator,  App.  3. 

equatorial  calms  (see  doldrums). 

equinox,  App.  6. 

Erie  (e'rl)  Canal,  (119  P2),  173,  *177. 

Erie  Canal  Belt,  173-178. 

Erie  Lake,  (19  SI),  *164,  169. 

Eritrea,  (351  R4);  Tropic  Grassland, 
365. 

Eskimos  (Ss'kI-mos),  184. 

Essen  (6s'en),  (208  P2),  230,  *231. 

Esthonia  (6s'tho'nI-d),  (242  P2); 
agr.,  (223),  (225),  (229),  (237);  cli- 
mate, (203);  government,  243; 
people,  243;  surface,  237. 

Etah  (e'ta),  (59  T2),  181. 

eucalyptus  (u 'flea-lip 'tus),  *103,  420. 

Euphrates  (u-frat'es)  River,  (305  P3), 
284,  295.  i 

Eurasia  (ur-a'shi-d),  304. 

Eurasian  (ur-a'shan)  Steppes  and 
Deserts,  (305),  314-316. 

Europe  (u'rop),  (204),  (208),  203-303; 
art  and  architecture,  207;  barley, 

(223) ;  cattle,  (222);  citrus  fruits, 
(278);  climate,  203,  (203),  (211), 
(212),  (256);  coal,  (6);  corn,  *45, 
(269);  farms,  size  of,  206;  grapes, 
(233);  languages,  207;  oats,  (237); 
occupations,  (303);  olives,  (279); 
petroleum,  (6);  population,  206, 
(207);  potatoes,  (225);  regions, 
(204),  210,  (see  Table  of  Con- 
tents); root  forage,  (222);  rye, 
(237);  sheep,  (70);  sugar  beets, 

(228) ;  statistics,  App.  8;  surface, 
203,  (204),  206,  250;  swine,  *45, 

(229) ;  trade,  (6),  301-303;  water 
power,  257,  258;  wheat,  (206); 
refer  by  name  to  particular  coun- 
tries and  regions. 

Evansville  (Sv'anz-vfl),  Ind.,  (39  Q3), 
54. 


Everest  (gv'er-Sst),  Mt.,  (305  R3), 
*304,  317,  334. 

Everglades,  20. 

Facativa  (fa'ka-te'va),  (376  N2),  403. 
Falkland  (fok'land)  Islands,  (379  P8). 
186,  400,  409. 

“Fall  Line,”  118,  120,  *147. 

Fall  River,  (129  N4),  *131,  131,  132. 
farming,  diversified,  30,  140-141; 

“dry,”  69,  83,  89;  experimental, 
*58;  “four  crop,”  46;  “four  step,” 
405;  garden,  320;  intensive,  226, 
281,  326;  mountain,  152,  251-252; 
“tree,”  54,  280;  truck,  20,  29,  101, 
121. 

Faroe  (far'5)  Islands,  (204  01),  210. 
Fayetteville  (fa-ygt'vll),  (27  PI),  159. 
Fernandina  (fer-nan-de'nci),  (23  N3), 
21. 

fertilizers,  guano,  *771 ; legumes,  30; 
nitrate  of  soda,  52;  phosphate, 
22;  potash,  31. 
figs,  110,  280,  282. 

Fiji  (fe'je),  (417  P3),  (432),  434. 
Filipinos  (fiP'I-pe'nos),  346. 

Finland  (fin'land),  (204),  (209  Rl); 
Tundra  section,  249-250;  Forest 
section,  247-248;  agr.,  (223),  (225), 
(229),  (237),  247;  climate,  (203), 
(211),  247;  forests  and  lumbering, 
247;  government,  248;  people, 
(207);  248,  249;  reindeer,  249; 
surface,  (204),  247. 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  (205  R2),  247. 
fiord,  212,  213. 

fishing,  Alaska,  99;  Belgium,  *226; 
Brittany,  233;  Caspian  Sea,  315; 
Europe,  210;  Japan,  321;  Labra- 
dor and  Newfoundland,  136-137; 
New  England  and  Nova  Scotia, 
128,  *134;  North  Atlantic  Coast, 
122;  Puget  Sound,  116. 

Flanders  (flSn'derz),  230. 
flax,  *263,  *276;  seed,  396. 

Flinders  (flin'derz)  Mts.,  (419  03), 
418. 

flood  plains  (see  rivers,  work  of), 
floods,  China,  324;  desert,  284-385; 

United  States,  29,  53,  101. 

Florence  (flor'ens),  (208  Q3),  283. 
Florida  (flor'i-dd),  (23  N4);  Florida 
Peninsula  region,  16-22;  Cotton 
Belt,  22-36;  agr.,  20-21,  22,  (24), 
30,  (31),  (41);  cattle,  22,  (47); 
cities,  21,  (201);  citrus  fruits,  21, 
*22,  (112);  climate,  16-17,  *25, 
40-46,  (91),  (128);  corn,  22,  (40); 
future  resources,  22;  lumbering, 
21;  phosphate  rock,  22;  soil,  20, 
79;  surface,  16-17,  20;  tobacco 
factories,  21;  tourists,  21;  winter 
vegetables,  20. 
flour,  63;  *64,  *312. 
football,  British,  220;  Indian,  *388. 
forest  fires,  *95,  153,  *170,  *171;  world 
problem,  309-312. 

forest  preservation,  74-75,  95,  252, 
260-261. 

forests,  Africa,  354-359;  Alaska,  *93, 
99;  Appalachian,  153;  Australia, 
420;  cork,  281;  Cotton  Belt,  32; 
East  Indies,  341;  European  Mt., 
250-258;  European  Upland,  *259, 


460,  *261;  Florida,  21;  Great 

Northern,  179-181,  247-248;  India, 
338;  Manchuria,  333;  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  187,  188, 
189;  National,  74,  95;  North 
Atlantic  Coast  Plain,  120;  North- 
eastern Highland,  160-161;  Pa- 
cific Mts.,  93-95,  115;  Ozark,  159; 
Rocky  Mts.,  74;  South  America, 
381-385,  397-398;  Taiga,  308-312; 
Upper  Lake,  171. 

forests  and  water  supply,  107  (see 
also,  lumbering). 

Formosa  (for-mo'sd)  (Taiwan),  (307 
T3),  322,  330. 

Fort  Vermilion  (ver-mil-yun),  181. 

Fort  William,  63,  (124  02). 

Fort  Worth,  (26  02),  *33,  34. 

fox  farming,  99,  134,  162. 

France  (frans)  (204),  (207),  (208 

P3);  Atlantic  Plain  section,  232- 
236;  Lower  Rhine  Valley  section, 
225-232;  Mediterranean  section, 
271-283;  Mountain  section,  255; 
Upland  section,  259-263;  agr.,  *63, 
(223),  (225),  226,  (228),  (229),  232- 
233,  236,  (237),  259,  (269),  281; 
cities,  230,  234,  235,  262,  283; 
climate,  (203),  232,  *233,  276-277; 
colonies,  137,  235;  forests,  254; 
government,  235;  mfg.,  230,  234- 
236;  261-262;  mining,  *217,  *221, 
229-230,  261-262;  people,  232, 

233,  259;  regions  (see  Table  of 
Contents);  surface,  204)  225  232, 
250,  251,  255,  259;  trade  (204), 
227-229,  235,  262;  water  power, 
236,  257,  258. 

Frankfort-on-the  Main  (fnink'furt), 
(208  P2),  *258. 

Frederick  (frgd'er-ik),  (23  02),  144. 

Fredericksburg  ( f red'er-Iks-burg" ) , 

(23  02),  120,  139. 

French  Equatorial  Africa,  (351  P6), 

354-358. 

French  Guinea,  (351  M4) ; Tropic 
Forest,  354-358. 

French  Indo-China,  (307  S4). 

French  Somali  Coast,  Tropic  Grass- 
land, (351  S4),  365. 

French  West  Africa  and  Sahara,  (351 
N4);  Grassland,  360-365;  desert, 
284-290. 

Fresno  (fres'no),  (94  03),  111,  113. 

frost,  17,  91. 

frost  drainage,  106,  149. 

fruit,  Appalachian  Ridges,  149;  Ar- 
gentina (398),  400;  Australia,  (418), 
420;  California,  106,  109-112;  Chile, 
(398),  *408,  410;  Colorado,  69; 
dried,  109,  110,  111;  Florida,  21, 
*22;  Georgia  peaches,  29;  Lower 
Lake  region,  168;  Mediterranean 
region,  279-280;  Ohio  Valley,  52, 
*53;  Ozark  Highlands,  158;  Rocky 
Mt.  region,  76;  South  Africa, 
368;  Wdliamette-Puget  Sound  Val- 
ley, 115.  _ 

Fujiyama  (foo'je-ya'ma),  Mt.,  319. 

Fundy  (fun'di),  Bay,  (125  S2),  128. 

fur  industry,  99,  134,  162,  247,  309. 

Galveston  (g3,l'ves-tun),  (26  P3),  *32, 
33,  34. 


INDEX 


25 


Gambia,  (351  M4);  Grasslands,  360- 
365. 

Ganges  (g&n'jez)  Valley,  ( 310  R4), 
336. 

Garden  City  (Letchworth),  England, 
(219  03),  220,  *223,  227. 

Gary  (ga'ri),  (39  Q2),  166. 

Gellivare  (ygl-le-va're),  (208 Rl),  248. 

Genesee  (j6n"e-se/)  River,  (119  02), 
*178,  178. 

Geneva  (je-ne'vd),  (208  P3),  253,  302. 

Geneva,  Lake,  (204  P3),  253. 

Genoa  (jen'6-d),  (208  P3),  303. 

Genoa,  Gulf,  (208  P3),  276. 

geography,  regional,  1 1 ; ways  of 
studying,  11. 

Georgetown  (jorj'toun),  143. 

Georgia  (jor'jl-d),  (19  R4),  (23  N3); 
Cotton  Belt,  22-36;  Appalachian 
Region,  157;  agr.,  21,  25,  28,  29, 
(31),  35,  (41),  (55),  157;  cattle,  31, 
(47) ; cities,  33,  34,  (201);  climate, 
24,  25,  41-46,  (91),  157;  cotton, 
(24),  25;  com,  30,  (40);  fruit,  29; 
lumber,  32-33,  157;  mfg.,  33,  34; 
surface  and  soil,  *23,  25,  28,  29,  157; 
trade,  34;  truck  farming,  28. 

Georgians  (jor'ji-anz),  298,  299. 

Germany  (jur'mSn-i),  (204  Q2),  (207), 
(208  Q2);  Lower  Rhine  Valley 
section,  225-232;  Central  Plains 
section,  237-246;  Upland  section, 
259-263;  agr.,  *31,  (206),  *215,  (222), 
(223),  22  5-22  7,  (229),  *230,  (237), 

240,  246,  *261;  cities,  (208),  230, 

241,  262;  climate,  (203),  (212), 
226,  238;  education,  240;  forests, 
259-260;  government,  241;  mfg., 
229,  230,  240,  241,  262;  minerals, 
(7),  *217,  *221,  229,  230,  241,  262; 
potatoes,  *237,  238;  sugar  beets, 
(228),  *261;  surface  and  soil,  225, 
237,  259;  trade,  (204),  228,  229, 
241,  243,  246. 

Gettysburg  (get'tis-burg),  (119  04), 
146. 

geysers,  75. 

Ghats  (gots)  Mts.,  (310  Q5),  337,  338. 

Ghent  (gent),  (208  P2),  228,  230. 

Gibraltar  (ji-brol'ter),  Strait  of,  (204 
04),  271,  282. 

Glacier  National  Park,  (65  Nl),  *75. 

glaciers,  effect  of  Great  Glacier, 
163-164;  work  of,  in  Europe,  214, 
239,  247;  work  of,  in  U.  S.,  36-37, 
(37),  58,  76,  128,  160. 

Glasgow  (glas'go),  (219  02),  *203,  217, 
220,  221. 

glass,  Europe,  230,  262;  New  Jersey, 
126;  Pennsylvania,  154. 

Glassboro  (glas'bur-o),  126. 

Globe,  Ariz.,  (65  N4),  88. 

Gloucester  (glos'ter),  Mass.,  (129 
N3),  128. 

Gloversville  (gluv'erz-vil),  (119  P2), 
177. 

gloves,  New  York,  177. 

goats,  Asia,  337;  desert,  288;  Eu- 
rope, 252,  261;  U.  S.,  153. 

gold,  Alaska,  96;  Australia,  *370, 
427;  California,  *74,  96,  109; 

Canada,  180;  China,  331;  Colo- 
rado, *74;  Mexico,  88,  *370;  Mon- 


tana, 73;  Nevada,  *74,  83,  *84; 
production,  leading  nations,  *370, 
leading  states,  *74;  Siberia,  309, 
318,  *370;  South  Africa,  *369,  *370, 
370;  South  America,  404,  405,  406 ; 
Venezuela,  391. 

Gold  Coast,  (351  N5),  358. 

Golden  Gate,  (114). 

Goldfield  (gold'feld),  (94  03),  83. 

Goteborg  (yu-ta-borg'),  (208  Q2), 
240,  313. 

grain,  production  per  person,  *220, 
*231,  *280,  *320,  *421. 

Granada  (grS,-na'da),  (208  04),  278. 

Gran  Chaco  (gran  cha'ko),  *396,  398. 

Grand  Canyon  (kSn'yun),  (56  P6), 
*85,  86,  100. 

Grand  Haven,  (39  Q2),  169. 

Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  (12),  98. 

grapefruit,  21,  *22,  (112). 

grapes,  Africa,  279,  368;  Asia,  279; 
Australia,  (418),  420;  California, 
111;  Europe,  233,  *233,  252,  261, 
279;  New  York,  169;  South 
America,  (398),  400;  U.  S.,  (24). 

grasslands,  African,  (286),  360-368, 
369,  371;  American,  52,  64-68, 
*67;  Arctic,  181,  *186,  249,  308; 
Australian,  424-426,  *425;  cause  of 
66,  (356),  360-361,  *364;  Eurasian, 
314-318;  South  American,  *387, 
388-391,  *394,  395. 

gravitation,  App.  2. 

grazing,  66,  314,  362. 

Great  Basin,  (65  M2),  78,  81-84. 

Great  Britain  (see  United  Kingdom). 

Great  Desert,  284-297  (see  Sahara). 

Greater  Antilles  (dn-til'lez),  (191  Q3), 
193. 

Great  Falls,  (65  Nl),  73. 

Great  Lakes,  (124),  163-164;  navi- 
gation season,  164-165;  sea  level 
and  depth,  *164;  trade  and  cities, 
163-168,  (172). 

Great  Northern  Forest,  Asia,  308- 
312;  Europe,  247-249;  North 
American,  179-181. 

Great  Plains,  North  America,  64-71; 
Central  and  Eastern  Europe,  237- 
246. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  (65  N2),  81,  314. 

Great  Slave  Lake,  (59  P3),  67,  180. 

Great  Valley,  Appalachian,  (14), 
145-149,  *147. 

Greece  (gres),  (204  R3),  (209  R4); 
Balkan  Mt.  region,  263-268;  Med- 
iterranean region,  271-282;  agr., 
(206),  (233),  279-281;  cities,  264, 
272;  climate,  (203),  (212),  276; 
government,  264,  265,  273;  people, 
275;  surface,  263-264,  271;  trade, 
279  282 

Greeley,  (gre'll),  (65  P2),  71. 

Green  Bay,  (124  02),  169. 

Greenland  (gren'land),  (12),  (15), 
(59  U3),  181,  (182),  184-185. 

Greensboro  (grenz'bQr-o),  N.  C., 
(23  02),  144. 

Greenwich  time,  App.  4. 

ground  water,  17. 

Guam  (gwam)  Island,  (8),  (342  Rl), 
(432). 

guano,  371. 


Guatemala  (gwa''td-ma'ld),  (191  03), 
(84);  bananas,  190-193,  (193); 

climate,  (84),  187-188;  govern- 
ment, 188;  surface,  189. 

Guayaquil  (gwUa-kel'),  (379  N3), 
384,  387. 

Guayaquil  Gulf,  (376),  (379  M3),  384. 
Guiana  (gl-a'na),  British,  (376),  (379 
P2);  Coast  Forest  section,  384- 
385;  Upland  Grassland  section, 
391;  climate,  384,  391;  forests, 
385;  trade,  385. 

Guiana,  Dutch,  (376),  (379  P2);  Coast 
Forest  section,  384-385;  Upland 
Grassland  section,  391. 

Guiana,  French,  (376),  (379  P2); 

Coast  Forest  section,  384-385;  Up- 
land Grassland  section,  391. 

Guinea  (gln'l)  Coast  Forest,  354-358. 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  (191),  28,  41,  211. 
Gulfport  (gulf-port),  (18  Q4),  33. 

Gulf  Stream,  17,  185,  211,  (211). 
gullies,  51,  *51 . 
gums,  varnish,  343. 
gunpowder,  142. 

Hagerstown  (ha'gerz-toun),  (23  02), 
148. 

Haiti  (ha'tl),  (191  Q3),  (84),  194,  196. 
Halifax  (hal'I-faks),  (59  U5),  128, 
*134. 

Hamadan  (ha"ma-dan'),  (310  N3), 
298. 

Hamburg  (ham'burkh),  (208  Q2), 
241,  *302. 

Hami  (ha'me),  (311  S2),  317,  318. 
Hampton  (hamp'tun)  Roads,  (19  T3), 
126. 

Hankow  (Hangchow)  (hS,n"kou') , 
(311  V3),  329,  330. 

Hanover  (han-6'ver),  Germany,  (208) 
P2),  241. 

Hanover  (hifn'6-ver),  N.  H.,  160. 
harbors  and  coastlines,  350;  arti- 
ficial, (166),  *176,  228,  *302;  bay, 
*104,  *110,  (114),  (132),  *173,  (174); 
drowned  valley,  120;  river,  *33, 
(34),  228-229,  *273. 

Harrisburg  (har'is-btirg),  (119  03), 
147,  148. 

Hartlepool  (har'tl-pool),  (2/903), 220. 
Hartz  (harts)  Mts.,  (204  Q2),  262. 
Havana  (ha'va'na),  (191  P2),  17,  *187, 

196. 

Haverhill  (ha'ver-il),  Mass.,  (129  N3), 
132. 

Havre  (ha'vr),  (208  P3),  235. 

Hawaii  (ha-wl'e),  (344  R2);  climate, 
*434;  government,  432;  popula- 
tion, 433;  products,  *195,  432-433. 
Hebrides  (heb'rl-dez)  Islands,  (208 
02),  210. 

Hejaz  (hej-az'),  (286  S3),  (307),  *290, 

296. 

Helena  (he-le'nri),  (65  Nl),  73. 
hemp,  52,  346. 

Hilo  (he'lo),  (344  R2),  *434. 

Himalaya  (hl-ma'ld-ya)  Mts.,  (310 
Q3),  *304,  317,  334,' 335-336. 
Hindustan  (hln-doo-stan'),  climate, 
(309);  crops,  337. 

Hoboken  (ho-bo'ken),  (119  Ml), 
*148,  176.  _ 
hogs  (see  swine). 


26 


INDEX 


Holland  (hSI'and),  (Netherlands), 

(208  P2),  (204  P2);  agr.,  (225),  226- 
227,  (257);  bulbs,  *226,  227;  cattle 
and  swine,  (222),  (229),  *231; 

cities,  (2(W),  228-231;  climate, 

(203) ,  (212);  colonies,  231;  dairy- 
ing, 227;  government  and  people, 
230-231;  mfg.,  227-230;  surface 
and  sod,  (204),  225-227;  trade, 

(204) ,  227-230. 

Holyoke  (hSl'yok),  (129  M3),  132. 

honey,  253. 

Honduras,  (191  P3);  Low  Plains, 
187-193. 

Hongkong  (hbng'kSng),  (311  U4), 
326  *329  3 30 

Honolulu  (ho"n5-16b'loo),  (344  Ql) 
432  433 

Hood,’  Mt.j  (94  Nl),  *80,  *116. 

Hood  River  Valley,  (94  Nl),  80,  116. 

Hoogli  (hoo'gll)  River,  336,  *347. 

Hoosac  (hoo's&k)  Tunnel,  134. 

horse  raising,  France,  232;  Kentucky, 
53;  Virginia,  140. 

Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  (27  P2),  159. 

house,  brick,  *292;  cloth,  *288;  grass, 
*363,  *364;  log,  *1 , *4;  sod,  *60, 
*249;  stone,  *216;  boards,  *1,  *136, 
*254. 

Houston  (hus'tun),  (26  03),  34. 

Huddersfield  (hud'erz-feld),  (219  03), 
218 

Hudson  (hud'sun)  Bay,  (59  S4),  172. 

Hudson  River,  (119  Q3),  173, 175, 176. 

Hull  (hill),  (2/9  03),  221. 

humidity  (see  water  vapor). 

Hungary  (htm'gd-rl),  (204  Q3),  (208 
Q3);  Corn  Belt  section,  268-270; 
Mountain  section,  255;  Vienna 
Basin  section,  271;  agr.,  (206), 
(223),  (225),  (228),  (229),  (237),  *261, 
*269,  269;  cities,  269,  270,  *270), 
271;  climate,  (203),  268,  269,  271, 
forests,  255;  people,  269,  271; 
soil  and  surface,  269,  271. 

hurricanes,  194. 

hydroelectric  power  (see  water  power). 

icebergs,  136,  *185,  185,  186. 

Iceland  (Is'land),  (204),  (208  Nl); 
climate,  (203),  (211),  210-212,  (2/3); 
government,  212;  people,  210,  212; 
water  power,  214. 

Idaho  (i'da-ho),  (65  N2),  (56  03); 
Columbia  Basin,  78-81;  Rocky 
Mts.,  72-78;  agr.,  (46),  (47),  76,  77, 
79,  80;  alfalfa,  (66),  79;  climate, 
79,  90-92,  (91),  (212);  forests, 

73-75;  irrigation,  (77),  79,  *81; 
mining,  73;  phosphate  rock,  73; 
sheep,  *70,  77,  79;  surface  and  soil, 
72,  *74,  78-79,  *79,  *83;  water 
power,  81,  *83,  (113). 

Illinois  (Il-ll-noi'),  (18  Q2),  (39  Q2); 
Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt, 
36-50;  Lower  Lake  district,  163- 
170;  Ohio  Valley,  50-54;  agr.,  40, 
(46),  46-49,  *63, ‘169,  (303);  cattle, 
47-48;  cities,  (39),  (201).  165,  166; 
climate,  40-46,  50,  (91),  (128),  (212); 
coal  and  petroleum,  (32),  49; 
corn,  (40),  40,  *45,  46-48,  *269; 
dairy  products,  (145),  (169),  170; 
mfg.,  48,  49,  *154,  165-168;  mining 


(iron),  *154;  oats,  46,  47,  (55); 
surface  and  soil,  (18),  36-37,  40; 
swine,  (41),  *45,  47-48;  trade,  49, 
(50),  164-165. 

Imperial  Valley,  (57  06),  101,  102. 

Incas  (In'kdz),  378,  405,  *405. 

India  (In'dI-d),  (307  R3),  (310);  Gan- 
ges Valley,  336;  Himalaya  slopes, 
335;  Hindustan  Plateau,  336-339; 
Indus  region,  336;  agr.,  *24,  *35, 
(55),  *63,  334,  336-338,  (339);  cities, 
(307),  336;  climate,  (309),  334, 
(335),  (336),  336-339;  cotton,  337, 
(339);  domestic  animals,  *31,  (222), 
*332,  338,  340;  government,  335; 
mfg.,  336,  338;  people,  (207),  306, 
*334,  334-335;  rice,  336,  (339); 
transportation  and  trade,  (310), 
337,  338,  348,  349,  (349);  surface 
and  soil,  (310),  334,  335,  336-337; 
water  power,  338;  wild  animals, 
*306,  338. 

India,  Farther,  340,  (305  R3),  (339); 
climate,  (309),  340;  character  and 
trade,  340-341;  rice,  (339),  340. 

Indiana  (In-dl-hn'd),  (18  R2),  (39  Q2); 
Lower  Lake  district,  163-170;  Ohio 
Valley,  50-54;  Prairie  Corn  and 
Small  Grain  Belt,  36-50;  agr.,  40, 
46-49,  53,  169,  (303);  cattle,  (47), 

47,  48;  cities,  (39),  (201),  166; 
climate,  40-46,  50,  (91),  (128),  (212); 
corn,  (40),  40,  *45,  46-48;  dairy 
products,  (145),  (169),  170;  mfg., 

48,  49,  166;  mining,  (32),  49,  54; 
surface  and  soil,  (18),  36-37,  40; 
swine,  (41),  *45,  47;  trade,  49, 
(50),  (325). 

Indian  Ocean,  (305  Q4),  304. 

Indians,  American,  66,  86,  102,  136, 
180;  Central  American,  188;  South 
American,  *396,  402,  404,  409. 

Indo-China  (ln,do=chI'nd),  (305  S4); 
climate,  (309),  340;  character  and 
trade,  340-341;  rice,  (339),  340. 

Indus  (In'dus)  Valley  Region,  (305 
Q3),  336. 

international  date  line,  (9),  App.  5. 

Iowa  (I'6-wd),  (18  PI),  (38  P2);  agr., 
*3,  *46,  46-49;  cattle,  47-48,  (47), 
*70;  cities,  (39),  48,  (201);  climate, 
40-46,  (91),  (212);  coal,  (32);  corn, 

(40) ,  40,  *45.  46-49;  dairy  products, 
(145);  oats,  46-47,  (55);  surface 
and  soil,  (18),  36-37,  40;  swine, 

(41) ,  *45,  47. 

Iquique  (e-ke'ka),  (379  N5),  408. 

Iquitos  (§-ke'tos),  (379  N3),  381,  412. 

Iran  (1-rS.n')  Plateau,  (310  03),  298- 
301. 

Iraq  (e-rak'),  (307  P3),  (310),  295,  *296; 
cotton,  295-296;  government,  295; 
petroleum,  296;  soil,  295. 

Ireland  (iir'land),  (208  02),  (2/9  N3); 
agr.,  2 1 6,  (222),  (223),  (225),  (229), 
(237);  climate,  (203),  (212),  215; 
government,  214;  surface,  214, 
*2/7;  mfg.,  218,  220. 

Irkutsk  (Ir-kootsk'),  (307  S2),  348. 

non,  Alabama,  148;  blast  furnace, 
*153;  Brazil,  393;  Chile,  408; 
China,  322,  329,  331;  England, 
218;  France,  261,  262;  importance 


of,  5;  Manchuria,  333;  Michigan, 
171,  *172;  Minnesota,  *171,  *172; 
Newfoundland,  133,  137;  ore  distri- 
bution U.  S.  (50);  ore  production, 
*172,  *217;  Pennsylvania,  154;  pig, 
*154,  *221;  Serbia,  267;  Spain,  282; 
Sweden,  248. 

irrigation,  Africa,  372;  Asia,  300, 
(309),  (310),  315,  327,  336;  Aus- 
tralia, *418,  420,  (423);  Columbia 
Basin,  (56),  (77),  79-81;  Great 
Basin,  (56),  (77),  82-83;  Great 
Desert  and  Oases,  (286),  289-297; 
Great  Plains  and  Lower  Rio 
Grande,  (56),  68-69,  71,  (77); 

Lower  Colorado  Basin,  (56),  (77), 
100-103;  Mediterranean  Region, 
(277),  277,  *282,  283;  Mexico,  100, 
103,  (191);  Rocky  Mts.,  (56),  76-77, 
(77);  South  America,  409,  410; 
Southwestern  Plateau  and  Mts., 
(56),  (77),  87,  89;  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment projects,  (69),  (77),  (91); 
Valleys  of  Central  California,  (56), 
(77),  109-113;  Valleys  of  Southern 
California,  (56),  (77),  103-107. 

Italian  Somaliland,  (35/  S5). 

Italy  (It'd-ll),  (204),  (208  Q3);  High 
Mountains,  251-255;  Mediter- 
ranean Region,  271-283;  agr., 
(206),  (225),  (228),  (229),  (233),  (237), 
(269),  (275),  276,  277,  279-280; 
cities,  *271,  272,  273-283;  climate, 
(203),  (212),  276-277,  government, 
273;  mfg.,  273,  283;  people,  *272, 
275;  power,  283;  surface,  (204), 
271;  trade,  (204),  282-283;  winter 
resorts,  276-277. 

Ivory  Coast,  (35/  N5);  Forest,  354- 
358. 

ivory  industry,  228,  358. 

Jacksonville  (j&k'sun-vll),  (/9S4),21, 
(23  N3). 

Jamaica  (jd-ma-ka),  (191  Q3),  194, 
*195,  196. 

James  River,  (19  T2),  143. 

Japan  (jd-pan'),  (307),  (311  W3);  Rice 
region,  318-323;  Manchurian  re- 
gion, 332-334;  agr.,  *35,  (3/9),  320, 
322-323,  332,  333;  cities,  323;  cli- 
mate, (2//),  (2/2),  (309), 316,319,332; 
empire  building,  322,  333 ; exports, 
323;  fisheries,  321;  food  problem, 
320,  321;  forests,  320,  321,  332, 
333;  government,  321,  322;  im- 
ports, 323;  mfg.,  319,  321,  322-323; 
mining,  *87,  323,  333;  New,  321; 
Old,  319;  people,  (207),  319,  320, 
322,  *324;  silk,  *322,  323;  surface, 
(305),  318-319,  332;  trade,  (310), 
322,  323. 

Japanese  Current,  *92,  (211). 

Japanese  Rice  Region,  318-323. 

Java  (ja'vd),  (307  S5),  (J^NS);  agr., 
*195,  343;  climate,  341;  future 
possibilities,  347;  government,  (8), 
343;  people,  341-342,  347;  trade, 
(342),  347. 

Jerome  (jer-om'),  (65  N4),  88. 

Jersey  (jer'zl)  City,  (119  P3),  (124), 
176. 

Jerusalem  (je-roo'sd-lSm),  (274  05), 
(307  03),  272,  280,  *282,  283. 


INDEX 


27 


Johannesburg  (yo-han'ngs-biirg), 
(286  R8),  (351  Q8),  370. 

Johnstown  (jonz'toun),  N.  Y.,  (119 
P2),  177. 

Joplin  (jop'lln),  (38  P3),  *157,  159. 
Jordan  (jor'dan)  River,  (274  P4),  283. 
jute,  218  , 336,  *336. 

Jugoslavia  (see  Yugoslavia) . 

Juneau  (joo'no"),  (97  R3),  96. 
jungle,  African,  (286) ; (Tropic  Forest 
regions),  354-359;  Asia,  (305), 
(309),  335,  338,  340,  341;  Aus- 
tralia, (419),  422,  423,  Central 
American,  (12),  188,  189;  South 
America,  (376);  (Tropic  Forest 
Regions),  381-387. 

Kafir  (ka'fer)  corn,  Africa,  365; 
U.  S.  acreage,  (66);  Great  Plains, 

70,  71. 

Kalahari  (ka'la-ha're)  Desert,  (287 
R8),  369,  371,  372. 

Kalgoorlie  (k&l-goor'll),  (419  M3), 
424,  427. 

Kamchatka  (kam-chat'ka),  (305  U2), 

321. 

Kano  (ka/no),  (351  04),  362,  363. 
Kansas  (k&n'zds),  (18  02),  (38 
03);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Great 
Plains,  64-71;  agr.,  46-49,  (55), 
68;  alfalfa,  (66),  69;  cattle,  (47), 
47,  66,  68,  *70;  cities,  (38),  48,  70, 
(201);  climate,  40-46,  *67,  (91), 
(212);  corn,  (40),  *45,  46-48,  (66); 
soil,  37,  40,  67;  surface,  36,  37, 
67;  swine,  (41),  *45, 47,  *49;  wheat, 

(46) ,  47,  *63,  70-71. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  (38  P3),  48. 

Kara  (ka'ra)  Sea,  (305  Ql),  313. 
Karachi  (ka-ra/che),  (310  P4),  336. 
Kashgar  (kash"gar'),  (310  Q3),  317, 

318 

Katanga  (kd-tan'gd),  (287  R6),  365, 
373. 

Kenai  (kS-ni')  Peninsula,  (97  Q3),  98. 
Kentucky  (kgn-tuk'1),  (19  R2),  (27 
Ql);  Appalachian  Region,  145-156; 
Ohio  Valley,  50-55;  agr.,  (41),  (46), 

(47) ,  51-54,  152-153;  cities  and 

mfg.,  53,  54,  (201);  climate,  41-46, 
50,  (91),  (128);  corn,  (40),  50,  53; 

forests,  51,  153,  156;  mining,  (32), 
54,  155;  surface  and  soil,  50-53, 
152;  tobacco,  52;  trade,  (50),  53, 
152. 

Key  West,  (23  N4),  17,  22. 

Khartum  (kar"toom'),  (286  S4),  (351 
R4),  363. 

Khiva  (ke'va),  (310  P2),  315. 

Khotan  (ko"tan'),  (310  Q3),  317. 

Kiel  (kel)  Canal,  241,  (242  M3). 
Kilimanjaro  (kil"e-man-ja"ro),  Mt., 
(287  S6),  366. 

Kimberley  (khn'ber-130,  (287  R8),  370. 

Kings  River,  109. 

Kingston  (klngz'tun),  Jamaica,  (191 
Q3),  196. 

Kiolen  (kyu'len)  Mts.,  (204  Ql),  257. 
Kirghiz  (klr-glz'),  *314,  315,  *315. 
Kirin  (klr'In),  (311  V2),  333. 
Knoxville  (noks'vll),  (27  Rl),  148. 
Kodiak  (k6d-yak')  Island,  (97  P3),  95. 
Konigsberg  (ke'nikhs-berkh),  (242 
P3),  246. 


Korea  (ko-re-a),  (Chosen),  (311  V3), 
*318;  Japanese  Rice  Region,  318- 
323;  Manchurian  Region,  332-333; 
climate,  (309),  319;  government, 
323;  Japanese  use  of,  319,  323,  333; 
people,  323. 

Kurds  (koords),  298,  299,  300. 
Labrador  (lab'ra-dor),  (59  U4),  135, 
(211),  215. 

Labrador  Current,  136  (211). 

La  Guaira  (la  givi'rd),  (379  01),  401, 
*402,  403. 

lakes  (see  also  names  of);  alluvial 
fan,  100,  (101),  109;  commerce, 
(124),  164;  influence  on  fruit  crops, 
168;  glacial,  128,  163-164,  *164, 
214;  limestone  sinks,  17;  reser- 
voirs, 162,  *17;  salt,  81. 

Lancaster  (lan'kas-ter),  (119  03),  144. 
La  Paz  (la  paz ),  (379  04 ) , 390, 405, 406 . 
Lapland  (lS,p'12,nd),  (208);  govern- 
ment, 249;  reindeer,  249-250. 
latitude,  Apr.  3,  4,  App.  (3). 

Latvia  (i&t'vl-d),  (208  R2),  (242  P2); 
agr.,  (206),  (223),  (225),  (229),  (237), 
238;  climate,  (203),  238;  govern- 
ment, 243;  people,  243;  surface 
(242),  237. 

lava  soil,  78-79,  337,  432. 

Lawrence  (lo'fens),  (129  N3),  131, 
132. 

lead,  Missouri,  159;  New  South 
Wales,  427;  Spain,  282. 

Leadville  (lgd'vll),  (65  03),  73. 
leather,  *138,  142,  337,  (376),  398. 
Lebanon  (lgb'd-niin),  (119  03),  147. 
Leeds  (ledz),  (219  03),  218. 

Leelanau  (le'ld-n6)  Peninsula,  Mich., 
169. 

Leesburg  (lez'biirg),  140. 
legumes  (leg'umz),  30-31. 

Lehigh  (le'hi)  Valley,  147-148. 

Leipzig  (lip'slg),  (242  N3),  *206,  241. 
lemons,  California,  105,  (105),  110, 
(112);  Sicily,  (278),  279. 

Lena  (le'nd)  Raver,  (305  Tl),  309. 
Leningrad  (Ign'In-grSd),  (209  S2),  246, 
348. 

Lesser  Antilles,  (191  R3);  West 
Indies,  193-196. 

Letchworth  (lCch'whrth),  (219  03), 
220,  *223. 
levee  29  ^29 

Lexington  (lgk'slng-tun),  (23  N2), 
52,  54. 

Liberia  (ll-be'rl-d),  (286  N5);  agr., 
356,  358;  climate,  354,  (356),  (357); 
forests,  354-356;  government,  357,* 
oil  palm,  357;  trade,  (286),  358. 
Libia,  (351  P3);  Desert,  284-290. 
licorice,  300. 

Liege  (le=azh'),  (208  P2),  230. 

Lille  (lei),  (208  P2),  230,  235,  262. 
Lima  (le'ma),  (379  N4),  404,  407. 
limestone,  caves,  17;  cement  ma- 
terial, 147;  roads,  146;  soils,  28, 
52,  147. 

Limoges  (le"mozh'),  (208  P3),  235. 
Limpopo  (lim-po'po),  (287  S8),  359, 
368. 

linen,  218. 

Lisbon  (llz'bun),  (208  04),  180,  283. 
Lithuania  (Uth"h-a'nl-d),  (209  R2), 


(242  P2);  agr.,  (206),  (223),  (225), 
(229),  (237),  238;  climate,  (203), 
238;  government,  243;  people, 
243;  surface,  (242),  237. 

Liverpool  (llv'er-pool),  (208  02),  216, 
(7/9  031  991 

Lodz  (lodz),  (208  Q2),  244. 

Logan  (lo'gan),  Mt.,  95. 

Loire  (lwar)  River,  (204  03),  235. 

London  (lun'dun),  (219  03),  *220, 
221,  222,  223,  302. 

Long  Island,  (119  Nl),  120,  123, 
(129  M4). 

Long  Island  Sound,  (119  Nl),  120. 

longitude,  App,  3,  4,  App.  (3) ; degree, 
length  of,  App.  4. 

Lorraine  (lo"ran'),  230,  259,  262. 

Los  Angeles  (los  a,n'jSl-es),  (56  06), 
(94  04),  10.3,  105,  *106,  107,  112. 

Louisiana  (loo-e"z!-&n'd),  (19  P4), 
(27  P2) ; agr.,  25-31,  *35,  35,  (40), 
(41),  195;  cities,  (27),  34,  (201); 
climate,  41-46,  (91);  cotton,  (24), 
25-29;  lumber,  32-33,  *96;  petro- 
leum, (32),  34;  rice,  *35,  (35),  35; 
sugar  cane,  29  (31),  195;  sulphur, 
35;  surface  and  soil,  (18),  28-29; 
trade,  (18),  33-34,  *34,  (193). 

Louisville  (loo'l-vll),  (23  M2),  52,  53. 

Low  Countries  and  Lower  Rliine 
Valley,  (204),  225-232. 

Lowell  (lo'el),  (129  N3),  131,  132. 

Lower  Colorado  Basin,  (56),  100-103. 

Lower  Lake  Region,  (124),  163-171. 

Lumbering,  Australia,  420;  Brazil, 
393;  Canada,  161,  162,  179-180; 
Japan,  320,  332;  Norway,  213; 
Russia,  247-248;  Siberia,  312; 
Sweden,  247;  Switzerland,  252; 
United  States,  leading  states  com- 
pared, *96;  Appalachian  Region, 
153;  Cotton  Belt,  32;  Florida 
Peninsula,  21;  Lake  Region,  171; 
New  England-Canadian  Maritime 
District,  133;  Northeastern  High- 
lands, 160,  162;  Ozark  Plateau, 
159;  Pacific  Mts.,  93-99;  Rocky 
Mts.,  73;  Willamette-Puget  Sound 
Region,  115-117. 

Luxemburg  (luks'em-biirg),  (208  P3), 
259  262. 

Luzon  (loo-zon),  (344  03),  346. 

Lynchburg  (llnch'burg),  (23  02),  144. 

Lynn  (lln),  (129  N3),  132. 

Lyon  (le'on),  (208  P3),  283. 

Macedonia  (m3,s"e-do'nI-d),  265,  275. 

machete  (ma-cha'ta),  189,  192,  *385. 

Mackenzie  (md-kSn'z!)  River,  (59 
03),  ISO. 

Mackenzie  Valley,  (15),  (59  03),  181. 

Madagascar  (m8,d"d-g3,s'kdr),  (287 

U7),  (351  S7);  Tropic  Forest  Sec- 
tion, 359;  Tropic  Grassland  Sec- 
tion, 367-368;  climate,  (356-357), 
359,  367;  surface  and  soil,  359; 
products,  368. 

Madeira  (md-de'rd)  Islands,  (286  N2), 
277,  281. 

Madeira  River  (376  03),  389. 

Madras  (md-dras'),  (310  R5),  337. 

Madrid  (md-drld),  (208  03),  282,  302. 

Magdalena  (m&g'dd-le'nd)  River, 

| (379  N2),  403,  *412. 


28 


INDEX 


Magellan  (ma-jCl'an)  Straits,  (377 
08),  410,  412. 

Maine  (man),  ( 124  S2),  (129  02) 
(201);  Maritime  Region,  128-135; 
Northeastern  Highlands,  160-162; 
agr.,  (31),  (47),  (55),  128,  133-135, 

160,  (169);  climate,  41-46,  (91), 
(128),  160;  lumbering,  133,  160- 

161,  162;  mfg.,  128-133,  135,  161; 

resort  industry,  134,  161,  162; 
surface  and  soil,  (37),  128,  135,  160; 
trade,  (125),  134,  135;  water 

power,  128,  161,  162. 

Main  River,  (242  M4),  260. 

maize  (see  corn). 

Majorca  (md-jor'kd),  (204  P4),  281. 

Makassar  (md-k&s'ar),  (342  03), 
345. 

Malaga  (ma'la-ga),  (208  04),  276, 
278,  279,  283. 

Malay  (m&-la')  Peninsula,  (305  S4); 
bounds  and  character,  341;  gov- 
ernment, 345;  people,  341-343; 
products,  345;  Singapore,  224,  345; 
rubber,  345,  *382. 

Malaysia  (mS-la'shl-d),  (307),  341- 
347,  (342)  (see  Malay  Peninsula, 
East  Indies,  and  the  Philippines). 

Malta  (mol'td),  (204  Q4),  (208),  302. 

Mammoth  Cave,  (23  M2),  53. 

Manaos  (ma-na'os),  (376  03),  (379), 
381,  383,  412. 

Manchester  (m&n'ch8s-ter),  England, 
(219  03)  218 

Manchester,  N.  H.,  (129  N3),  131. 

Manchuria  (m&n-choo'rl-d),  (307  T2), 
(311  V2);  climate,  (309),  332,  333; 
government,  322,  332-333;  re- 
sources and  future,  333. 

Manchuria  Region,  (305),  (307),  332- 
334. 

manganese,  Trans-Caucasia,  301. 

Manhattan  (mSn-hht'an)  Island, 
173-175,  *174. 

Manila  (md-nll'd),  (311  V5),  (344 
04),  346. 

manila  hemp,  346. 

manioc  (see  cassava). 

Manitoba  (mSnT-to'bd),  (56),  (59 
R4);  Great  Northern  forests,  179- 
181;  Northern  Wheat  region, 
55-64;  agr.,  (55),  55-58,  62,  *63; 
cities,  (59),  63,  *64;  climate,  55, 
(84),  (212);  dairying,  62;  govern- 
ment (see  Canada);  transporta- 
tion and  trade,  (56),  62,  64. 

mankind,  six  needs,  1. 

manufacturing,  advantages  for,  175, 
229;  centers  of,  132;  division  of 
labor,  10;  regions,  202,  210,  (303); 
(see  also  countries  and  states). 

Mairos  (ma'6-rts),  *416,  427,  428. 

Maracaibo  (ma-ra-kl'bo),  Lake,  (376 
Nl),  403. 

marble  quarrying,  *130. 

margarine,  227,  357. 

Marquesas  (mar-ka'sas)  Islands,  (417 
S3),  431. 

Marseille  (mar"sa'e),  (204  P3),  (208 
P3),  262,  283. 

Maryland  (mgr'I-land),  (19  T2),  (23 
02),  (201);  Appalachian  Region, 
145-156;  Coast  Plain,  118-127; 


Piedmont,  138-145;  agr.,  121,  127, 

140,  144,  147,  149,  152,  156,  (169); 
canning  factories,  122;  cities,  mfg. 
and  trade,  120,  (125),  *127,  138-139, 

141,  144;  climate,  41-46,  (91),  123, 
(128),  139;  fish  and  oysters,  122, 
*123;  mining,  154;  surface  and 
soil,  (14),  (19),  118,  120,  139,  145. 

Massachusetts  (m&s"a-chu'sSts),  (125 
R3),  (129  M3);  Coast  Plain,  118- 
127;  New  England-Canadian  Mar- 
itime, 128-135;  Northeastern 
Highlands,  160-162;  agr.,  121, 
127,  133,  134,  (169);  cities  and 
mfg.,  128,  130-133,  (132),  (201); 
climate;  41-46,  (91),  (128);  fishing, 
128;  surface  and  soil,  118,  128, 
160;  vacation  land,  123,  134, 
161. 

matd  (ma'ta),  390. 

Matto  Grosso  (mat'o  grbs'o),  (376 
P4),  390. 

Mauritius  (mo-rlshl-us)  Islands,  (287 
U7),  359,  (432). 

McDermott  (makder 'mot),  Lake,  *75. 

meat  packing,  New  Zealand,  428; 
Rhodesia,  366;  South  America, 
*389,3 90,397;  Sudan,  365;  United 
States,  48-49,  166. 

meander,  (71). 

Mecca  (mgk'd),  (286  T3),  296,  304. 

Medellin  (ma/'iAgl-yen),  (379  N2), 
404. 

Mediterranean  (m8d"I-ter-ra'ne-an) 
Region,  271-283,  (286). 

Melbourne  (mSl'burn),  (419  03),  416, 
421,  *431. 

melons,  Africa,  372;  California,  101; 
Florida,  20;  Rocky  Ford,  69. 

Memphis  (mgm'fls),  (27  Ql),  *25, 
33. 

Mendoza  (mSn-do'sa),  (377  06), 
400. 

Merced  (mer-sad')  River,  (94  N3), 
96. 

Merida  (ma're-i/ia),  (379  N2),  403. 

meridian,  prime,  App.  3,  App.  (3). 

Merrimac  (mfir'I-m&k)  River,  (129 
N3),  131. 

Mesopotamia  (see  I rag). 

mesquite  (m6s-kSt')  trees,  71,  89. 

Mexico  (m6k'sl-k5),  (56  R7),  (191); 
Lower  Colorado  Section,  100-103; 
Low  Plains  Section,  187-193;  Pla- 
teau Section,  85-89;  Rio  Grande 
Section,  71;  agr.,  71,  87,  89,  102, 
189;  cities,  87,  *88,  *89,  189,  (191); 
climate,  (84),  85,  102,  188;  govern- 
ment, 88,  188;  mining,  *87,  88,  89, 
190,  *370;  people,  87, 102, 188-189; 
sisal,  190;  surface  and  soil,  71,  85, 
188,  (191);  trade,  88,  189,  190- 
193. 

Mexico  City,  (191  03),  87,  *88,  *89. 

Miami  (ml-Sm'l),  (23  N4),  21. 

Michigan  (mlsh'i-gan),  (39  R2), 

(124);  Lower  Lake  Region,  163- 
170;  Upper  Lake  Region,  171—172; 
agr.,  (24),  (31),  (40),  (41),  (46), 
(47),  (145),  168-170,  (169);  climate, 
41-46,  (91),  (128),  168-169;  cities, 
mfg.  and  trade,  (39),  163-168;  *167, 
171,  (201);  forests,  171;  mining, 


*87,  171,  (172),  *172;  surface  and 
soil,  163-164,  171. 

Michigan,  Lake,  (39  Q2),  *164,  169. 

Middlesbrough  (mld'lz-brG),  Eng- 
land, 220. 

Midway  Island,  (417  PI),  (432). 

Milan  (mll'an),  (208  P3),  258,  283. 

milk  (see  dairy  products). 

millet,  337,  (339). 

Milwaukee  (mfl-wo'kg),  (18),  (39 

Q2),  166. 

Minas  Geraes  (me'nash  zha-rish'), 
390,  393. 

mineral  plant  food  (see  fertilizers) . 

mining  (see  various  minerals). 

Minneapolis  (mln"e-&p'6-lis),  (38 PI), 
63,  *64,  80,  117. 

Minnesota  (mIn"ng-so'td),  (38  PI), 
(124  N2);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Lake 
Region,  163-172;  Northern  Wheat 
Region,  55-64;  agr.,  (41),  (47),  55, 
(55),  (58),  62-63,  (145),  169,  170; 
cities,  trade,  and  mfg.,  (38),  62-63, 
164-165,  172,  (172),  (201);  climate, 
41-46,  55,  (91),  (128),  168-169; 
corn,  40,  (40);  dairy  products, 
62-63,  (145),  (169);  forests,  (170), 
*171,  171;  mining,  (50),  171,  *171, 
(172),  *172;  surface  and  soil, 

36-37,  (37),  40,  163-164,  171; 

wheat,  55,  (55),  56,  (58),  62-63, 
*63. 

Miquelon  (me'k-lon")  Island,  (59  V5), 
137. 

Mississippi  (mls-ls-slp'I),  (19  Q3),  (27 
Q2);  agr.,  22-28,  30,  35,  (40),  (41), 
(47);  cities,  (27),  33,  (201);  cli- 
mate, (24),  *25,  41-46,  (91),  (128); 
cotton,  22-28,  (24),  30;  lumber, 
32,  33,  *96;  mfg.  and  trade,  33, 
(50),  (325);  soil  and  surface,  25- 
29. 

Mississippi  River,  (15),  (27  Q3),r28-29, 
*33,  *34,  (50),  *64,  *197;  floods,  29; 
transportation,  early,  4. 

Missouri  (mlz-zoo'rl),  (18  P2),  (38 
P3);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Cotton 
Belt,  22-36;  Ozark  Plateau,  157- 
159;  agr.,  24,  (24),  40,  (40),  46, 
47,  49,  158;  cities,  mfg.  and  trade, 
(38),  48,  49,  (50),  157,  159,  (201), 
(325);  climate,  40-46,  (91);  coal 
and  petroleum,  (32);  corn,  (40), 
40,  *45,  46-48;  farm  animals, 

(41),  *45,  47-48,  *49;  fruit,  158; 
lumber,  159;  surface  and  soil, 
36,  (37),  (38),  40,  157-158;  zinc, 
159. 

Missouri  River,  (38  P3),  (50),  68, 
73. 

Mobile  (mo-bel'),  (23  M3),  34. 

mohair,  71,  369. 

Mohave  (mo-ha'va)  Desert,  (57  05), 
84,  (94  03). 

Mohawk  (mo'hdk)  River,  (119  P2), 
175. 

Mollendo  (mS-lSn'do),  (379  N4), 
412. 

Monaco  (m8n'a-ko),  254. 

Mongolia  (mon-go'll-d),  (307  R2), 
(310);  climate,  (309),  317;  govern- 
ment, 318;  nomad  shepherds,  317. 

monsoon  (m6n-soon'),  319;  Aus- 


INDEX 


29 


tralia,  425;  China,  324;  India, 
334,  (335),  335-337,  (see  winds 

and  climate). 

Montana  (m5n-ta'nd),  (56  P3),  (65 
Nl);  Great  Plains  Region,  64-71; 
Rocky  Mountain  Region,  72-78; 
agr.,  (47),  (55),  66,  (66),  76-77;  cli- 
mate, *67,  90-92,  (91),  (212)] 

forests,  72-74,  *74,  *75]  irrigation, 
(66),  68-69,  77,  (77);  mining,  (32), 
73,  *74,  *87]  phosphate  rock,  73; 
sheep  and  cattle,  (47),  66-68,  (70), 
77]  surface  and  soil,  (37),  67,  72, 
*73,  *75,  76,  *78]  water  power,  77, 
(113). 

Monterey  (m5n"tS-ra')  Bay,  (57  N5), 
111. 

Montevideo  (m5n"tfi-vId'6-6),  (379 

P6),  *397,  398. 

Montreal  (m5ri"trS-61'),  (59  T5),  63, 
164,  165. 

moon  and  tides,  App.  1-2. 
moraines,  37  (see  glaciers). 

Morava  (mS-ra'v&)  River,  (242  P5), 
265. 

Morocco  (m6-r5k'ko),  (286  02),  275. 
Moscow  (mSs'ko),  (205  S2),  244, 
302,  348. 

mosquito,  *30]  Africa,  355;  Amazon 
Valley,  382;  Central  America,  189, 
193;  Tundra,  184;  United  States, 
32 

Mosul  (mo"sool'),  (286  T2),  296. 
moujiks  (moo-jiks'),  245. 
mountain  sickness,  406. 
mountains,  Africa,  367;  Andean, 
401;  Appalachian,  145;  Asia,  317; 
Australia,  421;  Carolina,  157; 
Europe,  250;  Pacific,  90;  rain  and 
snow  on,  90-93;  Rocky,  72; 
(see  also  names  of). 

Mozambique  (mo'z&m-bek,  (351  R8); 
Forest,  358-359. 

Mt.  McKinley  (md-kln'll),  (97  P2),  95 
Mt.  Mitchell  (mlch'el),  (23  N2),  157. 
Mount  Vernon  (vOr'nun),  (23  02), 
140. 

moving  picture  industry,  104. 
Mozabites  (mS'zd-bits),  290. 
Muenster  (mun'ster),  241. 
mule  (see  pack  mule). 

Munich  (mu'nlk),  (242  N4),  259. 
Murmansk  (rnilr'mansk),  (209  SI), 
211. 

Murray  (mOr'i)  River,  (419  03),  420. 
M’zab  (m'zab),  oasis.  (286  P2),  284, 
290. 

Nancy  (nan's!) , (208  P3),  262. 
Nantucket  (nan-tQk'6t),(/29N4),  134. 
Naples  (na'plz),  (208  Q3),  279,  283, 
302. 

Narvik  (nar'vlk),  (204'  Ql),  248. 
Nashua  (n&sh'u-a),  (129  N3),  131. 
Nashville  (n&sh'vll),  (39  Q3),  52,  54. 
Natal  (nd-tal'),  (351  R8);  climate, 
369;  government,  370;  people, 
369-370. 

national  forests,  74,  95. 
national  parks:  Crater  Lake,  (94  N2), 
96;  Glacier,  (65  Nl),  *75]  Mount 
Rainier,  (94  Nl),  96,  *98]  Sequoia, 
(94  03),  96;  Yellowstone,  (65  N2), 
75;  Yosemite,  (94  03),  96. 


natural  gas,  155. 

Naugatuck  (no'gd-thk)  Valley,  (129 
M4),  ISO. 

naval  stores,  21. 

navigable  rivers,  Africa,  (372)]  Asia, 
(349)]  Australia,  (431)]  South 
America,  (411)]  United  States,  (50) . 

Nebraska  (nS-bras'ka),  (56  R4),  (38 
N2);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Great 
Plains,  64-71;  agr.,  *16,  (40),  (41), 
(46),  46-49,  (66),  *67,  66-69;  cattle, 
47,  (47),  66-68,  *70,  71,  (169),  (222)] 
cities,  (39),  48,  (201)]  climate, 

40-46,  *67,  (91),  (212)]  corn,  (40), 
*45,  47;  irrigation,  68-69,  (77); 
oats,  46-47,  (55);  soil  and  surface, 
*16,  36,  37,  (37),  46,  67;  swine, 
(41),  *45,  47;  wheat,  (46),  (58), 
*63,  70. 

Netherlands  (nSth'cr-lSndz),  (204  P2), 
(208  P2)  (see  Holland). 

Nevada  (ne-va'dd),  (56  04),  (65  M3); 
Columbia  Basin,  79-81;  Great 
Basin,  81-84;  Southwestern  Pla- 
teaus, 85-90;  agr.,  (66),  83;  cities, 
83,  (201 );  climate,  79,  81,  (91)] 
copper,  83;  irrigation,  (77),  83; 
mining,  *74,  83,  *84,  *87]  popula- 
tion, 83;  soil,  79;  surface,  82. 

New  Almaden  (&l"md-dSn'),  282. 

Newark  (nu'ark),  (119  P3),  *174,  176. 

New  Bedford  (bfid'ferd),  (129  N4), 
*130,  131,  132. 

New  Britain  (129  M4),  130. 

New  Brunswick  (brbnz'wlk),  (59  U5); 
Canadian  Maritime  Section,  128- 
135;  Northeastern  Highlands  Sec- 
tion, 160-162;  forests,  161;  mfg., 
133;  surface,  128;  trade,  134. 

New  Caledonia  (k&I-e-do'nl-d),  (417 
P4),  434. 

Newcastle  (nu-k&s'l),  England,  (219 
02),  217,  220. 

New  England-Canadian  Maritime 
District,  (125),  128-135. 

Newfoundland  (nu'fund-land),  (12), 
(59  U5);  climate,  135-136;  fishing, 
136-137;  government,  135-136; 
mining,  137;  people,  136-137; 
surface,  135-136. 

New  Guinea  (gln'S),  (417  N3),  341, 
345. 

New  Hampshire  (hSmp'shlr),  (125 
R3),  (129  N3);  New  England- 
Canadian  Maritime  Region, 
128-135;  Northeast  Highlands, 
160-162;  agr.,  133,  135;  cities, 
131,  (201)]  climate,  41-46,  (91), 
(128),  160;  forests,  160-162;  mfg., 
130-131;  surface,  128,  (129),  135, 
160;  vacation  lands,  134,  161-162. 

New  Hebrides  (h6b'r!-dez)  Islands, 
(417  P3),  434. 

New  Jersey  (jer'zl),  (/9U2),  (//9P3); 
Coast  Plain  Region,  118-127;  Erie 
Canal  Belt  Region,  173-178;  Pied- 
mont Region,  138-144;  Appalach- 
ian Region,  145-149;  agr.,  121-122, 
127,  140;  cities,  (119),  123,  126, 
139,  (141),  141-142,  174,  176, 

(201)]  climate,  (91),  123,  126,  (128), 
139;  fish  and  oysters,  122;  forests, 
120;  mfg.,  126,  142,  176;  seashore 


resorts,  123,  126,  175;  soil  and 
surface,  (14),  118-120,  139;  truck 
farming,  121. 

New  Mexico  (mSk'sI-ko),  (57  Q6),  (65 
04);  Great  Plains  Region,  64-71; 
Rocky  Mts.  Region,  72-78;  South- 
western Plateaus  and  Mts.  Re- 
gion, 85-90;  agr.  and  irrigation, 
66,  (66),  69-70,  (77),  *86, 87;  cattle, 
(47),  86-87;  climate,  *67,  85,  (91), 
(212)]  forests,  72,  85;  mining  and 
cities,  (32),  88,  (201)]  sheep,  *70, 
87 ; surface  and  soil,  85-86,  *146. 

New  Orleans  (or'le-anz),  (27  P3),  28 
*33,  34. 

Newport  News,  (23  02),  126. 

New  South  Wales,  (419  P3);  Cal.- 
Mediterranean  Section,  418-420; 
Pastoral  Section,  424-427;  Tem- 
perate Agricultural  Section,  421- 
422;  Tropic  Agricultural  Section, 
422-423;  agr.,  (55),  421-422,  (418)] 
climate,  421,  (423)]  population, 

(422)]  minerals,  427;  sheep,  *414, 
*424,  425,  (426),  (see  Australia). 

New  York  Barge  Canal,  (119  P2), 
164,  173,  175,  *177. 

New  York  (nu  york)  City,  (119  P3), 
(124  R3);  cause  of  growth, 

173-175,  178;  climate,  160  (see 
climate,  New  York  State);  cloth- 
ing industry,  175-176;  mfg  center, 
162,  175-176,  178;  people,  174; 
skyscrapers,  176;  the  port,  174; 
visitors  to,  176. 

New  York  State,  (119  P2),  (125)] 
Allegheny-CumberlandPlateau  Re- 
gion, 152-156;  Erie  Canal  Belt  Re- 
gion, 173-178;  Lower  Lake  Dis- 
trict Section,  163-171;  North- 
eastern Highlands  Section,  160-162; 
agr.,  (24),  (31),  (55),  (145),  156, 
169-170,  178;  cities,  173-175,  (174), 
(176),  176-177,  *178,  (201),  (207)] 
climate,  (91),  (128),  160;  dairy 
products,  (145),  170;  forests,  160- 
162;  grapes,  (24),  168;  mfg,  *154, 
162,  *177,  175-178  (see  also  New 
York  City)]  mining,  *172,  177; 
Niagara  Falls,  (119  N2),  164,  *164, 
178;  surface  and  soil,  (37),  156, 
160,  163-164;  trade  and  transpor- 
tation, (125),  165,  173-175,  (176), 
177. 

New  Zealand  (ze'land),  (417  P4), 
(419)]  agr.,  428;  climate,  427-428; 
dairying,  428;  government,  428; 
people,  *416,  427-428;  resemblance 
to  England,  414,  428;  trade,  *395, 
(419),  428,  430. 

Niagara  (n!-&g'd-rd)  Falls,  (119  N2), 
164,  *164,  178. 

Nicaragua  (nlk'd-ra-gwd),  (191  P3) 
(see  Central  America). 

Nice  (nes),  (208  P3),  251. 

nickel,  New  Caledonia,  434. 

Niger  (nl'jer)  River,  (286  P4),  358, 
363,  (372),  373. 

Nigeria  (ni-jer'I-d),  (286  P5),  (351  05) , 
Grassland  section,  360-365;  Tropic 
Forest  section,  354-359;  agr.,  362- 
363;  cattle  industry,  364-365; 
cities,  362;  climate,  (356),  (357), 


30 


INDEX 


360-361;  forest,  354-357;  govern- 
ment, 357,  362;  people,  362,  363; 
transportation  and  trade,  (286), 
357-358,  (363),  (372). 

.Nile  (nil)  River,  (286  S3),  292,  362, 
363,  (372),  373. 

mitrate  of  soda,  52,  *53,  *407,  408. 

Nizhni  Novgorod  (nyez"ny6  ndv'gO- 
r6t),  (209  T2),  246,  316. 

nomads,  288,  300,  314,  317,  362. 

Norfolk  (nor'fok),  (23  02),  120,  121, 
126. 

Normandy  (ndr'man-dl),  (204  03), 
233. 

North  America  (d-mgr'I-kd),  (12) 
(15)',  cattle,  (222)',  climate,  (84), 
(211),  (212),  (213)',  coal,  (6);  com- 
parison with  Europe,  203;  mfg. 
areas,  202,  (303);  oats,  (55);  occu- 
pations, (303);  petroleum,  (6); 
population,  (207);  regions,  (12) 
(see  Table  of  Contents);  set- 
tlement, 197,  200;  sheep,  (70); 
surface,  (12),  (37),  *146,  *147;  trade, 
(6),  197-202;  wheat,  (55).  Refer 
by  name  to  particular  countries 
and  regions. 

North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain,  (19),  118, 
127. 

North  Australia  (os-tra'll-d)  (refer  to 
Northern  Territory). 

North  Cape,  (209  Rl),  211. 

North  Carolina  (k5"r6-li'na),  (19), 
(23  02);  Carolina  Mts.,  157; 
Cotton  Belt,  22-36;  North  At- 
lantic Coast,  118-127;  Northern 
Piedmont,  138-144;  agr.,  25,  30, 
(31),  35,  (41),  (46),  121,  141,  144; 
cities,  34,  139,  144,  (201);  climate, 
24,  (91),  (128);  com,  (40);  cotton, 
(24),  25,  30;  lumbering,  157;  mfg., 
33,  (143),  144;  surface,  (19),  29, 
138,  157. 

North  Dakota  (dd-ko'ta),  (38  Nl), 
(56);  Great  Plains,  64-71;  North- 
ern Wheat  Region,  55-64;  agr., 
(41),  (47),  (55),  (58),  61-63,  *63; 
cattle,  62,  66,  68;  climate,  40-46, 
*55,  55  , 58,  66,  *67,  *91,  (212);  irri- 
gation, 68-69,  (77);  surface,  (35), 
58,  *58,  67;  wheat,  55-60,  (58),  *63. 

Northeastern  Highlands  of  North 
America,  (125),  160-162. 

Northern  Forest  Region,  (12),  179- 
181. 

Northern  Piedmont  Region,  (19),  138- 
144. 

Northern  Territory,  Australia  (Os-tra'- 
ll-d), (417),  (419),  (422),  (423), 

424-427. 

Northern  Wheat  Region,  (56),  55-64. 

Northlands  of  Europe,  (204),  210-214. 

North  Platte  River,  (56  Q4),  72,  (77). 

North  Pole,  (182),  186. 

North  Sea,  (208  P2),  228,  237. 

Northwest  Territory  (59 PS);  Forests, 
179-181;  Tundra,  181-185. 

Norway  (nor'wa),  (204  Q2),  (70S  PI); 
Great  Plain  of  Europe  section,  237, 
246;  Green  Northland  section, 
210-214;  Scandinavian  Mts.  sec- 
tion, 256-258;  Tundra  section,  244- 
250;  agr.,  213,  214,  239,  247,  256; 


climate,  (203),  210-213,  238;  fish- 
ing, 210;  forests,  213,  247,  257; 
government,  240;  grazing,  210, 
256;  people,  (207),  210,  213,  214, 
238;  surface,  212-213,  237,  239, 
*247,  256;  trade,  (204),  213,  239; 
water  power,  214,  257-258. 

Nova  Scotia  (no'vd  sko'sha),  (59  U5), 
(125  T2);  apples,  134;  climate, 
41-46,  (84),  (211),  (212);  fishing, 
128;  government,  (see  Canada); 
mfg.  and  coal,  133;  surface,  128; 
transportation  and  trade,  (125), 
134,  135. 

nuts,  California,  110,  (112);  France, 
233;  Mediterranean  lands,  279, 
280;  South  America,  383. 

Nyasa  (nya'sa),  Lake,  (351  R7),  366. 
oak,  32,  33,  54,  140. 

Oakland  (ok'land),  (94  N3),  113,  *114. 
oases,  Arabia,  291;  Egypt,  292; 
Eurasian,  315;  Lower  Colorado 
Basin,  100;  Iraq  (Mesopotamia), 
292,  295;  M’zab,  284,  290;  other 
Great  Desert,  290-291;  Peru,  407; 
Suf,  289. 

oats,  *61;  acreage,  (55),  (237);  Alaska, 
99;  Central  Farming  Region,  40, 
46,  47;  Columbia  Basin,  79;  Great 
Plain  of  Europe,  238,  240,  245; 
Northern  Wheat  Region,  62; 
United  Kingdom,  216;  Williamette- 
Puget  Sound  Valley,  115. 

Ob  (ob)  River,  (305  Q2),  313. 
occupations,  world  map,  (303). 
ocean  cables,  *432. 

ocean  currents,  17,  93,  136,  211, 
App.  6. 

oceanic  climate  (see  climate). 
oceans  (see  particular  oceans). 

Oder  (o'der)  River,  (242  N3),  241. 
Odessa  (o-dSs'd),  (209  S3),  269,  *270. 
Ohio  (6-hi'o),  (19  S2),  (39  R2); 

Com  Belt,  36-50;  Lower  Lake 
Region,  163-171;  Ohio  Valley, 
50-55;  agr.,  (24),  (40),  (41),  *45, 
46-48,  51-53,  (55),  (145),  168-170; 
cattle,  (47),  47;  cities,  (39),  48,  49, 
53-54,  166,  *168,  (201);  climate, 
40-46,  50,  (91),  (128);  coal,  (32); 
corn,  (40),  *45,  46-48;  iron,  (50), 
154,  166,  (172);  mfg.,  (32),  48,  49, 
*50,  54,  165-168;  petroleum,  (32); 
sheep,  51,  *70;  surface  and  soil, 
36,  (37),  40,  50,  *51,  53,  163;  trans- 
portation and  trade,  (50),  53,  164, 
165,  *168,  (325);  tree  crops,  51, 
*53,  54. 

Ohio  River,  (39  Q3),  (50),  53,  146. 
Ohio  Valley,  (39  Q3),  50-54. 
oil  (see  petroleum) . 
oil  palm,  *356,  357. 

Okhotsk  (6-k6tsk')  Sea,  (305  T2), 
308.  -f 

Oklahoma  (ok"ld-h5'md),  (18),  (26 
01);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Cotton 
Belt,  22-36;  Great  Plains,  64-71; 
Ouachita  Ridges,  159;  Ozark  High; 
lands,  157-159;  agr.,  30-31,  35,  46- 
alfalfa,  (66);  cattle,  31,  (47); 

cities,  (26),  (201);  climate,  24, 
40-46,  (91);  coal,  (32);  com, 

29,  40;  cotton,  22-25,  30;  dairy 


products,  (169);  dry  farming,  69- 
70;  forests,  32,  159;  Kafir  com, 
(66);  oats,  (55);  petroleum,  (32), 
34;  ranching,  64-68;  surface  and 
soil,  29,  40,  158,  159;  swine,  (41); 
wheat,  (46),  *63. 

olives,  California,  110,  (112);  Medi- 
terranean countries,  279-280,  *297. 

Olympia  (6-lIm'pI-d),  (94  Nl),  115. 

Omaha  (o'mu-ho)  (38  02),  48. 

Oman  (o-man'),  (307  P3),  291-292.) 

Omsk  (omsk),  (307  Q2),  348. 

Ontario  (6n-ta'rI-o),  (59  S4),  (125); 
Great  Northern  Forest,  179-181; 
St.  Lawrence  Valley,  163-170; 
Upper  Lake  District,  171-172;  agr., 
(55),  168-170,  181;  dairying,  170; 
forests,  179-181;  fruit,  168-169; 
government  (see  Canada);  mfg. 
resources,  168;  minerals,  180; 
people,  165;  trade,  172;  water 
power,  180. 

Ontario,  Lake,  (119  02),  163,  164, 
168. 

Oporto  (o-por'too),  (208  03),  283. 

Orange  Free  State,  (286),  (351  Q8), 
368-371;  government,  370;  peo- 
ple, 369-370;  similarity  to  New 
Mexico,  369. 

Orange  River  (287  Q8),  371. 

oranges,  acreage,  (21),  (278) ; Australia, 
420,  423;  California,  *100,  (105) 
106,  110-111;  Florida,  21;  Medi- 
terranean Region,  279. 

Oregon  (6r'6-g5n),  (56),  (94  N2); 
Columbia  Basin,  78-81;  Great 
Basin,  81-84;  Pacific  Mountains, 
90-99;  Willamette  Valley,  114-117; 
agr.,  (46),  (47),  (55),  (66),  79,  80, 
115-116;  cities,  115,  116,  117,  (201); 
climate,  79,  80,  (91),  90-92,  115-116, 
(212);  Crater  Lake,  96;  forests, 
*92,  93-96,  115;  irrigation,  (77), 
80;  lumber,  *96;  mfg.,  116;  soil, 
78-79;  surface,  82,  90,  114;  trans- 
portation and  trade,  (77),  117; 
water  power,  81,  98,  (113),  116. 

Orenburg  (a"r6n-bdork'),  (209  U2), 
238,  302. 

Orinoco  6"rI-no'k6)  River  Valley, 
(376  02),  391,  (411). 

Orkney  (ork'ne)  Islands,  (219  02), 
210. 

Osaka  (o-sak'a),  (311  W3),  323. 

Oslo  (6s'lo),  Norway,  (208  PI),  239. 

ostrich,  *350,  370. 

Ottawa  (6t'a-wa),  (59  T5),  179. 

Ouachita  (wSsh'I-to")  Highlands, 
(18)  157,  159-160. 

Owens  (o'Snz)  River,  107. 

oysters,  North  Atlantic  Coast,  122, 
*123;  Puget  Sound,  116. 

Ozark  (o'zark)  and  Ouachita  (w6sh'- 
i-to")  Highlands,  (18),  157-160. 

Pacific  (pd-slf'lk)  Islands,  (417),  414- 
416,  430-434. 

Pacific  Mountains  of  North  America, 
(12),  90-99. 

Pacific  Ocean,  (8),  414;  currents, (21  r). 

pack  mules,  *275,  *381,  *383,  404,  407, 
*408. 

Palermo  (pd-lSr'mo),  (208  Q4),  279, 
283. 


INDEX 


81 


Palestine,  (274),  (307  03);  agr.,  279- 
280;  cities,  272,  283;  climate, 
*282,  ( 309 );  government,  275;  graz- 
ing, *281;  people,  275;  water 
power,  *282,  283. 

Palm  Beach,  (23  N4),  21. 
palm  oil,  345,  *356,  357,  374.  . 

palm  trees,  *17,  *356.  * 

pampas  (p&m'pdz),  *394,  395. 
Panama  (p&n'a-ma),  (191  Q4);  agr., 
188-189;  canal  zone,  190,  (191),  193; 
cities,  190,  (191);  climate,  (84), 

187-188;  government,  188;  peo- 
ple, 188;  surface,  188,  189,  (191). 
Panama  Canal,  (191  Q4),  112,  348, 
412. 

Panama  City,  (191  Q4),  190. 
panama  hats,  385. 

paper,  Europe,  247-248;  how  made, 
*181;  New  England,  161;  New- 
foundland, 179. 

Para  (pa'ra),  (379  Q3),  383,  *386. 
Paraguay  (pa'ra-gwa),  (376  P5),  (379 
P5);  climate,  388;  people,  390; 
trade,  390,  (411). 

Paraguay  River,  (377  P5),  389,  (411). 
parallels,  App.  4. 

Parana  (pa'ra-na")  River,  (377  P6), 
388,  390,  398,  (411). 

Paris  (p&r'is),  (208  P3),  228,  234-235, 
302. 

Parks,  National,  (U.  S.),  (see  National 
Parks). 

Pasadena  (pas"d-de'nd),  (94  04), 
103,  (105). 

Patagonia  (pS"td-g6'n!-d),  (377  07), 
(379  07),  (411);  Semi-arid  Region, 
400;  Southern  Andes,  407. 
Paterson  (p&t'er-sun),  (119  P3),  176. 
Pawtucket  (po-tuk'6t),  (129  N4),  131, 
132. 

Paysandu  (pl"san-du),  (379  P6),  397 
Peace  River,  (56  01),  72. 
peaches,  Appalachian  Ridges,  149; 
Arkansas,  158;  California,  (105), 
106,  109-111;  frost  danger,  149, 
158,168;  Georgia,  29;  New  York, 
168;  Rocky  Mts.,  *76. 
peanut,  Africa,  358,  362;  China,  328; 

U.  S.,  *29,  30,  (31). 
pearl  fishing,  296,  *433. 
peat,  150,  216,  *217. 
pecans,  35,  *36,  54. 
peccary  (pSk'a-ri),  389. 

Pechili  (pa'che-le")  Gulf,  (311  U3), 
328 

Peking  (pe'klng),  (311  U3),  *317,  328, 
329. 

Pelotas  (pa-lo'tash),  (379  P6),  397. 
Pemba  (pgm'bd)  Island,  (351  R6), 
359 

Penang  (pe-n&ng'),  (342  M2),  345. 
Pennsylvania  (pgn  "sll-va'nl-d) , (19), 
(119  N3);  Allegheny-Cumber- 

land  Plateau,  152-157;  Appa- 
lachian Ridges  and  Valleys,  149- 
151;  Great  Valley,  145-149;  Ohio 
Valley,  50-55;  Piedmont,  138-145; 
agr.,  (24),  (41),  (46),  (47),  51,  *52, 
54,  (55),  *139,  140,  144,  147,  149, 
152,  156;  cement,  147,  149;  cities, 
139,  141,  142,  144,  146,  147-148, 
149, 151,  154,  (201);  climate,  41-46, 


50,  (91),  (128),  139,  149;  coal. 
(32),  54,  150-151,  *150,  *151,  154- 
144;  corn,  (40),  140,  147;  dairy 
products,  140,  (145),  147,  156, 

(169);  forests,  51,  153,  156,  312; 
iron,  (50),  54,  147,  *154,  154; 
mfg.  and  trade,  (19),  54,  139,  141, 
142,  144,  147,  148,  154-155;  oil 
and  gas,  (32),  155;  surface  and 
soil,  (14),  50,  (119),  139-140,  145, 
147,  ; 149,  152;  transportation 

and  trade,  (125),  148,  (193),  (325). 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  148. 

peonage  (pe'on-aj),  88,  188. 

pepper,  Java,  343. 

Pernambuco  (pSr"n&m-b6o'k6),  (379 
R3),  386. 

Persia  (per'zhd),  (307  P3),  (310  03); 
agr.,  300;  climate,  298,  (309); 

fire  worshippers,  299;  govern- 
ment, 299;  mfg.,  300-301;  people, 
298,  299,  300;  surface,  298,  (310); 
transportation  and  trade,  300, 
*301,  (349). 

Persian  (per'zhan)  Gulf,  (305  P3), 
301. 

persimmons,  54. 

Peru  (pg-roo'),  (376  N3),  (379  N4); 
Andean  Regions,  404-407 ; Coast 
Region,  407-408;  Tropic  Forest 
Region,  381-383;  agr.,  405,  406, 
407,  408,  *410;  cities,  (379),  404, 
407;  climate,  405,  407;  Inca  Em- 
pire, 405;  irrigation,  405,  408, 
*410;  mining,  *403,  404,  405,  406; 
people,  378,  *404;  surface,  (376), 
405;  transportation  and  trade,  404, 
406,  (411). 

petrified  forest,  *85. 

Petrograd  (see  Leningrad) . 

petroleum,  5,  155;  California,  107; 
Canada,  180;  Cotton  Belt,  34; 
Mesopotamia,  296;  Mexico,  190; 
Patagonia,  400;  Pennsylvania,  155; 
refinery,  *33;  Trans-Caucasia,  299, 
301;  U.  S.,  (32);  world  distribu- 
tion, (6),  (7). 

Philadelphia  (ffl"d-d6l'fl-d),  (19  T2), 
(119  P4),  120,  (201),  *138,  141-142, 
(141),  140,  *143,  147. 

Philippine  (fll'I-pen)  Islands,  (311 
V5),  (344),  *341,  *343;  agr.,  *195, 
*345,  346;  climate,  (212),  (309), 
341;  education,  346;  government, 
345-346,  347;  people,  346;  trade, 
(342),  346. 

phosphate:  Florida,  22;  Europe, 

(237);  Tunis,  296. 

Piedmont  (ped'mOnt)  Region,  (19), 
118,  138-144. 

Pike’s  (piks)  Peak,  (38  M3),  70,  75. 

pine,  Austrian,  *261;  southern  long- 
leaf,  32. 

pineapples,  Hawaii,  433,  *433;  Malay 
Peninsula,  345. 

Piraeus  (pl-re'us),  (209  R4),  282. 

Pisa  (pe'sa),  (208  Q3),  *271 . 

Pittsburgh  (plts'burg),  (119  N3), 
(124  Q3),  147,  154-155. 

Plains,  Central  and  Southern,  of 
North  America,  16;  plains,  coastal, 
118;  Plains,  Great,  (see  Great 
Plains). 


planets,  App.  *1 . 

Plata  (pla'ta)  River,  (377  P6),  *389, 
390,  395. 

plateau:  Africa,  367;  Asia,  298-301, 
316-318;  South  America,  405-407; 
Southwestern  U.  S.,  85-89. 
platinum,  248. 

Platte  (plat)  River,  (56  S4),  68. 
playa  (pla'ya),  lake,  82,  *83. 
plowing,  Appalachian  Mts.,  *2;  Egypt, 
293;  Iowa,  *3;  Poland,  *244;  Ru- 
mania, *270;  Saskatchewan,  *61; 
tractor 

Poland  (po'land),  (209  Q2),  (242  P3); 
Great  Plains  of  Central  Europe, 
237-246;  Carpathian  Mt.  Section, 
255;  agr.,  (206),  (223),  (225),  (228), 
(237),  244-245,  246,  255;  climate, 
(203),  238;  government,  243;  mfg., 
244;  people,  243,  *244,  245;  sur- 
face, 237,  (242),  255;  swine,  (229), 
255;  trade,  245. 

Polar  Regions,  181-186. 

Poles,  North  and  South,  App.  4,  App. 
*5. 

Polynesia  (p6l"l-ne'zl-d),  (417),  414, 
430-434. 

poncho  (pbn'cho),  *402. 
popoi  (poi-poi),  432. 
population:  density  of  world,  (207); 
five  largest  nations  and  empires, 
*324;  Australia,  (422);  (see  Ap- 
pendix for  total  and  per  square 
mile,  all  countries). 

Port  Arthur,  Ont.,  (59  S5),  63. 

Port  Augusta  (o-giis'td),  (419  03), 
424. 

Port  au  Prince  (port"o-pr!ns),  (191 
Q3),  196. 

Port  Darwin  (dar'whi),  (419  Nl),  425. 
Portland  (port'land)  Head,  *118. 
Portland,  Ore.,  (94  Nl),  80,  115, 
*116,  117. 

Port  of  Spain,  (191  R3),  196. 

Porto  Rico  (por'to  re'ko),  (12), 
(191  R3);  agr.,  195;  climate,  (84), 
193,  *194,  196;  government,  194; 
home  mfg.,  196;  people,  194,  195; 
surface,  193,  195;  trade,  196. 

Port  Said  (sa-ed),  (351  R2),  302,  *303. 
Portsmouth  (ports'muth),  (23  02), 
126. 

ports  of  international  concern,  303. 
Portugal  (por'tu-gal),  (205  03),  (208 
04);  agr.,  (206),  (223),  (229),  (237), 
(269),  277,  279-280;  climate,  (203), 
276,  277,  *282;  cork,  281;  govern- 
ment, 273;  people,  275,  *276,  *278; 
sardines,  278;  trade,  (204),  282, 
283;  surface,  271. 

Portuguese  Guinea,  (351  M4);  For- 
ests, 354-358. 

potash,  California,  81;  Germany,  81; 

plant  food,  31;  Spain,  282. 
potatoes,  acreage,  Europe,  (225); 
Alaska,  99;  climate  for,  62;  Colo- 
rado, 71;  Columbia  Basin,  79; 
Europe  and  U.  S.,  *237 ; Florida,  20; 
Germany,  238,  240;  Great  Basin, 
83;  Maine,  160;  Newfoundland, 
137;  North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain, 
121;  Northern  Forest,  181;  North- 
ern AVheat  Region,  62,  63;  Prince 


32 


INDEX 


Edward  Island,  134;  Rocky  Mt. 
Region,  76;  St.  Lawrence  Basin, 
169;  Willamette-Puget  Sound  Val- 
ley, 115. 

Poti  (po'te),  (209  T3),  301. 

Potomac  (p6-to'mak)  River,  {19  T2), 
139  147,  149. 

Potosi  (p5"t6-se'),  (376  04),  405. 

Potosi  Mt.,  (377  04),  406. 

pottery,  Dresden,  241;  France,  235; 
Japan,  *319]  New  Jersey,  141. 

Pottsville  (pSts'vIl),  (119  03),  151. 

Po  (po)  Valley,  {242  M4),  279,  280. 

power,  muscle  and  machine,  *11] 
transportation,  5;  Niagara  Falls, 
*164]  Palestine,  *282. 

power  transmission,  Alps  Mts.,  253; 
California,  107,  *111,  113,  {113)] 
Chile,  409;  Columbia  Basin,  81, 
(113)]  Iceland,  214;  India,  338; 
Mediterranean  Region,  283;  Niag- 
ara Falls,  *164,  164,  178;  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina,  (143) ; 
Norway,  214;  Oregon,  (113),  116; 
Pacific  Coast,  98,  (113)]  Piedmont 
region,  144;  Rocky  Mts.,  77; 
Scandinavian  Mts.,  257-258;  Wash- 
ington, (113),  116. 

Prague  (prag),  (208 Q2),  259,  261,  *262. 

Prairie  Corn  and  Small  Grain  Belt, 
(18),  36-50. 

prairies,  37;  settler’s  life,  61. 

precipitation  (see  rainfall). 

pressure  of  air,  42-43,  (90). 

Pribilof  (pre"bS-l6f)  Islands,  (97  N4), 
99. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  (125  T2);  fox 

farms,  134;  potatoes,  134. 

Prince  Rupert,  (97  R3),  73,  98. 

printing  cloth,  *131. 

Progreso  (pro-gra'so),  (191  P2),  190. 

Providence  (pr<5v'I-dens),  (129  N4), 
132. 

prunes,  Balkan  region,  266;  Califor- 
nia, 110;  Oregon,  115. 

Prussia  (priish'd),  (see  Germany). 

Pruth  (prooth)  River,  (242  Q4),  269. 

Pueblo  (pwfib'ld),  (38  N3),  70. 

Puerto  Cabello  (pwSr'to  ka-bel'yo), 
(379  01),  402. 

Puerto  Colombia  (pwgr'tS  k6-l6m'- 
bl-d),  (376  Nl),  403. 

Puget  (pu'jet)  Sound,  (94  Nl),  115, 
116. 

Punjab  (pun-jab),  The,  336. 

Puno  (poo'no),  (376  N4),  406. 

Punta  Arenas  (poon'ta  a-ra'nas), 
(379  N8),  400. 

Pyramid  Mts.,  *96. 

Pyramids  of  Egypt,  293,  *295. 

Pyrenees  (plr'6-nez)  Mts.,  (204  03), 
255,  257.  258. 

Quebec  (kwS-bCk'),  (12),  (59  T5), 
(125)]  Arctic  Section,  181-185; 
Forest  Section,  179-181 ; St  Law- 
tence  Valley  Section,  163-170; 
agr , (55),  169,  170;  cities,  (59), 
164-165;  climate,  (84),  (211),  (212), 
(see  also  regions);  dairying,  (170), 
170;  government  (see  Canada); 
hunting,  180;  lumbering,  179-180; 
people,  165;  waterpower,  180.  (See 
Canada). 


Queensland  (kwenz'land),  (417),  ( 419 
P2);  Desert  and  Pastoral  section, 
424-427;  Tropic  Agricultural  sec- 
tion, 422-423;  agr.,  *422,  423; 
cattle  and  sheep,  (423),  425,  (426)] 
cities,  (419),  423;  climate,  (423),  423, 
424;  government,  416;  people,  (422), 
423;  rabbits,  426;  transportation 
and  trade,  (419),  429,  (431). 
quicksilver,  California,  282;  Spain, 
282. 

Quito  (ke'to),  (379  N2),  384,  404. 
rabbits,  Australia,  426;  Europe,  226. 
railroads,  Africa,  (372),  373;  Asia,  348, 
(349)]  Australia,  424,  425,  (431)] 
China,  (325)]  Europe,  302;  North 
America,  (12),  200,  202;  South 
America,  (411),  411,  413;  U.  S.,  5, 
*10,  (198),  (325). 

rainfall,  40-46,  90-92;  Africa,  (356), 
(357),  *364]  Asia,  (309)]  Australia, 
(423),  416;  Europe,  (203)]  North 
America,  (84)]  South  America, 
(356),  (357);  U.  S.,  (91)]  types  of: 
Autumn,  *233 ; cyclones,  41-46,  90, 
215;  doldrum,  360,  361;  effect  of 
mountains  on,  (91),  92;  monsoon, 
319,  334  (335),  *336;  summer,  46, 
*55,  268;  thunder-shower,  44-45; 
trade  wind  shore,  187,  *194,  *434] 
tropic  grassland,  361,  362;  winter, 
105,  *106,  276,  277,  *282. 

Rainier  (ra'ner),  Mt.,  (56  N3),  96, 
*98. 

raisins,  110,  279. 

Raleigh  (roll),  (23  02),  120,  139. 
Rappahannock  (r&p"d-hfin'uk)  River, 
139. 

rattan,  343. 

Reading  (rgd'Ing),  (//9P3),  139,  148. 
reclamation,  sea  bottom,  226;  swamp, 
20,  22,  127  (see  irrigation). 

Red  River  of  the  North,  Valley  of, 

(56  S3),  58,  63. 

Red  Sea,  (286  S3),  284,  291,  302. 
refrigerating  plants,  *389,  397,  425, 
428. 

region,  economic,  11,  14. 
reindeer,  184,  *186,  249. 

Rejaf  (re'jaf),  (286  S5),  363. 

Reunion  (rf-un'yun),  (287  U8),  359. 
Reval  (ra'val),  (209  R2),  244. 

Rheims  (rans,  remz),  (208  P3),  *233, 
235. 

Rhine  (rln)  River  Valley,  (204  P2), 
225-231,  260. 
rhinoceros,  *362. 

Rhode  Island  (rod  i'land),  (124), 
(129  m)]  agr.,  (40),  (41),  (47),  133, 
(169)]  cities,  (129),  130-132,  (201)] 
climate,  41-46,  (91),  (128)]  mfg., 
130-132;  people,  128,  130. 
Rhodesia  (ro-de'sl-d),  (287),  (351  Q7), 
365-367;  cattle  industry,  366;  cli- 
mate, (356),  (357),  365;  govern- 
ment, (8),  366;  people,  366. 

Rhone  (ron)  River  Valley,  (204  P3), 
235,  260,  262,  280,  283. 
rice,  acreage,  (35),  (113),  (275),  (319), 
(339)]  Africa,  358,  *365]  China, 
327;  culture,  35,  112,  327;  Farther 
India,  340,  341 ; India,  *35,  336, 
(339)]  Italy,  (275),  279;  Japan, 


(3/9),  318,  320;  Java,  343;  Korea, 
323;  leading  states,  *35]  Philip- 
pines, *345,  346;  production,  bush- 
els, *35]  South  America,  385,  387, 
393;  United  States,  35,  112,  (113). 

Richmond  (rlch'mund),  (23  02),  120, 
139,  143,  148. 

Riga  (re'ga),  (209  R2),  244,  246. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (re'S  da  zha-na'rb), 
(379  Q5),  380,  386,  390,  392,  *393, 
411,  412. 

Rio  Grande  (re'o  gran 'da);  Lower 
Valley  Region,  (57  S7),  71;  river, 
(57),  (71),  87. 

Rio  Tinto  (re'o  ten'td),  (208  04),  282. 

Riviera  (rS-vya'ra),  276,  *276. 

rivers,  changing  course,  (71)l  228; 
fall  line,  118-120;  navigable: 
Africa,  (372),  Asia,  (349),  Australia, 
(431),  South  America,  (411),  United 
States,  (50)]  (see  also  names  of 
rivers);  work  of:  (105),  alluvial 
fans,  (105),  *108,  109,  405;  coastal 
plain,  28,  118;  deltas,  28,  100,  325; 
flood  plains,  53,  293,  295,  327; 
valley  cutting,  51,  *85,  86,  118,  164, 
405. 

Roanoke  (ro'd-nok"),  (23  02),  147, 
148.  (*•  : 

Rochester  (r6ch'6s-ter),  (119 02),  178. 

rock,  formation,  17,  118  (see  lava)] 
layers  of,  *68,  *251  (see  soil). 

Rocky  Mts.,  Southern,  (56),  72-78. 

Rome  (rom),  (208  Q3),  272. 

Rosario  (rS-sa'r6-5),  (379  P6),  396, 
397,  398,  *411. 

rosin,  Florida,  21. 

Rostof  (ras-tof'),  (209  T3),  246. 

Rotterdam  (rSt'er-diim"),  (208  P2), 
225,  228,  *229,  230,  302. 

rubber,  Central  America,  189;  Cey- 
lon, 337,  *337]  Java,  343;  Malay 
Peninsula,  345;  South  America, 
*352,383,387;  Sumatra,  345;  world 
production,  *382. 

rug  weaving,  Persia,  *300,  301. 

Ruhr  (roor)  River,  230,  253. 

Rumania  (ru-ma'nl-a),  (205),  (209 
R3),  (242)]  Carpathian  Mountain 
section,  255;  Corn  Belt  section, 
268-270;  agr,  (206),  (223),  (228), 
(229),  (237),  255,  269,  *270]  cities, 
(242),  269,  270;  climate,  (203),  255, 
269;  comparison  with  American 
Com  Belt,  268,  269,  270;  forests, 
255;  government,  264;  people, 
269;  surface  and  soil,  255,  269; 
trade,  (204),  269. 

Russia  (rtish'd),  European,  (204), 
(209  S2);  Caucasus  Mt.  section, 
256;  Great  Plains  section,  237- 
246;  Northern  Forest  section, 
247-248;  1 Steppe  section,  314-316; 
Tundra  section,  249-250;  agr,.  *63, 
(70),  (206),  (223),  (225),  (228),  (237), 
238,  245,  256,  314;  area,  *225]  cattle 
and  swine,  *31,  (222),  (229)]  cities, 
(208),  237,  *238,  246;  climate,  (203), 
(211),  (212),  238,  247,  249,  256,  314; 
coal,  (7),  244,  246;  education,  243; 
fisheries,  315;  forests,  247,  256; 
gold,  *370]  government,  243,  246; 
iron  ,''*221,  246;  lumber,  mfg., 


INDEX 


*243,  244,  *246)  market  fairs,  246, 
people,  244,  245,  315;  platinum, 
248;  population,  *207),  *324)  sur- 
face,1 {204),  237,  247,  249,  256, 
315;  transportation  and  trade, 
{204),  237,  245,  248. 
rye,  Europe,  {237),  238,  240,  245,  246; 
Japan,  320;  Northern  Wheat  Re- 
gion, 62. 

Sacramento  (s&k"rd-m6n'to),  {94  N3), 

113. 

Sacramento  River,  {94  N3),  111. 

Sahara  (sd-ha'ra)  Desert,  {286  03), 
284-297;  animals,  *285,  288,  *295; 
climate,  284;  {356-357))  oasis,  289- 
291,  296;  people,  2S8-289,  *295) 
phosphate,  296;  plants,  285;  trade, 
*285,  289;  watercourses,  284-285. 

St.  Anthony  (Sn'to-nl)  Falls,  63,  *64. 
St.  Elias  (sant  6-lI'ds),  Mt.,  (97  R2), 
95. 

St.  Etienne  (s2,n"  ta-tySn')  , (208  P3), 
261. 

St.  Francis  (fr&n'sls)  Mts.,  *147,  158. 
St.  Johns,  {59  U5),  137. 

St.  Lawrence  (sant  lo'rens)  and  Great 
Lakes  Basin,  {125),  163-172. 

St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,  {125  T2),  128, 

163,  173. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  {125  R2),  135, 

164. 

St.  Louis  (loo'Is),  (39  P3),  48. 

St.  Marks,  (23  N3),  21,  22. 

St.  Moritz  (sant  mo'rlts)  . Lake,  *253. 
St.  Nazaire  (s&n  na"zar'),  235. 

St.  Paul  (pol),  (38  P2),  63. 

St.  Pierre  (sfm"pyar'),  (12),  *136,  137. 
Sakhalin  (sa"ka-lyen')  Island,  (307 
U3);  Manchuria,  332-334;  North- 
ern Forest,  308-312;  climate, 
(309),  332;  resources,  323. 

Salem  (sa'lem),  (129  N3),  134. 

Salinas  (sa  le'nas)  Valley,  (94  N3), 
108. 

salmon,  116;  canneries,  99,  116. 
Salmon  River  Canyon  (94  01),  *79, 
Salonika  (sa"lo-ne'ki),  (209  R3),  265. 
salt,  177;  bush,  *414)  lakes,  81,  314. 
Salt  Lake  City,  (65  N2),  81. 

Salton  (sol'tun)  Sea,  (94  04),  100, 

101. 

Salt  River  Valley,  (65  N4),  102. 
Salvador,  (191  P3)  (see  Central 
America). 

Samara  (sa-ma'ra),  ( 209  U2),  237. 
Samarkand  (sam"ar-kant'),  ( 310  P3), 
315,  317. 

Samoa  (sa-mo'a),  (417  Q3),  *415,  434. 
San  Bernardino  (site  bhr"nar-de'no) 
Valley,  (94  04),  106. 

San  Diego  (de-a'go),  (94  04),  103, 

104. 

Sandusky  (ste-dus'ki),  (39  R2),  169. 
Sandy  Hook,  (119  Q3),  126,  175. 

San  Francisco  (frte-sls'ko),  (94  N3), 
*110,  112,  *H4)  climate,  108; 

mfg.,  113,  (113). 

San  Francisco  Bay,  (94  N3),  111, 
*114. 

San  Joaquin  (wa-ken')  River,  (94  N3), 
109,  111. 

San  Jose  (ho-sa/),  (94  N3),  113. 

San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  (191  P4),  *190. 


San  Juan  (hwan),  (191  R3),  196,  400. 
San  Juan,  Argentina,  (377  06),  400. 
San  Remo  (san  re'mo),  *276. 

Santa  Catalina  (ste'tci  kS,t"d-le'na) 
Island,  (94  04),  104 
Santa  Clara  Valley,  (94  N3),  108,  111. 
Santa  Fe  (ste'ta  fa),  (377  06),  397. 
Santa  Marta  (mar'ta),  (376  Nl),  385. 
Santa  Rosa  (s&n'td  ro'zd),  (94  N3), 
113;  Valley,  108,  111. 

Santiago  (san"te-a'go),  (379  N6),  400, 
409. 

Santo  Domingo  (see  Dominican  Re- 
'public)  • 

Santos  (san'tdosh),  (379  Q5),  392-393, 
411. 

Sao  Paulo  (soun  pou'loo),  (379  Q5), 
392,  393. 
sardines,  278. 

Sardinia  (208  P3),  281. 

Sarles  (sarlz)  Lake,  81. 
Saskatchewan  (s&s-k&ch'g-wSn),  (56), 
(59  Q4);  Forest  Section,  179-181; 
Plains  Section,  64-70;  Wheat  Sec- 
tion, 55-64;  climate,  55,  *55,  61,, 
66-67,  (84),  (212))  dairying,  60-63;! 
free  land,  60,  *61 ; government 
(see  Canada))  irrigation,  68;  oats, 
(55);  ranching,  62,  68;  wheat, 
55-58,  *63. 
satellites,  App.  1. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  (soo'  stet  ma'rl), 
(39  Rl),  *163. 

Savannah  (sa-vte'd),  (19  S4),  34. 
savannahs  (see  grasslands). 

Saxony  (s&k'so-nl),  241. 

Scandinavian  (skte "di-na'vl-an ) Mts., 
(204),  247,  256-258. 

Scheldt  (skeit)  River,  225,  228. 
Schenectady  (ske-nCk'td-dl),  (119 
P2),  177. 

Schuylkill  (skool'ldl)  River,  148. 
Scotland  (skOt'land),  (204  02),  (219 
02);  Green  Northlands  section, 
210-214;  United  Kingdom  region, 
214-225;  agr.,  215-216,  (222),  (225), 
(237))  cities,  217,  218,  (219),  220; 
climate,  (203),  210,  211,  215,  428; 
coal,  217;  government,  (8),  214; 
mfg.,  217,  218,  220;  sheep  and 
cattle,  210,  216;  surface,  (219), 
214;  trade,  (204),  221. 

Scranton  (skr&n'tun),  (119  P3),  151. 

sea  breeze,  123. 

sea  water,  App.  6. 

seasons,  cause  of,  App.  5,  361. 

Seattle  (se-S.t'1),  (94  Nl),  112,  115, 
117,  *117)  climate,  *115. 

Seine  River  Valley,  (208  P3),  233,  260. 
Senegal  (s6n"e-gol),  (286  N4),  354; 
River,  358. 

Sequoia  (se-kwoi'd)  National  Park, 
(94  03),  95. 
sequoia  trees,  95,  420. 

Serajevo  (s6r'a-ya-vo),  (242  04),  *264. 
Serbia  (ser-bl-d),  agr.,  266,  *267; 
government,  264,  265;  surface, 
266;  mines,  267  (see  Jugoslavia) . 
Seward  (soo'drd),  (97  Q2),  98. 

Sfax  (sfaks),  (351  P2),  289. 

Shamokin  (shd-mo'kln),  (119  03), 
151. 

Shanghai  (shteg'hl),  (307  T3),  330. 


33 

Shantung  (sh&n'tting),  ( 311  U3),  322, 

328  330 

Shari  (sha're)  River,  (286  P4),  363. 

sheep,  Africa,  362,  367,  369,  370,  371; 
Andes,  406;  Argentina,  395,  397, 
400,  *424;  Australia,  *414,  418, 

. *424,  424-426,  (426),  429;  Balkan 
region,  266;  California,  112;  dip- 
ping, 399;  Eurasian  Steppes  and 
Deserts,  314-315;  Europe,  210, 
238,  255;  fat-tailed,  288,  *316) 
Great  Britain,  215-216;  Great 
Plains,  68;  Idaho,  *70,  77;  leading 
nations,  *424;  Mediterranean  region, 
281 ; New  Mexico,  *70, 87 ; New  Zea- 
land and  Tasmania,  228;  Ohio,  51, 
*52)  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  77; 
Spain,  282;  U.  S.,  *424,  leading 
states,  *70;  other  states,  51,  *52) 
Uruguay,  397;  world’s,  (70);  Wy- 
oming, 68,  *70,  77  (see  wool). 

Sheffield  (shCf'eld),  (219  03),  218. 

Shenandoah  (shen"an-do'd)  Valley, 
147. 

Shetland  (shgt'land)  Islands,  (219 
01),  210,  214. 

shipbuilding,  England,  218;  Ireland, 
220;  Scotland,  220;  U.  S.,  116, 
126,  141,  142. 

Shippensburg  (shlp'enz-bdrg),  146. 

shoes,  132,  133,  *133. 

shore  line,  effect  on  harbors,  128,  305, 
409,  412;  rocky,  *118,  *126,  128, 
*210,  *247;  sandy,  *32,  118,  *126) 
sunken,  120,  221. 

Siam  (sl-am'),  (307  S4),  (311))  agr., 
340-341;  climate,  (309),  340;  gov- 
ernment, 340;  people,  340;  sur- 
face, (311),  340;  transportation 
and  trade,  (311),  340-341,  (349). 

Siberia  (si-be'rl-d),  (307  R2),  (305); 
Plateau  and  Mountain  section, 
316-318;  Steppes  and  Desert  sec- 
tion, 314-316;  Forest  section,  308- 
312;  Tundra  section,  308;  Wheat 
Belt  section,  312-314;  agr.,  (55), 
312-313,  314,  315,  317;  climate, 
(212),  308,  (309),  309,  313,  314,  315, 
317;  forests,  308-312;  govern- 
ment, 308,  316;  minerals,  309,  318, 
*370)  people,  (207),  308,  313,  314, 
315;  surface,  (305),  30S-309,  313, 
314,  316;  transportation  and  trade, 
308,  309,  313,  316,  (349). 

Sicily  (sls'I-ll),  (208  Q4).  For  cli- 
mate, industries,  etc.,  see  Mediter- 
ranean Region,  271-283;  ancient 
ruins,  272;  products,  279,  281,  282. 

Sierra  Leone  (286  N5),  forests,  354- 
358;  Grasslands,  360-365. 

Sierra  Nevada  (si-6r'd  ne-va'da) 
Mts.,  U.  S.,  (94  N3),  107,  108,  109, 
*111,  *113. 

Sierra  Nevada  Mts.  (Spain),  (204  0 4), 
276  278 

Silesia  (sl-le'shl-d),  241. 

silk,  China,  330;  France  and  Italy, 
283;  Japan,  323;  mfg.,  283;  pro- 
duction, *322;  raw,  *322,  323,  33ft; 
worms,  323. 

silo,  *40,  49. 

silver,  Andes  Mts.,  406;  Canada, 
180;  Mexico,  88;  Montana,  73; 


34 


INDEX 


Nevada,  83;  New  South  Wales, 
427;  Peru,  404;  Rocky  Mts.,  73. 
Simplon  (slm'plQn)  Tunnel,  251. 
Singapore  (sln'ga-por"),  ( 307  S4), 

994  941  941 

Sinkiang  ( 307  R2),  317-318. 
sirocco  (s!-r6k'o)  wind,  277. 
sisal  (sls'al),  190. 

Sitka  (slt'kd)  spruce,  93,  95. 
Skagway  (sk&g'wa),  (97  R3),  98. 
Skeena  (ske'nd)  River,  (56  Ml),  73, 
98. 

Skoplje  (skop'lyg),  (208  R3),  265 
(see  Uskub). 
sleeping  sickness,  355. 

Slovaks,  259,  *268. 

Smyrna  (smer'nri),  ( 209  R4),  280. 
For  climate,  etc.,  see  Mediterranean 
Region,  271-283. 

Smyrna,  Gulf,  *299. 

Snake  River  Canyon,  (56  03),  78,  *83. 
snow  (see  climate,  tundra  and  arctic). 
snowfall,  Eastern  U.  S.,  (128). 
snowslide  (see  avalanche). 
soda,  81. 

Sofia  (so'fg-ya),  (209  R3),  302. 
soil,  arid,  82;  clay,  28,  40,  141; 
formation,  51;  glacial,  37,  128,  160; 
humus,  31;  limestone,  17,  28,  146; 
old  lake  bed,  58;  sandv,  20,  22, 
121;  sea  bottom,  226;  swamp,  20; 
volcanic,  78,  79,  337,  432;  water- 
borne, 28,  109. 
solar  system,  App.  1,  */. 

Solomon  Islands,  (417  P3),  *415,  434. 
Somaliland  (s6-ma'16-l&nd"),  (351  S5), 
(356);  East  Point  of  Africa,  365. 
sorghum,  70,  337,  (339). 

South  Africa,  Union  of,  (286),  (351 Q8 ) ; 
East  Coast  Lowland  Forest  sec- 
tion, 358-359;  Kalahari  Desert 
section,  371-372;  White  Man’s 
section,  368-371;  agr.,  368,  369, 
370,  371,  372;  cattle  and  sheep, 
(70),  369,  372,  *424;  cities,  (351), 
370;  climate,  (212),  (356),  358, 

368- 370,  371;  government,  370; 
minerals,  370,  372;  people,  359, 

369- 370,  371,  372;  surface,  (286), 
358,  368,  369,  370,  371;  transpor- 
tation and  trade,  (286),  368,  369, 
370,  (372). 

South  America  (d-mer'I-kd),  375-413, 
(576),  (579);  cattle,  (222);  climate, 
(211),  (212),  (356),  (357),  375,  380; 
coal,  (6);  corn,  *45;  hogs,  *45; 
la  'guages,  380;  navigable  rivers, 
(4n);  occupations,  (303);  people, 
(207),  375,  378,  380;  petroleum, 
(6);  railroads,  (411);  regions,  (377), 
(see  Table  op  Contents);  set- 
tlement, 378,  380;  sheep,  (70); 
statistics,  App.  7;  surface,  375, 
(377);  transportation  and  trade, 
(6),  (377),  411-413;  unused  land, 
378;  wheat,  (55);  refer  by  name 
to  particular  countries  and  regions. 
South  Australia  (os-tra'U-d),  (417), 
(419  03);  Californian-Mediterra- 
nean section,  418-420;  Pastoral 
and  Desert  section,  424-427;  agr., 
418,  *418,  420;  cities,  418,  (419), 
*420;  cattle  and  sheep,  (423),  424- 


425,  (426);  climate,  418,  (423),  424; 
transportation  and  trade,  424,  429, 
(431). 

South  Carolina  (ka"rb-ll'nd),  (19  S2), 
(23  N3);  agr.,  29,  30-31,  35,  (35), 
(40),  (41);  climate,  *25,  41-46, 

(91),  (128);  cotton,  (24),  24-25, 
*28,  30;  lumber,  32-33;  mfg.,  33, 
(143);  surface  and  soil,  (19),  25-29; 
trade,  (19),  (325). 

South  Dakota  (dd-ko'td),  (38  N2), 
(56  R3);  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Great 
Plains,  64-71;  Wheat  Region, 
55-64;  agr.,  (40),  (41),  *45,  (47), 

(55) ,  61-63,  66-69;  climate,  40-46, 

*55,  55-58,  (91),  (212);  irrigation, 
68-69,  (69),  (77);  mining,  *74; 

surface,  (38),  55,  *60,  67-68,  *68, 
(69);  wheat,  55-60,  (58),  63,  *63. 

Southern  California  (kS/'il-for'nl-d), 

(56) ;  Valley  of,  100,  103. 

South  Pole  (183),  186. 

South  Saskatchewan  (s&s-k&ch'fi- 
w5n)  River,  (59  Q4),  68. 

Southwest  Africa,  (287  Q8);  Grass- 
land section,  365-366;  Kalahari 
section,  371-372. 

soy  beans,  China,  326,  328;  Japan, 
321;  Manchuria,  322,  333;  U.  S., 
31. 

Spain  (span),  (204),  (208  03);  Medi- 
terranean section,  271-283;  Pyr- 
enees-Cantabrian  section,  255;  agr., 
(206),  (222),  (223),  (225),  (229),  (233), 
(237),  255,  (269),  (278),  276-282; 
cities,  (208),  278,  282,  283;  cli- 
mate, (203),  (212),  276,  277,  282; 
cork,  *280,  281;  government,  (8), 
273;  grazing,  255,  282;  irrigation, 
(277),  278,  279;  minerals,  *217,  282; 
people,  (207),  255,  275,  *278;  sar- 
dines, 278;  sheep,  282;  surface, 
(204),  255,  271,  282;  trade,  (204), 
282,  283;  waste  land,  99. 

Spanish  Morocco,  (351  N2);  Mediter- 
ranean region,  271-281. 

Sphinx  (sflnks),  *295. 

spices,  343,  359. 

spinning,  *1,  131,  *218,  *263,  *354. 

Spitzbergen  (spits'b(lr"g&n),  (9),  250. 

Spokane  (sp5-k&n'),  (94  01),  80, 
117. 

sponges,  20,  196. 

sports,  *161 , 161,  *175,  253,  254,  *352, 
*388,  431. 

Springfield  (sprlng'feld),  Mass.,  (129 
M3),  132. 

Springfield,  Mo.,  (27  PI),  159. 

springs,  17. 

spring  tides,  App.  2. 

standard  time,  App.  (4).  App.  4-5. 

Staten  (st&t'en)  Island,  (119(13), (174). 

steamboats,  *5,  *29,  *126,  *163,  *197, 
202. 

steel  mfg.,  England,  218;  Indiana, 
166;  Germany,  230,  *231;  Ohio 
Valley,  *50,  54;  Pennsylvania,  148, 
154;  Spain,  282;  (see  iron). 

Steppes  and  Deserts,  Eurasian,  (310 
P2),  314-316. 

Stockholm  (stbk'holm),  (208  Q2), 
*239. 


Straits  Settlements,  (307  S4);  cli- 
mate, (309);  government,  345; 
Singapore,  345. 
sturgeon,  315. 

Stuttgart  (shobt'gart),  (242  M4),  259. 
Sudan  (soo-dan'),  (351  N4),  360-365. 
Suez  (soo'Cz)  Canal,  (286  S2),  302, 
*303,  348,  349. 

sugar  (see  sugar  beet  and  sugar-cane). 
sugar  beet,  acreage:  Europe,'  (228); 
U.  S.,  (31),  *261;  California,  *67, 
106,  *111;  Colorado,  *67,  69; 

Europe,  (228),  245,  *261,  261; 
Michigan,  *67,  169;  Nebraska,  *67; 
production : leading  countries,  *261 ; 
states,  *67;  Utah,  *67,  *82,  83. 
sugar  cane,  U.  S.  acreage,  (31); 
Australia,  *422,  423;  Cuba,  194, 
195;  Fiji  Islands,  434;  Hawaii, 
*195,  432,  433;  Java,  *195,  343; 
Louisiana,  29;  Mauritius,  359; 
Peru,  408,  *410;  Philippines,  *195, 
346;  production : leading  countries, 
*195;  Porto  Rico,  *195,  195,  196; 
West  Indies,  194,  195,  196,  *196. 
sulphur,  Sicily,  282;  United  States, 
35. 

Sumatra  (soo-mS/trd),  (342  M2),  345. 
summer,  cause  of,  App.  5-6. 
sun,  App.  1;  eclipse,  App.  *2;  power, 
84. 

Sunderland  (sun'dSr-lilnd),  (219  03), 

220. 

Sungari  (soon"ga-re')  River,  (311 

V2),  333. 
sunlight,  *App.  5. 

Superior  (su-pe'rl-er),  Lake,  (124  02), 
63,  163,  *164. 

Susquehanna  (shs"kwe-h3,n'd)  River, 
(119  04),  120,  144,  147. 
swamps,  20,  29,  121,  160,325,  355. 
Sweden  (swe'den),  (204),  (208  Q2); 
Arctic  Pasture  section,  249-250; 
Forest  section,  247-248;  Great 
Plains  section,  237-246;  Scandi- 
navian Mountain  section,  256-258; 
agr.,  (206),  (222),  (223),  (225),  (228), 
(229),  (237),  239,  256;  climate, 
(203),  (211),  (212),  238,  247,  249, 
256;  forests,  247,  248,  *248,  257; 
government,  240;  mfg.,  239-240; 
mines,  248  250;  people,  238, 
249;  surface,  (204),  239,  247,  249, 
256;  trade,  (204),  239-240,  247, 
248;  water  power,  257-258. 
swine,  Central  Farming  region,  47, 
*49;  Cotton  Belt,  30;  Europe, 
*45,  (229),  239,  240,  269;  pig  club, 
159;  production  of,  U.  S.,  (41),  *45. 
Switzerland  (swlts'er-land),  (204), 
(209  P3),  (250);  agr.,  152,  251,  252, 

253,  254;  avalanches,  252;  cities, 
(208),  253;  climate,  (263),  252,  254; 
dairying,  252;  forestry,  252;  gov- 
ernment, 251;  mfg.,  252,  253; 
people,  251,  252;  scenery,  *252, 

254,  *255;  sports,  *253,  254;  sur- 
face, (204),  251,  252,  254;  thrift, 
253;  tourists,  253,  *254;  transporta- 
tion, 251,  *253,  254. 

Sydney  (sld'nl),  415,  (419  P3),  421, 
432. 


Stockton  (stfik'tun),  (94  N3),  113.  |Syracuse  (slr'd-kus),  (119  02),  177. 


Syria  (slr'I-d),  (286  T2).  For  climate,1 
industries,  etc.,  see  Mediterranean 
Region,  271-283;  Great  Desert  and 
Oases,  284-297;  ancient  civiliza- 
tion, 272,  297;  people,  275. 

Tabriz  (ta-brez),  (307  P3),  300. 

Tacoma  (td-ko'ma),  (94  Nl),  80,  115, 
117. 

Tahiti  (ta'h6-te),  (417  R3),  430,  432. 

Taiga  (ti'gd),  The,  (305),  308-312. 

Taiwan  (see  Formosa). 

Tampa  (t&m'pd),  (23  N4),  20,  21,  22. 

Tampico  (tam-pe'ko),  (191  02),  88, 
190. 

Tananarivo  (ta-na"na-re'vo ) , (287  T7) , 
368. 

Tanganyika  (tan"gan-ye'ka),  Lake, 
(287  S6),  354. 

Tapajos  (ta"pa-zhosh')  River,  (376 
P3),  388,  389. 

Tarim  (ta-rem')  Basin,  (310  R3), 
317. 

tasajo  (ta-sa'ho)  meat,  395. 

Tashkend  (tash"k6nd'),  (507  Q2),  315, 
316. 

Tasmania  (t&s-ma'nl-d),  (419  P3), 
(431  )\  agr.,  (423),  (426),  427,  *428; 
government,  416. 

Tatars  (ta'tars),  298. 

tea,  Ceylon,  337;  China,  329;  For- 
mosa, 322;  India,  336;  Japan,  323; 
Java,  343;  (see  matt). 

teakwood,  340. 

Teheran  (tg-hS-ran'),  (307  P3),  298, 
300. 

temperatures,  cause  of  world  winds, 
App.  6;  change  of  seasons,  App.  5; 
of  land  and  water,  123,  212,  319; 
world  maps,  (212),  (213). 

Teneriffe  (t8n"er-If')  Peak,  360. 

Tennessee  (t6n"nSs-se),  (19  Q3),  (27 
Ql);  the  Allegheny-Cumberland 
Plateau,  152-156;  Appalachian 
Ridges  and  Valleys,  149-151 ; Cot- 
ton Belt,  22-36;  Ohio  Valley,  50- 
55;  agr.,  (24),  29,  30,  (30),  (41), 
(47),  52,  54,  152;  cities,  mfg.  and 
trade,  (27),  (50),  52,  54,  148,  (201); 
climate,  24,  40-46,  50,  (91),  (128); 
corn,  29,  (40);  forests,  153;  min- 
ing, (32),  (50),  150;  surface  and 
soil,  (27),  29,  50-51,  52,  149,  152; 
tobacco,  52-53;  tree  crops,  51,  54, 
149-150. 

Tennessee  River,  (18  Q3),  (50),  146. 

terraces,  agricultural,  *230,  *324,  *345 ; 
river,  *73.  76. 

Texas  (tSks'ds),  (26  N2),  (57  R6); 
Cotton  Belt,  22-36;  Great  Plains, 
64-71;  Lower  Rio  Grande  Valley, 
71;  Southwestern  Plateaus,  85- 
89;  agr.,  25-31,  35,  (35),  *36,  (41), 
*66,  69,  70,  71  87;  cattle,  (47), 
64-68,  *69,  *70,  87;  cities,  (26),  *32, 
33-34,  (201);  climate,  24  (24). 

(25),  41-46,  (67),  71,  (90),  (91); 
corn,  (40),  (66);  cotton,  24-28,  30; 
petroleum,  (32),  *33,  34;  rice,  35, 
*35;  sulphur,  *25;  surface  and  soil, 
25-29,  (57),  67-68,  85;  trade,  34, 
(50),  (57),  (193),  (325). 

Thames  (tgmz)  River,  (219  03),  *221 , 
*224. 


INDEX 

Thar  (thr)  or  Indian  Desert,  (310 

Q4),  336. 

thermal  belts,  106,  149. 
thundershower,  44,  46,  361. 

Tianshan  (tl-Sn'sMn')  Mts.,  (310 
Q2)  317 

Tibet  ’(tlb'gt),  (310  R3),  (309),  317, 
318,  334. 

tides,  App.  2-3,  App.  (3). 

Tientsin  (tygn'tsln),  (311  U3),  330. 
Tierra  del  Fuego  (tygr'ra  dSl  fwa'go), 
(379  08),  186. 

Tiflis  (tyS-flSs' ) , (209  T3),  299. 

Tigris  (ti'grls)  River,  (310  N3),  295, 
(349). 

timber  line  (or  forest  line),  93. 
time,  App.,  4-5. 

tin,  Bolivia,  406;  Malay  Peninsula, 
(342  N2);  Tasmania,  427. 

Titicaca  (tlt"6-ka'ka)  Lake,  (376  04), 
406. 

tobacco,  Connecticut,  134;  Florida, 
21;  Hungary,  269;  Java,  343; 
North  Carolina,  141,  141;  Ken- 
tucky, 52-53,  *52;  Philippine,  247; 
Tennessee,  52-53;  Virginia,  141; 
West  Indies,  196. 

Togoland  (351  05);  forests,  354-358. 
Tokyo  (to'kl-o),  (311  W3),  *321,  323. 
Toledo  (to-le'do),  (39  R2),  165,  168. 
Tonopah  (t6n'o-pa),  (94  03),  83,  *84. 
Topeka  (t6-pe'kd),  (38  03),  48. 
tornado,  45. 
totem  poles,  *98. 

trade,  Africa,  south  of  Sahara,  373- 
374;  Asia  and  East  Indies,  348- 
349;  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
429-430;  early,  1-3;  Europe  and 
Mediterranean  regions,  301-303; 
Hawaii,  433;  helpers,  3-5,  10; 
North  America,  197-202;  South 
Africa,  370;  South  America,  411- 
413. 

trade  winds  (see  winds). 
Trans-Caucasia  (tr&ns=ko-ka'sha), 
299;  petroleum,  299,  301. 
transportation,  importance  of,  1-10. 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  (311),  *312, 
*313,  348,  (349). 

Transvaal  (trans-val'),  (287  R8), 
(351  Q8);  climate,  369;  ,gold,  370; 
people  and  government,  370; 
tree  grafting,  35. 

Trenton  (trSn'tun),  (119  P3),  120, 
139,  141. 

Trieste  (tre'6st),  (208  Q3),  251. 
Trinidad  (trln'l-d&d),  (376  01),  194, 
196,  383. 

Tropic  Forest  Regions,  Amazon  Val- 
ley, 381 ; Congo  and  Guinea  Coast, 
354;  East  African  Lowland,  358; 
Ecuador  and  western  Colombia, 
Coast  Forest  of,  384;  Lowlands  of 
Mexico,  and  Central  America,  189; 
Madagascar  and  neighboring  isles, 
359 ; Malay  Peninsula,  East  Indies, 
and  the  Philippines,  341;  North- 
east Trade  Wind  Coast  of  South 
America,  384;  Southeast  Trade 
Wind  Coast  of  South  America,  386. 
Tropic  Grasslands,  Abyssinia,  367; 
Africa,  east  point  [ of,  365;  Africa, 
north  of  equator,  360-365;  south 


35 

of  equator,  365;  Australia,  425; 
Madagascar,  367;  South  America, 
north  of  equator,  391;  South 
America,  south  of  equator,  388; 
Sudan,  360. 

Tropic  of  Cancer  (k&n'ser),  187, ’App. 

6. 

Tropic  of  Capricorn  (k&p'rl-korn), 
187,  App.  6. 

tropical  climate,  353  (see  also  cli- 
mate ) . 

tropical  forests,  character,  189,  341, 

354,  181-182;  climate,  354;  pests, 

355,  382;  people,  355-356,  359,  382; 
products,  189,  190,  357,  358,  383, 
431-432 

Troy  (troi),  New  York,  (119  Q2),  177. 
Truckee  (truk'e)  River,  (77),  83. 
truck  farming,  California,  101,  106, 
111;  Cotton  Belt,  29;  Florida,  20; 
Imperial  Valley,  101;  New  Eng- 
land, 133;  North  Atlantic  Coast 
Plain,  121;  Texas,  71;  (see  vege- 
tables). 

tsetse  (tsSt'sS)  fly,  355. 

Tsitsihar  (tset"se-har'),  (311 V2),  304. 
Tuckerton  (thk'er-tun),  120. 

Tulare  (too-lar')  Lake,  (57  05),  109, 
111. 

t.ule  lands,  111. 

tundra,  Asia,  308;  Europe,  249-250; 

North  America,  181-184. 

Tunguses  (tdon-goos'6z),  308. 

Tunis  (tu'nis),  (287  P2),  (351  02); 
for  climate,  etc.,  see  Mediterranean 
Region,  271-283  and  Great  Desert 
and  Oases,  284-297;  ancient  ruins, 
272;  government,  275;  olives,  280, 
*297;  people,  275,  289;  phosphate, 
296. 

Turin  (tu'rln),  (208  P3),  258,  283. 
Turkestan  (tur'ke-stan),  (305  R3), 
(309),  3 1 7,  318. 

Turkey  (tur'kl),  (205  S4),  (209  S4); 
Asia  Minor  Plateau  section,  298- 
301;  Mediterranean  section,  271- 
283;  agr.,  277,  279,  280,  (281),  300, 
300;  climate,  277,  298,  (309); 

Constantinople,  272,  273,  *273,  302, 
303;  fall  of  the  empire,  264,  265; 
people,  298-299;  surface,  (204), 
271,  298;  trade,  302,  303. 
Turkomans  (tQr'ko-manz),  315. 
turpentine,  Florida,  21;  France,  234. 
“Twin  Cities,”  63  (see  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul). 

Tynemouth  (tln'muth),  (219  02),  220. 
Uganda  (u-gan'dd),  (351  R5),  (286), 
for  climate,  industries,  etc.,  see 
East  Central  African  Grasslands, 

365-367,  *363. 

Ujiji  (oo-je'je),  (351  R6),  *374. 

Union  of  South  Africa  (see  South 
Africa). 

United  Kingdom,  (204  02),  (219); 
214-225;  Green  Northlands  section, 
210-214;  agr.,  (206),  210,  213,  215, 
216,  *220,  (222),  (223),  224,  (225), 
(229),  (237);  area,  *225;  cattle,  210, 
(222);  cities,  (219),  220;  climate, 
(203),  211,  (211),  212,  215;  coal 
trade,  222;  dairying,  216;  empire 
building,  223,  224;  fisheries,  210; 


36 


INDEX 


harbors,  221,  222;  influence  of 
location,  221-223;  mfg.,  *217,  217, 
218,  220;  mining,  217,  218,  220, 
*221 ; people,  (207),  220,  221,  223, 
224;  sheep,  (70),  210,  216;  sta- 
tistics, App.  8;  surface,  214,  215, 
(2/9);  trade,  (6),  *203,  (204),  *218, 
221,  222,  223,  App.  12. 

United  States,  (8),  (19),  (57),  (125), 
(198);  alfalfa,  (66);  area,  *225; 
cattle,  *31,  (47),  *70,  (222);  climate, 
41-45,  90-92,  (91),  (128),  (211), 

(212);  coal,  (32);  colonial  posses- 
sions, (8);  comparison  with  Chile, 
(409);  copper,  *87;  corn,  (40), 
*45,  (66);  cotton,  *24,  (24);  cross 
section,  *147;  dairy  products,  (145), 
(169);  dry  beans,  (31);  glaciated 
area,  (37);  gold,  *74,  *370;  grain, 
*220,  *231,  *320;  iron,  (50),  *154, 
*172,  *217,  *221;  irrigation,  (77); 
lumbering,  *96;  navigable  rivers, 
(50);  nitrate  of  soda  imports,  *407; 
oats,  (55);  occupations,  (303); 
oil,  (32);  oranges,  (21);  peanuts, 
(31);  population,  (201),  *202,  *278, 
*324,  (325),  *334;  potato  produc- 
tion, *237;  railroads,  (198),  (325); 
rice,  *35,  (35);  sheep,  *70,  (70),  *424; 
statistics,  App.  7,  11-15;  sugar, 
(31),  *67,  *195,  *261;  swine,  (41), 
*45;  trade,  (6),  (193),  202,  *218, 
(325),  *394,  *407;  wheat,  (46),  (55), 
(58),  *63,  *200,  *215,  *394;  wool 
imports,  *218;  refer  by  name  to 
individual  states  and  regions. 

Upper  Lake  Region,  (124),  171-172. 

Ural  (u'ral)  Mts.,  (205  Ul),  247, 
248. 

Ural  River,  (205  U3),  237. 

Uruguay  (yu'rQ-gwa),  (376  P6),  (379 
P6);  agr.,  *394,  395,  (398);  cattle 
and  sheep,  (70),  (222),  (389),  397; 
cities,  (379),  398;  climate,  395; 
empty  lands,  398;  forests,  397-398; 
meat  industry,  390,  397;  people, 
380,  397;  transportation  and  trade, 
(376),  (411). 

Uskub  (iis'ktib),  (208  R3),  265,  267. 

Utah  (u'ta),  (56  P5),  (65  N3);  Great 
Basin,  81-83;  Southwestern  Pla- 
teaus, 85-89;  agr.,  *67,  82-83,  87, 
(145);  alfalfa,  (66),  82-83;  climate, 
81-83,85,90-92,  (91),  (212);  copper, 
83,  *87;  dry  farming,  83,  89;  Great 
Salt  Lake,  81;  Indians,  86;  irri- 
gation, (77),  82-83;  petroleum,  (32), 
82;  sugar  beet,  *67,  83;  surface  and 
soil,  (65),  81-82,  85,  (146);  water 
power,  (113). 

Vaal  (val)  River,  370. 

Valdivia  (val-de'vya),  (379  N6),  401, 
409. 

Valencia  (vd-18n'shl'd),  (208  04), 

278,  279,  283. 

valleys,  appearance,  145;  centers  of 
civilization,  292,  295;  cross  sec- 
tion of,  *146-* 1 47;  growth  of,  *85, 
86,  118,  164,  405;  irrigated,  (69), 
*80,  *82;  old,  *85;  young,  *85;  use 
of,  109,  252,  367,  406;  refer  by 
name  to  particular  river  valleys 
(see  rivers). 


Valparaiso  (v&l"pa-ri's5),  (379  N6), 
*378,  400,  409,  412. 

Vancouver  (v&n-koo'ver),  (59  05), 

98,  117. 

Vancouver  Island,  (56  M3),  (59  05), 
*98;  Pacific  Mountain  section, 
90-99;  Puget  Sound  section,  114- 
117;  agr.,  115;  climate,  (84), 
92,  115,  (212);  fisheries,  116; 

forests,  93,  96,  115;  surface,  92. 

Vardar  (var"dar')  River,  (242  P5), 
265. 

vegetables,  African  Tropic  Forest, 
356;  California,  106,  111-112; 

China,  328;  Cotton  Belt,  28,  29; 
Florida,  20-21 ; Lower  Rio  Grande 
Valley,  71;  Mediterranean  lands, 
278,  281-283;  New  England,  133- 
134;  North  Atlantic  Coast  Plain, 
121;  Paraguay,  390;  St.  Lawrence 
and  Great  Lakes  Basin,  169.  (See 
particular  vegetables  and  truck 
farming.) 

vegetation,  arctic,  181;  desert,  *101; 
heavy  forest,  *20,  *92;  tropic,  *364, 
*365. 

veldt  (fSlt ; v81t),  369. 

Venezuela  (vSn  'A-zwi'ld),  (376  02), 
(379  02);  Andean  section,  401-404; 
Forested  Coast  section,  384-385; 
Grassland  section,  391;  agr.,  385, 
403;  cities,  401,  402,  403;  climate, 
(356),  (357),  385,  391,  402;  govern- 
ment, 391;  people,  402,  (207); 
surface,  (376),  385,  391,  *401;  trans- 
portation and  trade,  (376),  391, 
402-404,  *411). 

Venice  (vgn'Is),  (208  Q3),  *272,  273. 

Vera  Cruz  (vC'rd  krdbz),  (191  03), 
88  189 

Verhoyansk  (vy8r"ha-yansk),  (213), 
304. 

Vermont  (ver-mQnt'),  (124  R3),  (129 
M3)j  New  England-Canadian 
Maritime,  128-135;  Northeastern 
Highlands,  160-162;  agr.,  160, 
*169);  cities,  129,  (201);  climate, 
41-46,  (91),  (128),  160;  forests, 
160-162;  quarrying,  *130;  resort 
business,  134.  161-162;  surface 
and  soil,  128,  (129),  135,  160. 

Victoria  (vlk-to'rl-d),  (419  03);  Cal.- 
Mediterranean  section,  418-420; 
Temperate  Agricultural  section, 
421-422;  agr.,  418-420,  (423),  (426); 
cities,  (419),  *420,  421;  climate, 
418,  421,  (423);  forests,  420.  421; 
government,  415-416;  irrigation, 
420;  mines,  427  (see  Australia); 
population,  (422);  sheep  and  cattle, 
421,  (423),  (424),  (426);  transporta- 
tion, trade  and  mfg.,  (419),  422, 
429,  (431). 

Vienna  (ve-Sn'd),  (208  Q3),  251,  270, 
271  302 

Vienna  Basin  (204),  268,  271. 

Vigo  (ve'go),  (208  03),  278. 

Virginia  (vir-jln'I-d),  (/9T2),  (23  02); 
Appalachian  Ridges  and  Valleys, 
149-151;  Coast  Plain,  118-127; 
Great  Valley,  145-149;  Piedmont, 
138-145;  agr.,  (40),  (41),  (46),  121, 
127,  140,  144,  147,  149;  apples, 


141,  144;  cities,  139,  141,  143,  144, 
146,  148,  (201);  climate,  41-46, 
(91),  123,  (128),  139,  149;  home  of 
great  men,  140;  horses,  140; 
mfg.  and  trade,  (19),  (50),  126,  139, 

143,  144,  147;  surface  and  soil, 
118,  139-140,  145,  147,  149;  to- 
bacco, 141,  144. 

Virginia  City,  83. 

Virgin  (vhr'jln)  Islands,  (191  R3), 
196. 

Vladivostock  (vlad"l-v6s't6k),  (307 
T2),  302,  313. 
volcanic  power,  283. 
volcanoes,  Andes  Mts.,  401;  Italy, 
283;  Japan,  *308,  319;  Sicily,  282, 
432  (see  lava  and  soil. 

Volga  (vbl'gd)  River,  (209  T3),  237, 
248,  301,  315. 

Wales  (walz),  (203),  (219  03);  United 
Kingdom  Region,  214-225;  agr., 
216;  climate,  (203),  215,  216,  428; 
mining,  217;  sheep  raising,  (70), 
216,  233;  surface,  214,  (219);  (see 
United  Kingdom). 

Warsaw  (wor'so),  (208  R2),  244. 
Wasatch  (wo's&ch)  Mts.,  (56  P5), 
82,  83. 

Washington  (wosh'Ing-tun),  (56  N3), 
(94  Nl);  Columbia  Basin,  79-81; 
Pacific  Mts.,  90-99;  Rocky  Mts., 
72-78;  Willamette-Puget  Sound 
Valley,  114-117;  agr.,  (55),  (66), 
78-81,  115-116;  cities,  80,  117, 
(201);  climate,  79,  80,  (91),  90-93, 
115,  *115,  (212);  fisheries,  116; 
forests  and  lumber,  74,  93-96, 
*93,  115;  irrigation,  (77),  79,  80-81; 
mfg. ,116;  Mt.  Rainier,  96,  *98; 
surface  and  soil,  78-80,  90,  114; 
transportation  and  trade,  80,  116, 
117;  water  for  irrigation  and 
power,  81,  98,  (113),  116;  wheat, 
(46),  (58),  80. 

Washington,  D.  C.,(//9  04),  120, 143, 

144. 

watches,  Switzerland,  253. 
water  power,  frontispiece,  *111 , *164; 
Canada,  180;  France,  257-258; 
India,  338;  Italy,  258;  New  Eng- 
land, 135,  161,  162,  178;  Niagara, 
164,  *164,  178;  North  Carolina, 
(143);  Pacific  Mts.,  98;  Rocky 
Mts.,  77;  Scandinavia,  257 ; South 
Carolina,  (143);  Switzerland,  253; 
Western  U.  S.,  77,  81,  98, 103,  (113) . 
water  vapor,  90-92. 
waves,  *118,  118,  *126. 
weather  bureau,  44. 
weather  map,  U.  S.,  44,  *90. 
weaving,  131,  *217,  *300. 

Wei-hai-wei  (wa'hl"wa'),  (311  V3), 
330. 

Welland  (wfil'and)  Canal,  (119  N2), 
164. 

Wellington  (w61'Ing-tun),  (419  R3), 
432- 

wells,  artesian,  *68,  426. 

Wenatchee  (we-nach'e)  River  Val- 
ley, 80,  116. 

westerly  winds  (see  winds). 

Western  Australia,  (419  M2);  Califor- 
nian-Mediterranean section,  418- 


INDEX 


420;  Pastoral  and  Desert  section,! 
424-427;  agr.,  418,  420,  (423),  425, 
426;  climate,  418;  (423),  424; 

government,  416;  lumber,  420; 
mining,  (419),  427;  population, 
416,  (422),  424;  rabbits,  426; 

(see  Australia). 

West  Indies  (In'dlz),  (191  Q2),  193- 
197. 

West  Virginia  (vlr-jln'l-d),  (23  N2), 
(201 ) ; AUegheny-Cumberland  Pla- 
teau, 152-157;  Appalachian  Ridges 
and  Valleys,  149-151 ; Great  Valley, 
145-149;  Ohio  Valley,  50-55;  agr., 
(47),  51,  54,  147,  159,  *149,  152, 
(169);  cities,  (23),  54,  154,  (201); 
climate,  41-46,  50,  (91),  (128),  149; 
coal,  (32),  *153,  154-155;  corn, 
(40),  50,  51;  fruit,  149;  iron  and 
cement,  (50),  54,  147,  149;  lumber, 
51,  153,  156;  natural  gas,  155; 
surface  and  soil,  (14),  (23),  50,  145, 
147,  149,  152. 

wheat,  acreage,  Europe,  (206);  U.  S., 
(46),  winter,  (58),  spring,  world, 
(55);  Argentina,  *395,  396;  Aus- 
tralia, 418,  421;  California,  109; 
Central  Farming  Region,  46,  47; 
Columbia  Basin,  79-80;  England, 
215;  exports,  *200,  *394;  France, 
232,  *234;  Hungary,  269;  India, 
336;  leading  states,  *63;  Mediter- 
ranean lands,  277;  Piedmont, 
U.  S.,  140;  Northern  Wheat  Re- 
gion, 55-64;  production,  *63,  *200, 
*394;  Rumania,  269;  Russia,  245; 
Siberia,  312,  313;  United  States, 
(46),  (55),  (58),  *215;  varieties  of, 
(46),  47,  55,  58;  yield  per  acre, 
countries,  *215;  (see  particular 
states  and  countries). 

Wheeling  (hwel'lng),  (23  Nl),  54. 
“white  coal,”  258. 

“White  Man’s  South  Africa,”  (287 
R8),  368-370. 

White  Mts.,  (129  N2),  160. 

White  Sea,  ( 205  Si),  247. 

Whitney  (hwlt/ni)  Mt.,  (94  03),  107. 

Wilkes-Barre  (wllks'=b£ir-l),  (119  P3), 
151. 

Williamette-Puget  (wl-la'met=pu'j6t) 
Sound  Valleys,  (56  N3),  114-117. 

Williamette  River,  (56  N3),  117. 

Wilmington  (wll'mlng-tun),  Del.,  (119 
P4),  139,  142. 

Wilmington,  N.  C.,  (23  03),  34,  (143). 

winds,  App.  6;  causes  of,  43,  360; 
chinook,  61;  cyclonic,  41-46,  90, 


(256),  319,  421;  doldrums,  354, 
360-361;  land  and  sea,  123;  mon- 
soon, 319,  334,  (335),  *336,  425; 
sirocco,  277;  trade,  App.  6,  187, 
284,  (356  ) 358,  360-361,  371,  381, 
384,  407,  423;  tornado,  45;  west- 
erly, App.  6,  42,  92,  211,  *361,  368, 
409,  418,  427 ; world  system,  App. 
6,  (6)  (see  climate). 

wine,  France,  233,  235,  261;  Ger- 
many, *230;  Mediterranean  lands, 
279;  Switzerland,  252. 

Winnipeg  (wln'I-pgg),  (59  R5),  *55, 
63,  *64; 

Winnipeg  Lake,  (59  R4),  63. 

Winnipegosis  (wln"e-pe-g5'sls)  Lake, 
(56  R2 ),  63. 

Winston-Salem  (winz'tun=sa'lem), 
(23  N2),  (143),  144. 

Wisconsin  (wls-kon'sln),  (39  PI), 
(124  N2),  Corn  Belt,  36-50;  Lake 
Region,  163-172;  agr.,  (24),  (40), 
(41),  46-47;  (47),  168-170;  cities, 
mfg.  and  trade,  (39),  (50),  164-166, 
172.  (201);  climate,  41-46,  (91), 
(128),  168-169;  corn,  40,  (40): 

dairying,  (145),  (169),  170;  forests, 
171;  mining,  171,  (172),  *172; 

people,  165;  petroleum,  (32);  sur- 
face and  soil,  36-37,  (39),  40,  163- 
164,  171. 

wood  pulp,  133,  179,  *181 , 248. 

wool,  Andean  region,  402;  Argen- 
tina, 395,  397,  *399,  400;  Australia, 
*414,  *424,  425  , 426,  *426,  429; 
Balkans,  266;  California,  *70,  112; 
Central  Asia,  316,  318;  exports, 
countries,  *395;  France,  235;  Idaho, 
*70,  77;  imports,  countries,  *218; 
leading  states,  *70;  New  England, 
131;  New  Zealand,  428;  Ohio,  51, 
52,  *70;  Pennsylvania,  51;  trade, 
*218,  *395;  United  Kingdom,  216, 
*2/7,218;  West  Virginia,  51;  world 
(70);  Wyoming,  68,  *70,  77;  (see 
sheep). 

wool  manufacture,  Andean  blanket, 
*402;  Andean  hand  spinning,  406; 
Balkans,  266;  Desert  clothing,  284; 
England,  218;  New  England,  131, 
132,  133;  Philadelphia,  142;  rugs, 
Persia,  301. 

Worcester  (woos'ter),  Mass.,  (129 
N3),  132. 

Wurtemburg  (wur'tgm-bSrkh),  259. 

Wyoming  (wi-5-mlng),  (56  Q4),  (65 
02);  Great  Plains  Region,  64-71; 
Rocky  Mts.,  72-78;  agr.,  66-69, 


37 

76,  *77;  climate,  *67,  90-92,  (91)’ 
(212);  forests,  72-74,  *74;  irriga- 
tion, (66),  68-69,  (77),  77;  mining, 
(32),  70,  73;  petroleum,  (32); 
phosphate  rock,  73;  sheep  and 
cattle,  66-68,  *70,  77;  surface  and 
soil,  (65),  *66,  67,  72-73;  Yellow- 
stone Park,  67,  75. 

yak  (yak),  *316. 

Yakima  (y&k'l-ma)  River,  (56  N3),  80. 

Yakima  Valley,  (56  N3),  *80,  116. 

Yalu  (ya"loo')  River,  332. 

Yangtze  (yang'tsS)  River,  (311  U3L 
325,  331. 

Yap  (y4p)  Island,  (417  N2),  (432). 

Yarmouth  (yar'muth),  128. 

year,  length  of,  App.  1. 

yellow  race  (see  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Eskimo,  Lapp). 

Yellow  Sea,  (311  V3),  328. 

Yellowstone  (y£l'6-ston)  Park,  (65 
N2),  67,  75. 

Yellowstone  River,  (65  01),  68,  75. 

Yemen  (yem'en),  (307  P4),  292. 

Yokohama  (yo'ko-ha'ma),  (307  T3), 
323. 

York  (york),  England,  (219  03),  218. 

Yosemite  (yo-sSm'l-te)  National 
Park,  (94  03),  96. 

Youngstown  (yungz'toun ) , (39  R2 ) , *50. 

Yucatan  (u"ka-t&n'),  (191  P2);  cli- 
mate, (84),  1_87,  189;  sisal,  190. 

Yugoslavia  (yoo-go-slav'I-d),  (242  05), 
(204);  Balkan  Mt.  section,  263- 
268;  Dalmatian  section,  277;  agr., 
(206),  (223),  (225),  (229),  (237),  266, 
(269);  cities,  (242),  *264,  267;  cli- 
mate, (203),  277;  future,  267,  268; 
government  and  people,  264,  265, 
266;  surface,  263-264. 

Yukon  (yoo'kfin)  River  and  Valley, 
(97  02),  98,  *179,  180. 

Yukon  Territory,  (97  R2),  (12),  ISO- 
181;  climate,  (see  Great  Northern 
Forest  Region,  page  179,  Tundra, 
page  181). 

Yuma  (yoo'mS),  (65  N4),  (77),  100. 

Yunnan  (yiin-nan')  . Province,  (311 
T4),  331. 

Zambezi  (zam-ba'ze)  River,  (287  S7), 
359,  (372). 

Zanzibar  (zSn'zI-bar),  (351  S6), 

359. 

zebus  (ze'buz),  *340. 

zinc,  *157,  159,  331. 

Zones,  App.  3,  App.  6;  of  Calms, 
354,  (356),  (357),  360-361,  App.  6. 

Zuyder  Zee  (zl'der  ze),  226. 


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